EQUATION OF TIME

Arno Buij

Theoretical analysis, simulation program EquaTime and examples.

(P) 2019 - 2022

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Equation of time ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 EquaTime ............................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Program Installation .............................................................................................. 1
2. THEORY .................................................................................................................. 2
2.1 Astronomical coordinates ....................................................................................... 2
2.2 Celestial coordinates .............................................................................................. 2
2.3 Planet rotation and poles ........................................................................................ 2
2.4 Time of year and perihelion passage ........................................................................ 3
2.5 Orbit orientation and vernal point passage ............................................................... 3
2.6 Axial tilt ............................................................................................................... 3
2.7 Mean Sun and vernal equinox ................................................................................. 4
2.8 Hour angle and local meridian................................................................................. 4
2.9 Surface coordinates, time zones and relative longitude .............................................. 5
2.10 Right ascension, declination and ecliptic longitude of the real Sun ............................. 5
2.11 View from the Sun ............................................................................................... 6
2.12 Ecliptic to celestial coordinate transformation .......................................................... 7
2.13 Sun position to azimuth and elevation .................................................................... 8
2.14 Sunrise and sunset .............................................................................................. 9
2.15 Clock time, time of day and proper time ................................................................. 9
2.16 Location on the planet disk ................................................................................. 10
2.17 Illumination and insolation .................................................................................. 10
3. THE PROGRAM ...................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 12
3.2 Main window: planet parameters and diagrams ....................................................... 12
3.3 Sun window: Sun position diagram for an observer on the planet .............................. 13
3.4 Astronomical data window: numerical representation of the diagrams ........................ 14
3.5 Equation of time diagram ..................................................................................... 14
3.6 Analemma diagram ............................................................................................. 15
3.7 Orbit diagram ..................................................................................................... 16
3.8 View diagram ..................................................................................................... 17
3.9 Year scroll mode ................................................................................................. 17
3.10 Year play mode ................................................................................................. 18
3.11 Time scrolling ................................................................................................... 18
3.12 Time play mode ................................................................................................ 19
3.13 Day time peculiarities ........................................................................................ 19
3.14 Tidally locked planets ......................................................................................... 19
3.15 Non-rotating and slowly rotating planets .............................................................. 19
3.16 Axial tilt of 90° .................................................................................................. 20
 3.17 Present time and anomaly on Earth ..................................................................... 20
3.18 Approximations ................................................................................................. 20
3.19 Anomaly converter ............................................................................................ 21
3.20 Exporting Daylight times and Illumination data over a year .................................... 22
3.21 Exporting Sun position and Illumination data of a day ............................................ 23
3.22 Menu options .................................................................................................... 24
3.23 Shortcut keys ................................................................................................... 25
4. APPLICATIONS ..................................................................................................... 26
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 26
4.2 Earth ................................................................................................................. 26
4.3 Mars .................................................................................................................. 27
4.4 Mercury ............................................................................................................. 27
4.5 Venus ................................................................................................................ 28
4.6 Uranus ............................................................................................................... 28
4.7 My Planet ........................................................................................................... 29
4.8 Sun tracking ....................................................................................................... 29
4.9 Insolation and illumination across the planet .......................................................... 30
5. EXAMPLES ............................................................................................................ 32
5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 32
5.2 Analemma on the Moon ....................................................................................... 32
5.3 Libration of the Moon ........................................................................................... 33
5.4 Canceling components ......................................................................................... 35
5.5 Low eccentricity and axial tilt ................................................................................ 35
5.6 High eccentricity ................................................................................................. 36
5.7 High axial tilt ...................................................................................................... 37
5.8 Celestial pole passage in detail ............................................................................. 38
5.9 Minor change, major effect ................................................................................... 40
5.10 Analemma art ................................................................................................... 40
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................ 42
A. VERNAL POINT AND PERIHELION OF MERCURY FROM ORBIT PARAMETERS .................. 42
B. VERNAL POINT AND PERIHELION OF MARS FROM ORBIT PARAMETERS ....................... 43
C. THE THREE ANOMALIES ......................................................................................... 44
D. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES OF VIEWING THE PLANET FROM THE SUN .............................. 47
E. DAYLIGHT CALCULATION ....................................................................................... 48
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 48
2. Uranus .............................................................................................................. 48
3. Mercury ............................................................................................................ 48
4. Venus ............................................................................................................... 49
F. SPREADSHEET FOR EQUATIME ............................................................................... 51
G. MATHEMATICS AND PROGRAMMING ....................................................................... 54
1. General ............................................................................................................. 54
 2. Astronomical data .............................................................................................. 55
3. Analemma ......................................................................................................... 56
4. Planet view........................................................................................................ 56
5. Orbit................................................................................................................. 57
6. Equation of time ................................................................................................ 58
7. Sun diagram ...................................................................................................... 58
8. Tracking time .................................................................................................... 59
9. Sunrise and sunset ............................................................................................. 60
10. Daylight procedure ........................................................................................... 60
11. Record procedure ............................................................................................. 61
12. Play procedure ................................................................................................. 62
13. Run procedure ................................................................................................. 62
14. Astronomical data table..................................................................................... 63
15. Anomaly today ................................................................................................. 63
16. Anomaly converter ........................................................................................... 64
17. Graph window .................................................................................................. 64
SYMBOLS .................................................................................................................. 65
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 67
 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Equation of time

Equation of time is the difference between apparent solar time and mean solar time. The
phenomenon is known best for its effect on sundials. On Earth equation of time varies between
roughly plus and minus a quarter of an hour. The cycle completes in one year and follows a
peculiar curve with four unequal extremes and four unequally spaced zero crossings. Equation
of time is related to the shape of a planet's orbit around its Sun and a planet's orientation in
space.

When the position of the Sun is plotted at a fixed time of day, usually at noon mean solar time,
over a whole year, the analemma is obtained. For Earth the analemma looks like a figure of 8
but its shape gradually changes as the centuries pass. In an analemma the north-south
displacement of the Sun is a direct consequence of the planet's axial tilt, which also leads to
the seasons. The east-west displacement of the Sun is the consequence of equation of time.

1.2 EquaTime

The program EquaTime was created to visualize the relationship between clock time and Sun
position for any planet (or in general any object orbiting an other object). It shows three
windows at startup:

1. Main window
Here you can enter planet parameters and see the resulting analemma, equation of time, the
planet viewed from the Sun and the orbit around the Sun. Additionally the Sun's coordinates in
right ascension and declination and the distance between planet and Sun are shown. An
anomaly converter tool for mean, eccentric and true anomaly is included.

2. Sun window
This window shows the celestial sphere as seen by an observer anywhere on the planet for any
clock time and for any orbit position. Sunrise and sunset times, azimuth and elevation of the
Sun and surface illumination are given for the chosen clock time. Data can be exported to the
clipboard and previewed in a graph.

3. Astronomical data window

Equation of time, Sun positions, distance between planet and Sun and planet position in the
orbit are calculated for 720 equally spaced moments in time in a planet year. The table shows
the data and makes them available to copy to the clipboard.

1.3 Program Installation

There are five files in the Equatime.zip archive:

- EquaTime.exe (program executable)
- EquaTime.ini (settings)
- EquaTime.xlsm (for making graphs and calculations with exported data)
- Equation of Time.pdf (this manual, also available online).

You can extract the files to a folder of your choice. The program is portable and no installer is
needed. The program executable, the settings file and the manual should be in the same
folder.

Download url: awbuij.nl Document version: 3.3.3 (2022) Program version: 3.3.3 (2023)
 2

2. THEORY

In this chapter terms, definitions and mathematics used in EquaTime are explained.

2.1 Astronomical coordinates

The astronomical coordinates right

ascension α and declination δ are
Right ascension
independent from the location of an
observer at the planet surface. At the δ
Declination
vernal equinox the Sun is seen exactly at (+6°) α η
the origin of the coordinates where α = 0
and δ = 0. The right ascension axis is the Equator
Vernal
Hour angle
planet's celestial equator, so α is the point
length coordinate of a point on the
celestial sphere. For historical reasons α is hour circle Local hour circle
usually given in units of time (hh:mm:ss) of −15° Meridian of +15°
but it's actually an angle. East is positive
so that on Earth the Sun always ascends
on this axis. Declination δ is the latitude coordinate of a point on the celestial sphere, positive
in northern direction. The celestial poles are uniquely identified by this coordinate alone: north
at δ = +90° and south at δ = −90°.
In the figure the Sun is at α = 02:00:00 (+30°) and δ = +6°. Where α and δ are mentioned
they are defined as they are seen from the planet of interest.

2.2 Celestial coordinates

An observer can also locate objects in the sky by the location dependent coordinate system of
hour angle η and declination δ. As opposed to right ascension the hour angle is positive in
western direction. This is a logical choice because on Earth the Sun moves westward in the sky
and the hour angle is related to time. The observer's solar time is defined by the hour angle of
the Sun, where at solar noon (solar time 12:00) ηSUN is zero. In the figure solar time is 11:00
in the morning, the hour angle is −15°. The observer's local mean time is based on the hour
angle of the mean Sun which by definition is zero at 12:00 local mean time. For the hour
circles and meridians see 2.8.

2.3 Planet rotation and poles

A planet rotates counterclockwise around its axis

when viewed from above its north pole. Any point
on the surface moves eastward, the Sun rises in
the east and sets in the west. From the planet the
distant stars will all appear to move counter-
clockwise around the north celestial pole. N
Retrograde rotation is seen by an observer on the
planet as the Sun moving westward on the ecliptic.

This definition of the poles is unambiguous (ref. 9) E

and universal but different from the IAU definition
that uses the invariable plane of our solar system
Planet rotation
as reference: a pole that points into the same
celestial hemisphere as Earth's north pole is also a north pole. Retrograde rotation then means
clockwise rotation around the north pole.
 3

2.4 Time of year and perihelion passage ♈

(1−e) a (1+e) a
A planet takes one year to complete one revolution
around the Sun. The time of year can conveniently
be expressed as an angle Φ counting from the
Φ=0
beginning of the year where Φ=0° and ranging up
to 360°. On Earth a day is almost 1°. f0
Elliptic orbits are described using anomalies. Mean P Sun Q
anomaly M is the planet's position angle on a
ΦP
circular orbit (dashed) with the same semi major
fV
axis (a) as the ellipse, so M = Φ − ΦP, where ΦP is MV
the time of perihelion passage. In the figure M and
Φ are shown on the circle. The angle the planet
has really travelled in space since perihelion
passage is the true anomaly f. It doesn't advance Planet
linearly in time except for a circular orbit. In the ΦV
V
figure f0 is the planet position at new year, Q is the Orbit
aphelion, e the eccentricity, V the vernal point and
P the perihelion where M=f=0. See appendix C.

2.5 Orbit orientation and vernal point passage

In EquaTime the orbit is viewed from the north pole of the orbital plane at a distant point so
that the planet always orbits its Sun counterclockwise. The point on the planet surface that has
the Sun at the zenith is called the subsolar point. When this point is exactly on the planet
equator and moving in northern direction the planet is at the vernal point of its orbit and the
Sun is seen at the celestial vernal point ♈. The vernal point passage can also be given as a
time angle ΦV. In the figure Orbit this is the (arbitrary) position where the planet is drawn.
EquaTime internally evaluates the mean anomaly of the vernal point MV = ΦV − ΦP and uses it
for finding its true anomaly fV (all parameters are angles) and eccentricity e is the principal
parameter.

2.6 Axial tilt

The axial tilt is

defined as seen
from the north
pole of the
Sunlight
orbital plane (left N N
part of the
figure). An
observer at that
point will
designate an rotation
axial tilt between S
0° and 90° as
rotation
prograde
rotation. He can from orbit north pole from Sun at vernal equinox
Axial tilt
see the north
pole. An axial tilt
between 90° and 180° is designated as retrograde rotation. The observer sees the south pole.
Viewed from the Sun a planet with retrograde rotation would have its north pole in the bottom
right quadrant and its south pole in the upper left quadrant (ref. 9).
 4

2.7 Mean Sun and vernal equinox

N
The mean Sun is the concept of an
imaginary Sun that moves at constant
angular velocity along the celestial equator
(δ = 0). It completes one cycle of right
ascension in one year. The real Sun Mean Sun
E W
deviates from the mean Sun during the
year, both in declination and in right Equator
ascension. The path the real Sun follows
relatively to the mean Sun over a year is
Ecliptic
the analemma. The mean Sun is the center
of an analemma.
Vernal equinox
At the equinoxes the real Sun is also on the
celestial equator (δ = 0). The right ascension of the real Sun is defined zero at the vernal
equinox (α = 0, Sun moving towards positive δ). Perihelion passage is likely to happen at a
different position in the orbit. In case of Earth it occurred two and a half months earlier. In this
period Earth has travelled faster than average which is seen as the Sun travelling faster than
average on the ecliptic. The mean Sun is therefore found slightly to the west. For an observer
the Sun is behind in its westward motion across the sky so a Sundial is late by an angle ε1, the
first component of equation of time. An appropriate name is eccentric equation of time. In
Equatime it is denoted as EQT1.

An object in an elliptical orbit around a center of mass moves according to Kepler's equations
(ref. 1). To find the position of the object at a given time of year Φ, the perihelion P is the
reference. This is the point where mean anomaly M, eccentric anomaly E (ref. 15) and true
anomaly f are zero. The conversion from Φ to f takes the steps:
M = Φ − ΦP
E − e.sin(E) = M (solved numerically, see Appendix G)
1+e E
f = 2 arctan [√ tan( )]
1-e 2

Equation of time ε1 = ±(M−f) depending on the orientation of the ecliptic relatively to the
celestial equator: plus for 0°≤θ≤90° and minus for 90°<θ≤180°.

2.8 Hour angle and local meridian

Local Hour angle ηMS
Local noon (12:00:00) is by definition the local Meridian
time when the mean Sun reaches the highest
point in the observer's sky. This point is on the δ
local meridian, a line that connects the zenith, Mean Sun
E η W
the celestial north and south poles and
touches the ground in the north and the south. Equator
All other meridians are called hour circles.
They pass through both celestial poles but Hour angle ηSUN
Equation
not through the zenith. of time
Local mean time is the hour angle ηMS of the ε1<0

mean Sun plus 12h. In the figure ηMS = +15° hour circle hour circle
S
so local mean time is 13:00:00.
Solar time is linked to the hour angle of the real Sun that is found on its own hour circle. In the
figure the Sun is at a negative declination, at the south side of the celestial equator and with
ηSUN = +9° (36 minutes) we have a solar time of 12:36:00 or EQT1 = −24 minutes.
 5

2.9 Surface coordinates, time zones and relative longitude

A place on the planet surface is identified by the

coordinate system of latitude and longitude.
Latitude is zero at the equator, positive in the +90 (N)
northern hemisphere and negative in the
southern hemisphere. Longitude is zero at a
chosen central meridian (Greenwich on Earth)
and positive in eastern direction. East is to the
right of north (clockwise). Longitudes +180° and
−90 (W) +90 (E)
−180° meet at the other side of the planet. The
yellow dot is at the origin of the coordinate
system.

Planet time (Earth's universal time) is referenced

to the central meridian and time zones are
−90 (S)
defined as regions, 15 degrees of longitude wide
with one of the 24 equally spaced meridians at Latitude and Longitude
their center. Clock time follows the center of a
chosen time zone (on Earth the clock time may
belong to a different time zone than the natural one).
For an observer the clock time differs from local mean time unless the observer is exactly at
the center of his natural time zone and the official time zone is his natural time zone. Since
this is true for any time zone, EquaTime uses a relative longitude ρ, defined as the absolute
longitude of the observer minus the longitude of his official time zone center, corrected for
summer time shift. Example: an observer who is located 10 degrees west of his official time
zone center is at ρ=−10°. During summer time his ρ decreases by 15° to ρ=−25°, assuming
the summer time shift is 1 hour.

2.10 Right ascension, declination and ecliptic longitude of the real Sun

The orbital equation of time, as introduced in

N
2.7 is the only equation of time when the Sun
is on the celestial equator, so for the vernal δ
and autumnal equinoxes this is all. As soon as EQT2
the Sun leaves the celestial equator a second α
effect occurs. In the example of the figure the EQT
planet had the mean Sun at the vernal point at E Equator W
θ
the equinox (so this must be either perihelion tilt
Mean Sun Vernal point
or aphelion). corrected
Sun
Some time after the vernal equinox the mean
EQT1
Sun is at the position indicated in the figure. In Ecliptic
the example the mean Sun has advanced
by 1°. This advancement is the ecliptic Meridian
S
longitude λ. Suppose the planet was at
perihelion and the Sun has a dλ/dΦ 1.6 times
higher than average at the vernal point (this isn't extreme, an eccentricity of 0.219 does it).
The real Sun will now advance by 1.6° (ε1 = −0.6°). Suppose the planet has an axial tilt
θ = 40°, making the Sun wander off the celestial equator. Had the Sun stayed on the celestial
equator it would have been at the position marked tilt corrected Sun. In its real position it has
a positive declination of roughly 1.6*sin(θ) ≈ 1.03° but there's also a consequence for its right
ascension which is lowered roughly by a factor cos(θ), resulting in α ≈ 1.23° instead of 1.6°.
The difference of ≈ +0.37° is the second component ε2 of the equation of time. An appropriate
name is oblique equation of time. In Equatime it's denoted as EQT2.
 6

For present Earth the vernal equinox is EQT N

about two and a half months later than δ
perihelion passage. The figure changes into EQT2
the one at the right. The dark green mean α
Sun position was at the vernal equinox. At Vernal
that time the orbital equation of time is E point W
23.4°
−1.9° (−7.6 minutes) so the mean Sun was
Equator Mean Sun
1.9° to the west of the vernal point. tilt
By the time the Sun has advanced 1° on corrected
Sun
the ecliptic, the mean Sun has advanced EQT1
0.995° degrees which is nearly the same.
Had the Sun moved by 1° along the Ecliptic
equator it would have been at the tilt
corrected position. Actually it's ≈ 0.083°
(1-cos(23.4°)) more to the west. Oblique equation of time is positive, ε2 ≈ +0.33 minutes.

The exact calculation is more complicated because the ecliptic is not a straight line and the
celestial sphere is not a flat surface so ε has to be found from a coordinate transformation. It
takes the ecliptic longitude λ of the Sun and the axial tilt θ of the planet as inputs and yields
right ascension and declination of the Sun. In 2.12 the mathematical details behind the
coordinate transformation are given.

Equation of time is the difference in right ascension of the real Sun and the mean Sun:
ε = αMS − αRS which is equivalent to ε = ηRS at noon local mean time. For clarification of the
different mechanisms behind the components Equatime displays both the total ε and the two
components ε1 and ε2. The analemma is constructed from (ε,δ) points over a whole year.

2.11 View from the Sun

Viewed from the Sun the equator of the

planet is half of an ellipse, except when the
N pole path
planet is at one of the equinoxes, when it is a equator
straight line. The planet's coordinate origin
(the yellow dot) is shown at noon, central coordinate
meridian mean time. In the figure the planet origin
is between vernal point and northern summer orbital
motion
solstice and now has ε<0 (measured in the
equatorial plane, dark blue). The location of 0-meridian
the coordinate origin can be expressed as S
coordinates in an orthogonal I,Q-axes rotation (E)
system. The axes have the radius of the
planet disk at unity. The I-axis is a projection Y
of the rotation axis on the celestial sphere, view from Sun X
pointing from north pole to south pole. The
equator crosses the I-axis at i = sin(δ), the north pole has i = −cos(δ) and the south pole
i = cos(δ). The Q-axis connects the extremes of the equator and points in the direction of
rotation (east) at an angle +90⁰ from the I-axis. For the coordinate origin we have:
qORG = sin(ε)
iORG = cos(ε).sin(δ)
These coordinates are easy to convert into x and y. The X-axis points away from orbital
motion, the Y-axis points at the orbital pole. X- and Y-axes cross where I- and Q-axes cross
(the subsolar point). After the autumnal equinox the north pole disappears at the arrowhead of
the north pole path and the south pole becomes visible. The I-axis in the figure will point to
the lower right and the visible equator will be above the Q-axis that is pointing to the upper
right. Note that, like the analemma, this diagram uses ε and δ (but also λ).
More examples, including retrograde rotation (90°<θ≤180°), are given in appendix D.
 7

2.12 Ecliptic to celestial

Z
coordinate transformation

The transformation is
illustrated for an observer
at the planet north pole,
looking in an arbitrary ecliptic
direction, having the
vernal point (V) in the
δ
field of vision. The ecliptic equator
is a circle (yellow) that & horizon
α V
surrounds the observer
and touches the horizon
at the vernal and
autumnal points. Part of
the ecliptic is behind the
observer (magenta). A
location on the celestial
sphere can be given
coordinates in an ecliptic longitude λ to α,δ (equatorial plane view)
orthogonal system where
the Z-axis points at the
zenith, the X-axis at the
vernal point and the
Y-axis completes a right
handed set. λ

The ecliptic longitude is

the position angle of the ecliptic V
Sun on the ecliptic and
α
projects on the axes as:

x = cos(λ) observer
y = sin(λ)cos(θ)
z = sin(λ)sin(θ)

These coordinates can be

transformed into right equator
ascension and declination
as follows:
ecliptic longitude λ to α,δ (polar view)
α = arctan*(y/x,λ)
δ = arcsin(z)

where function arctan* places the result in the same quadrant as λ, which leads to:

α = arctan*(tan(λ)cos(θ),λ)

tan(λ)tan(θ) s 1
δ = arctan$ [ 2 2
,λ ] using arcsin(s) = arctan [ ] , cos2 (s)
= 1+tan2 (s)
√(1+tan (λ)+tan (θ) √1−s2

function arctan$ adjusts arctan to the value of λ:

0 ≤λ ≤ π → δ ≥ 0
π <λ < 2π → δ ≤ 0
 8

2.13 Sun position to n solstice ζ

azimuth and elevation
equinox +θ y
The Sun position (α,δ) is
transformed to azimuth −θ
N
and elevation where both

elevation
s solstice
right ascension and
declination are a function y0 Y
β
of time of year Φ.
horizon X
An observer at latitude β x x0
uses the right handed set
of coordinates x,y,z
where X points to the
north, Y points to the
zenith ζ and Z points to S
the east.

Declination δ of an object
places it on a circle with elevation, sunrise and sunset (from near east)
(x0,y0,z0) at its center:
x0 = sin(δ)cos(β)
y0 = sin(δ)sin(β) equinox
s solstice n solstice
z0 = 0
The hour angle η
determines the position
on the circle:
x=x0−cos(δ)sin(β)cos(η)
y=y0+cos(δ)cos(β)cos(η)
z=−cos(δ)sin(η)
S N
x x0
The hour angle of the y X
Sun is:
η = T − π + ε(Φ) + ρ Z
where ε(Φ) is equation of
time and T is the z
observer's clock time
valid for the center of his horizon
time zone. This
zn
expression evaluates to
η = ε(Φ) + ρ at T=π azimuth, sunrise and sunset (from zenith)
(clock time = noon).

Azimuth and elevation of the Sun are found from:

azimuth=arctan*(z/x)
elevation=arcsin(y)
where arctan* places the azimuth between 0 and 2π in the correct quadrant.

In the top figure the observer's celestial sphere is viewed from the outside at a position slightly
to the south of the observer's east. In the bottom figure the celestial sphere is viewed from
above the observer's zenith. The example has θ=23.4°, β=37°. The white Sun is on the
northern solstice circle at η=−30° or 10:00:00 solar time. The Sun circles for the equinoxes
and the southern solstice are also shown. The sunrise positions are marked with an orange
Sun and the sunset positions are at the arrowheads. The maximum value for z of any Sun
circle is its angular radius cos(δ). At the solstices the radius has its lowest value zn which is
equal to |cos(θ)|.
 9

2.14 Sunrise and sunset

Sunrise and sunset are the times TR and TS when elevation y is zero:
cos(δ)cos(β)cos(η) = −sin(δ)sin(β) which has two solutions for η:
η1,2 = ±arccos(−tan(δ)tan(β)) = ±(π−arccos(tan(δ)tan(β)))
TR = arccos(tan(δ)tan(β))−ε(Φ)−ρ
TS = 2π−arccos(tan(δ)tan(β))−ε(Φ)−ρ
Daylight time TL = 2π−2arccos(tan(δ)tan(β))

These solutions are not in closed form because δ and η are functions of T via Φ.
In case dΦ/dT << 1 the time of year may be considered constant during the day and the
solutions would be exact.

When the argument tan(δ)tan(β) of arccos is outside the range from −1 to +1 there is no
solution. This can only occur for:
|β+δ|>π/2 when the Sun never sets and
|β−δ|>π/2 when the Sun never rises.
For δ=θ the expressions describe the areas within the polar circles.

Note that elevation is valid for the Sun center and without an atmosphere. The perceived
TR and TS are the times when the upper limb of the Sun is at the horizon, taking into account
atmospheric refraction and the Sun's diameter, see 4.2. The formula changes into:
cos(δ)cos(β)cos(η) = −sin(δ)sin(β)+yRS
where yRS=sin(elRS) and elRS is the elevation where sunrise and sunset are perceived.

2.15 Clock time, time of day and proper time

Clock time is related to the hour angle ηms of the mean Sun at the center of a time zone:

T = π+ηms (radians) or T = 12 + ηms/15 (hours and degrees)

Clock time is measured in units of the planet's mean solar day that has exactly 24 planet hours
(or 1440 planet minutes or 86400 planet seconds). The mean solar day duration D is the
planet's sidereal rotation time S, corrected for a linear advancement of the mean Sun on the
ecliptic:

D = | S / [1 ± S/Y] |

where Y is the duration of the planet year, the minus sign is for prograde (θ<90°) and the plus
sign for retrograde (θ>90°) rotation. Note that for S∞ we have D = Y.
For θ=90° the choice for either type of rotation is arbitrary and in both cases correct.

Using this definition of clock time the clock moves backwards on a planet with S>Y and
prograde rotation because η decreases during the day. Where the term time of day is used it
refers to proper time t.
 10

2.16 Location on the planet disk

In 2.11 the view of the planet from the Sun was described with the focus on the coordinate
origin and at noon central meridian mean
time. This is closely related to the planet's latitude ηrise
analemma. A similar approach is possible to circle
show the location on the planet disk of an
pole path N
arbitrary point on the planet and at an ηset
arbitrary clock time T, as illustrated in the equator
η
figure at the right. The planet has θ = 47⁰ location
and is at an orbit position where δ = 30⁰
and ε2 = +10.5⁰ or +42 minutes
(eccentricity e = 0 so ε1 = 0⁰).
S
The I,Q axes are also used here. They cross rotation (E)
longitude
at the subsolar point. The location of meridian
interest is the yellow dot. It has a latitude
β = 50⁰ and a relative longitude ρ that is view from Sun, arbitrary location
the difference between its real longitude and
the longitude of its natural time zone center. For simplicity we have ρ = 0⁰.
All points with latitude β are lying on the orange circle. The hour angle of the Sun η seen at the
location determines where the yellow dot is found on the circle.

Viewed from the Sun the circle is seen at an angle that is the Sun's current declination δ. If
δ = 0 the circle reduces to a line and for any δ ≠ 0 it is seen as an ellipse with semi major axis
a = cos(β) and semi minor axis b = cos(β).sin(δ). The ellipse is centered at the I-axis.

The i-coordinate varies between –sin(β–δ), the lower crossing with the I-axis and –sin(β+δ),
the upper crossing with the I-axis, with average –½(sin(β–δ)+sin(β+δ))=–cos(δ)sin(β) and
(signed) amplitude ½(sin(β+δ)–sin(β–δ))=cos(β)sin(δ).
The q-coordinate varies between –cos(β) and +cos(β), with zero average.
The modulation is given by a sine and a cosine of η, leading to:
qloc = cos(β).sin(η)
iloc = –cos(δ)sin(β)+cos(β)sin(δ).cos(η)
In the example η = 30⁰ so the local solar time = 14:00 (clock time = 13:18).
Finally we can substitute η = T−π+ε+ρ to obtain:
qloc = –cos(β).sin(T+ε+ρ)
iloc = –cos(δ)sin(β)–cos(β)sin(δ).cos(T+ε+ρ)

To know if the location is in daylight we can use the formula for the elevation in 2.13 or
simpler: the formula for y. If y<0 the location isn't visible from the Sun and finds itself at the
dark side of the planet.
In the example the orange ellipse touches the planet radius at two hour angles: at local solar
time of sunset ηset (20:53) and of sunrise ηrise (03:07). The arc between these points is lying at
the dark side of the planet.

2.17 Illumination and insolation

Illumination is linearly proportional to sin(elevation) for which we already have a solution

(see 2.13) since this is coordinate y. The other parameter illumination depends on is the
distance R to the Sun. It's convenient to express it as a fraction of the illumination Illumref that
occurs at the subsolar point (y=1) when the distance is R = a = 1, and normalized to the light
 11

output of the Sun. The relative illumination in the absence of atmospheric effects such as
losses and refraction is: Illum/Illumref = y/R2, for y>0 and where R varies with time of year Φ.

The insolation is the total yearly amount of illumination received at a specific location on the
planet. Normalized insolation I is the insolation received during a year (Φ=2π) by a theoretical
subsolar point at R=1. The normalization factor is 2π.Illumref. In this way the highest possible I
is just the average of 1/R2 over a year.

For an elliptical orbit R is a function of Φ. Using true anomaly f as parameter instead of Φ is

preferable. Using the angular speed ωT = df/dΦ in orbit we have:
2π
1 1 1
Imax = ∫ df
2π 0 R (f) ωT (f)
2

Both R and ωT are known functions of true anomaly f. For R the formula of appendix G.1 can
be used and ωT = uT/R where uT is the normalized tangential (perpendicular) velocity
(see 5.6), resulting in:

|
2π
1 2π 1 1 1 2π 1+e.cos(f) √1–e2 1 f 1
Imax = ∫ df = ∫ df = =
2π 0 R(f) uT (f) 2π 0 1–e 2 1+e.cos(f) 2π √1–e2 0
√1–e2

Compared to a circular orbit, for an elliptical orbit with the same a Imax is higher by a ratio that
is the ratio of semi major axis and semi minor axis.

For the limit e0 the formula can be approximated by Imax = 1+½e2, the surplus Imax–1 being
within 3% accuracy up to e≈0.2. The value Imax=10 is reached at e=0.995.

The mean distance of the planet from the Sun is:

1
Ravg = 1+ e2 as shown in the right graph (see appendix C).
2

Insolation at an arbitrary location on a planet also depends on the latitude of the location and
on the axial tilt of the planet (see 4.9).
 12

3. THE PROGRAM

3.1 Introduction

Equatime shows three windows side by side. An overview of a planet year in terms of
analemma, equation of time, orbit and planet orientation is in the main window. The Sun
window is a Sun position calculator for an observer at the planet surface and the astronomical
data window has a table with numerical data from the equation of time diagram.

3.2 Main window: planet parameters and diagrams

The planet parameters shown here are valid for Earth. The axial tilt θ in degrees has the
present value of 23.44°. The dates of vernal point passage (equinox) and perihelion passage
are given as angles in time (mean anomalies), counting from Φ=0 (new year). On average the
vernal equinox (in UT) happens at 20 March at mid day UT, Φ = 77.5°. Also on average
perihelion passage of the Earth-Moon system is on 3 January just after mid day UT, Φ = 2.6°
(ref. 25). Eccentricity for the Earth orbit is 0.0167.
The button Diagrams lets EquaTime calculate a planet year of Sun positions and displays them
in the four diagrams. A vertical cursor line in the equation of time diagram shows the chosen
time of year Φ on the orbit, in this case the vernal point passage.
The Earth's tropical year has 366.243 sidereal days (planet revolutions around its axis): one
more than solar days! This is caused by the eastward motion of the Sun on the ecliptic. The
parameter is in a blue box because it's irrelevant to the diagrams in this window but it does
play a role for the Sun position diagram.
 13

3.3 Sun window: Sun position diagram for an observer on the planet

The observer's celestial hemisphere is shown in an

azimuth-elevation diagram. The horizon is at the
circumference, the zenith at the center. Because
this is a projection of the planet coordinates onto
the celestial sphere, east is to the left of north.
Elevation circles are shown at 30° and 60°. The
north-south line is the observer's local meridian.
Azimuth is counted positive from north in eastern
direction.

The observer can set four parameters:

clock time, latitude and relative longitude (Longit)
and elevation at sunrise and sunset (Elevrs).
The data in the figure are valid for Utrecht, the
Netherlands, at noon MET (= UT+1), vernal
equinox. Utrecht has a latitude of +52.08° and an
absolute longitude of +5.01° and is in the time
zone of Berlin (+15°) so the city has a relative
longitude of −9.99°. If summer time
(MEST = UT+2) applies then the relative longitude
must be set to −24.99°. Relative longitude can also
be changed in steps of 15° with the up down
buttons to the right of the field.

The Sun is the yellow dot. The Sun diagram takes the time of year from the main window
(which was set to vernal equinox in the example). The Sun is at an elevation of 36.975°, just
below the maximum of 90−52.08 = 37.92°. It will reach this elevation when it crosses the
meridian ≈ 47.4 minutes later. Without equation of time one would expect this to happen only
40 minutes later because Utrecht's relative longitude is very close to −10°. However, at this
date the equation of time is −7.43 minutes which accounts for the difference.

The surface illumination is shown below the elevation in units of the illumination at a reference
point for which R = 1 and elevation = 90⁰ (see 2.17).

Sunrise and sunset times are shown for the present time of year. In a location where the Sun
never sets, the fields turn yellow and both display the time with the Sun's lowest elevation. In
a location where the Sun never rises, the fields turn gray and both display the time with the
Sun's highest elevation, so where it makes its closest approach to the horizon. The Sun can be
seen as a dark gray dot when it's below the horizon. El-rs can be set by a click on the number
to highlight the Elevation field. You can enter an angle between 0⁰ and –18⁰ (end of
astronomical twilight) here. You can also go to the field directly. Sunrise and sunset times will
now be the times when the Sun has the specified negative elevation.

Δt is the change in proper time since synchronization with the time of year (see 3.12).

Diagram options are:

- auto rotate the diagram: north up for an observer at positive latitude and south up for an
observer at negative latitude (turning auto rotate off with south up will keep south up).
- simulating atmospheric effects: by default the sky is blue at daytime. The Sun will color
reddish gradually at elevations below 6° and the sky will darken gradually from Sun elevation
+6° towards −6°. With the option atmosphere off, the sky is always black and the Sun is
either yellow or dark gray.
- projection or linear elevation: a choice between a projection of the Sun position in the
celestial hemisphere on a flat surface and a linear 30° per division scale.
- show or hide the illumination bar. It displays the logarithm of illumination between 0.001 and
100. The marker is at 1, the reference illumination. Above 100 the bar will turn orange.
 14

3.4 Astronomical data window: numerical representation of the diagrams

When the diagrams are generated in the main window a

planet year of Sun positions is calculated. The equally
spaced time positions in the table are spanning a planet
year, where position 720 is equal to position 0. For Earth
the spacing is ≈ 0.507 days.

The selected time of year in the main window selects the

row and vice versa: by selecting a row the time of year in
the main window is set. With the window focused, scrolling also selects a row. The table can be
copied to the clipboard by ctrl-C or the popup menu. It is also copied when the equation of
time diagram is calculated and the atronomical data window is open.
Other options in the popup menu are to select the format of the right ascension (h:m:s or
degrees) and choosing a fixed time of year for the orbit diagram.

3.5 Equation of time diagram

The equation of time diagram shows

the astronomical data for one planet
year and allows the user to pick a
time of year Φ by setting the cursor
line. For Earth an averaged date is
shown in the lower left corner. Earth's
calendar wobbles around the time of
year because it uses whole days and
leap days.

X-axis - Time of year

The horizontal time scale is the time
of year Φ in mean months. By
definition there are 12 mean months
of equal duration. The names of the
months below the diagram are only an
indication, resembling the situation on
Earth. A mean Earth month is 30.44
Earth mean solar days.

Y-axis 1 - Equation of time (left, black)

The value of the equation of time is displayed as a yellow line using the left Y-scale. Positive
values indicate that the real Sun passes the local meridian at an earlier time than the mean
Sun so solar time is ahead of local mean time. The vertical axis is based on a planet solar day
of 1440 planet minutes and is independent of the planet's absolute duration of a day. For
slowly rotating planets this interpretation of equation of time remains correct. For a planet that
is tidally locked to the Sun there is no duration of a day, the analemma (3.6) is literally a map
of the Sun's position in the sky over a year and equation of time is the horizontal angle.

Y-axis 1a - Equation of time 1 (left, black)

The value of EQT1 is displayed as an orange line. EQT1 is caused by the eccentricity of the
planet orbit and can be seen as the difference between constant planet motion and eccentric
planet motion, expressed as an angle. In terms of celestial mechanics it is the difference
between mean and true anomaly M - f of the planet. Seen from the planet it causes the Sun to
move on the ecliptic with variable speed. At perihelion and aphelion ε1 is zero. Perihelion is
used as a reference where M = f = 0.
 15

Y-axis 1b - Equation of time 2 (left, black)

The value of EQT2 is displayed as a light green line. EQT2 is caused by the planet's axial tilt
and the Sun's departure from the celestial equator. At the vernal point (spring equinox for the
northern hemisphere) the Sun crosses the celestial equator at (α,δ)=(0,0) in northern
direction. The ecliptic and the celestial equator are at an angle equal to the planet's axial tilt θ.
As a consequence, when the Sun has moved on the ecliptic by a small amount dλ, the change
in right ascension is less: dα < dλ. This changes the Sun's hour angle by dη = dλ − dα which is
equivalent to equation of time 2. Towards solstice the right ascension catches up (α=λ) and ε2
returns to zero. This leads to four zeroes of ε2 each year.

Y-axis 2 - Distance from Sun (right, white)

The distance between planet and Sun is given by the white line and uses the right Y-scale. The
distance is given in units of the semi major axis a of the planet orbit.

Y-axis 3 - Declination (mid right, green)

The Sun's declination δ is the green line, using the right center Y-scale in degrees. The
declination is involved in equation of time via ε2 and it causes the north-south shift of the
analemma.

Y-axis 4 - Right ascension (mid left, red)

The Sun's right ascension α is the red dotted line, using the left center Y-scale in hours. Right
ascension is directly involved in equation of time via ε1 and ε2 and also in the west-east shift of
the analemma. There is a 24h jump in α at the vernal point so the curve is not continuous.

The Y-axis scale for the equation of time and the declination can be set manually. Setting a
value to zero selects auto scaling.

Diagram options are to enable/disable the EQT components, the α and δ curves and the
distance curve.

3.6 Analemma diagram

The analemma diagram shows the position of the real Sun in the sky at 12:00h local mean
time, relatively to the mean Sun that is always the center of the diagram. The west-east shift
is on the X-axis. The north-south shift is on the Y-axis. There are 720 points on the analemma,
corresponding to 720 points in time equally spread over a planet year. A blue circle marks the
start of the planet year. Orange circles mark the beginning of the mean months. The beginning
of the 12th mean month is marked with a red circle.

The celestial sphere has east and west reversed because it

is a projection of the planet's coordinate system onto the
sky. As a consequence east is to the left of north in the
analemma.

Both the X-scale and the Y-scale are in degrees and

EquaTime shows the analemma in celestial coordinates by
default, where X = ε and Y = δ, where ε = αSUN − αMS =
ηSUN at noon, local mean time.

The scale of the analemma can be set manually. The

number entered will set the edges of the analemma field.
Setting the value to zero selects auto scaling.

An observer on the planet, looking in the direction of the mean Sun, sees the analemma as it
appears on his celestial sphere. For moderate ε and δ values the default curve in angular
coordinates is a good representation of it.
 16

For high ε or δ the curve in angular coordinates will look distorted. If the maximum equation of
time exceeds plus or minus 360 minutes (ε exceeds plus or minus 90°) the real Sun is actually
behind the observer who is looking in the direction of the mean Sun. For declinations
approaching plus or minus 90° the east-west displacement looks exaggerated in the diagram.
If the analemma has |ε| > 90° (over 6 hours) the X-scale factor is displayed in red and in
scroll mode the marker changes from green to magenta when the Sun is behind the observer.

The analemma can alternatively be shown as an

orthographic projection of the celestial sphere on a flat
surface. This gives a more realistic view of its shape at high
ε or high δ. In projection mode the scale is fixed and the
outline of the celestial sphere is shown as a circle.
Note that any points on the analemma with |ε| > 90°
project on the side of the celestial sphere that is behind the
observer. In scroll mode the marker then also changes
from green to magenta.

Diagram options are to choose display mode (angular or

projection), to enable/disable the month markers and to
display the analemma as points or as a line.

3.7 Orbit diagram

The orbit diagram shows the planet's motion around the

Sun over a planet year.
The direction of reference at the horizontal axis can be
chosen either as the perihelion passage (P), the vernal
point (V) or a time of year of choice (Φ). The white curve
depicts the planet orbit, the yellow dot at the center is the
Sun. A circle marks the beginning of each of the planet's 12
mean months. The blue circle is at the beginning of the
year, the red circle is the beginning of the 12th mean
month.

The distance unit is the semi major axis a of the planet

orbit. The default range of both axes is from −1.5a to
+1.5a. When an eccentricity e > 0.5 is specified the range will be −2.0a to +2.0a. The
eccentricity value may be chosen up to 0.9999.
The number at the top left is the normalized orbit speed, in this case at the perihelion. Its unit
is the speed in a circular orbit with the same a.

Diagram options are to show the orbit

speed and to choose the direction of
reference as P, V or Φ. To choose a time
of year: set the point of reference to Φ
and click in the month scale of the
equation of time diagram. Alternatively select the time of year by a row in the astronomical
data window via its popup menu or by ctrl-enter. When the setting is 'Φ', the chosen date
number is displayed in the diagram as a mean anomaly in degrees, counting from the planet's
new year at its coordinate origin.
 17

3.8 View diagram

The view diagram shows the planet as seen from its Sun at the chosen time of year. The orbit
north pole is up. In the example Earth is shown at its vernal point. At this point a planet's
north pole (white) is always in the diagram's right half. For an axial tilt θ < 90° it's in the
upper quadrant and for θ > 90° in the lower quadrant. The south pole (black) is opposite to
the north pole. A pole is displayed if it's no more than 0.5° over the
horizon.

An other feature of the diagram is showing the diameter of the

planet disk as seen from the Sun. In case of an elliptical orbit the
diameter will vary over the year. The default scale r is the planet's
angular diameter when it is at a distance of one semi major axis.
For eccentricity e>0.5 the angular diameter rp with the planet at
perihelion is used. The color of the disk is distinctive for each
planet. Modifying planet parameters doesn't change the color.

The yellow dot is a marker that can be chosen as:

- the origin of the planet's surface coordinate system (latitude = 0,
longitude = 0) at noon central meridian mean time. This point has the Sun directly overhead
(at the zenith) at the vernal point if equation of time ε1 is zero, otherwise the origin is to the
west (ε1<0) or the east (ε1>0).
- the position of the location (latitude, longitude) on the planet disk, defined in the Sun window
at the clock time shown there. This puts the Sun window in control of the marker.

Diagram options are to choose the function of the position marker (origin or location), to
enable/disable the varying diameter of the planet disk, to let the axes cross in front of or
behind the planet disk and to use a dark or a blue background.

3.9 Year scroll mode

Immediately after pressing the button Diagrams the diagrams are shown in default mode:
analemma and orbit diagrams show the month markers and the view diagram shows the
planet at the chosen point of the orbit. The cursor in the equation of time diagram is at the
corresponding time of year.

The year scroll mode is activated by:

- changing the selected row in the astronomical data window
- turning the mouse wheel
- dragging the cursor line in the equation of time diagram.

The month markers in the analemma and orbit diagrams are replaced by one marker (dark
green) that corresponds to the chosen time of year Φ. The time of year can be changed in the
same ways. Additionally the mouse cursor in the equation of time diagram can be dragged by
holding down the left button and moving the mouse.
The markers in the analemma and orbit diagrams will follow the cursor and the view diagram
will adapt to the changes in the time of year.

The Sun diagram also follows the time of year. Clock time and observer coordinates don't
change. The Sun will move along an analemma at a position determined by these three
parameters.
 18

3.10 Year play mode

Time of year Φ can run automatically. This feature is activated by the Play button. The speed is
set with the slow down and speed up buttons and can be varied between 1000ms per step and
8ms per step. The actual step duration also depends on computer speed. A step is 1/720th of
the planet year (0.5° of mean anomaly), corresponding to one row downwards in the
astronomical data table. Play mode is an automatic scroll mode and the functionality is the
same.

3.11 Time scrolling

Year scrolling and playing takes steps of 1/720th year which is sufficient to see the
astronomical data change smoothly (except for high eccentricity). Showing the path of the Sun
in the observer's sky requires much smaller time steps. Furthermore the duration of a day can
vary extremely from planet to planet. On Mercury a mean solar day is 2 times longer than a
year (ref. 2) while on Jupiter the year has 10475.8 mean solar days (ref. 18).
In the Sun diagram a clock time can be set and be varied. For correctly displaying the Sun
position EquaTime has to evaluate a new (mean anomaly based) Φ after any change that is
made to clock time T. For Jupiter the time of year Φ hardly changes in one day. For Mercury Φ
changes faster than T: in one mean solar day the time of year advances by 2 years (24
months) which is an increase in Φ by 720°. While day time changes sunrise and sunset times
also change (see appendix E). The Sun really rises and sets where clock time happens to
coincide with these times (this effect also exists on Earth but to a much smaller extent).

Time of year Φ and clock time T have to be linked at some point. From that point on, time
scrolling will keep Φ synchronized. Time scrolling is done by:
- changing the scroll bar position (to the right advances proper time)
- turning the mouse wheel (downwards advances proper time)
Note that generally the starting point will never occur again as time T advances, unless the
planet is in a spin-orbit resonance. In the solar system this is the case for Mercury only.

The time link is broken when a change is made to time of year Φ

in the main window or the astronomical data table, or when an
action is taken that updates the diagrams. The time on the clock
when the change to Φ is made will be the new starting point for
time scrolling. Alternatively a new time link can be established by
pressing the Noon button below the Clock field. The time is reset to 12:00:00 and Φ is set to
the exact value that corresponds to the selected row in the astronomical data table. While the
day time is playing, the observer's relative longitude can be changed with the up and down
buttons without interrupting time play mode (see 3.12). If you want to set a clock time in the
Clock field and update neither Φ nor the change in time of day Δt, do so with ctrl-enter.

Clock time T and time of day t move in the same direction, except for a planet with prograde
rotation and a sidereal day longer than a year. For such a planet moving the mouse wheel or
the scroll bar will change clock time in the opposite direction.

The scroll bar can change time inside boundaries of T=00:00:00 and T=23:59:00. Turning the
mouse wheel can cross these boundaries. If it's turned so that day time enters the next or the
previous day the observer's time continues into that day and the orbit position Φ remains
linked. Day scrolling occurs in steps of 1 minute by default. Hold down the Shift key to scroll in
hours or the Ctrl key to scroll in seconds.
 19

3.12 Time play mode

Time scrolling can also be

done automatically. The play button functions the same way as in the main window. It starts
automatic day time scrolling with the same speed setting as the main window. Steps of 1
minute forward in proper planet time are default. By checking the seconds or the hours box
the steps can be changed into planet seconds or planet hours, so together with the speed
setting a very wide range of speeds is available.

To maintain time play mode the Sun window must remain focused. Moving the focus to an
other window will stop time play mode.

Both in time scrolling and time play mode the change in time of day is displayed in the Sun
window above the Sunrise field as Δt in d:h:m:s format. Whenever a new link between Φ and
T is made the value returns to zero. A direct change to Clock time also changes Δt.

For planet Earth a realtime option is available. The main menu option Run Realtime performs
the necessary steps automatically. It sets play speed 1, play in seconds, gets today's anomaly
and the present clock time and then presses the play button in the Sun window. This will make
the clock follow the system time and the clock field is labeled RealT.

3.13 Day time peculiarities

Note that on a planet with retrograde rotation (θ > 90°) the Sun always rises in the east and
there is at least one solar day per year, even if the planet wouldn't rotate. With prograde
rotation (θ < 90°) it's possible for the Sun to rise in the west. This happens when the planet's
sidereal rotation period is longer than a planet year (sidereal days < 1). Under the definitions
of EquaTime the clock runs backwards on such a planet because the hour angle ηSUN moves in
negative direction. The field sidereal days of the main window will turn yellow as a notification.
Note that for prograde rotation there's less than one solar day per year if there's less than 2
sidereal rotations per year.
Summarizing:
solar days = sidereal days − 1 for prograde rotation (θ < 90°)
solar days = sidereal days + 1 for retrograde rotation (θ > 90°)
Mercury has very slow prograde rotation: 1.5 sidereal days per year, 0.5 solar days per year.
Venus has even slower retrograde rotation: 0.9246 sidereal days per year but that's 1.9246
solar days per year, which is more than on Mercury.

3.14 Tidally locked planets

On a planet that is tidally locked to its Sun in a 1:1 spin-orbit resonance the day time never
changes: it's meaningless. Year and sidereal day are of equal length and a solar day would
take forever. EquaTime treats any value of sidereal days per year between 0.999 and 1.001 as
a 1:1 tidal lock, this is when a solar day would take over 1000 years. The field sidereal days
turns red and a time link between clock time and time of year cannot be established. It
remains possible to scroll the time of day but this should be interpreted as changing the
observer's position on the planet surface and is equivalent to changing relative longitude.
The analemma is very meaningful for such a planet. It's a true representation of the Sun's
position in the sky over the year. Scrolling the year will now show the Sun moving in the Sun
diagram as seen at the observer's coordinates.

3.15 Non-rotating and slowly rotating planets

On a non-rotating planet there's 0 sidereal days in a year. In EquaTime the field for sidereal
days turns orange as a warning for the fact that such a planet has no poles or rotation axis. It
 20

would in reality tumble quasi-randomly over longer periods of time. EquaTime assumes that
such a planet maintains a fixed orientation in space and the link between clock time and time
of year can be established normally since there's exactly 1 solar day per year. Although an
axial tilt is meaningless it does establish a surface coordinate system for the planet.
The non-rotating planet has an analemma of which the shape depends on the chosen axial tilt
and the other orbit parameters, as expected. However, this will play no role on the planet at
all. The Sun will simply describe a circle around the observer, wherever the observer is. Only
the angular speed of the Sun will vary if the orbit is eccentric.

For slowly rotating planets scrolling a year should be interpreted carefully. Remember that
what is displayed is snapshots of the planet view, the position on the analemma, the orbit and
the Sun position, valid for a fixed clock time as set in the Sun window. Making a step in the
time of year may take the observer to a situation that may only occur in the far future or past.
This is unusual and difficult to imagine since Earth is a fast rotator.
Therefore for slow rotators scrolling the day should be used instead of scrolling the year. Day
time is proper time, time of year is actually a position on the planet orbit. (See appendix E).

3.16 Axial tilt of 90°

An axial tilt θ of exactly 90° is neither prograde nor retrograde rotation. Now a difficulty occurs
in the interpretation of the mean solar day. A sidereal day is independent of the planet's
orientation in space. The mean solar day isn't. On a 90° tilted planet the Sun describes a spiral
in the sky, centered around the celestial poles, as it would for any other planet. On this planet
however, the Sun really reaches the celestial poles. Its right ascension remains constant
during half a year and at the celestial pole it suddenly changes by a full 12 hours. Equation of
time ε2 makes a jump of −180 or +180°. Which of the two? That's an arbitrary choice
(see 5.9). Equatime adjusts the range 89.999°<θ<90.001° to 89.999° which is the prograde
interpretation. Entering a value just above 90.001° will give the retrograde interpretation. The
value 90° is avoided in this way.

3.17 Present time and anomaly on Earth

For Earth EquaTime can set the present system time as clock time in the Sun window. To see
the position of the Sun in the user's location the present anomaly Φ is also required together
with the latitude and relative longitude in the time zone of the user's location. Setting today's
anomaly and present time and anomaly together are found in the Options menu. Alternatively
they can be obtained by double clicking the Clock field in the Sun window (or ctrl-R).
The program calculates the anomaly for the present day by mapping the day number on the
720 available values of the mean anomaly. It does so by dividing the day number by 365.25,
taking the fractional part of the result and multiplying by 720. 01-01-2020 is day 0.
EquaTime translates the obtained time of year back into an averaged date in a year of 365
days so a mismatch with the calendar date of 1 day is possible.

The anomaly for the present day is also available for Mars. Day 0 is 07-02-2021, a vernal
equinox for Mars. The Earth day number is divided by 686.97, the fractional part is of the
result is multiplied by 720 and the index number of Mars' vernal equinox is added to obtain the
Martian time of year at the present day on Earth.

3.18 Approximations

Equatime neglects some minor effects and some slowly varying parameters:
- the presence of moons, making the planet move around a barycenter
- perihelion precession, axial precession and nutation
- disturbances in the planet orbit around the Sun caused by other objects
 21

For Earth the barycenter with the Moon lies within the planet. The deviation in the Sun's
coordinates will be less than 0.12 arc minutes which is less than 0.5 seconds in equation of
time. Perihelion precession for Earth completes one cycle in 112000 years giving an annual
shift of 0.0032° or 11.6 arc seconds (ref. 14).

An axial precession cycle takes 25772 years corresponding to an annual shift of 0.01397° or
50.3 arc seconds. The Earth calendar keeps the equinoxes at the same date. The perihelion
passage shifts by 61.9 arc seconds per year in the direction of the vernal equinox so it takes
about 57 years for the perihelion passage to shift by 1 day.

Earth's nutation amplitude due to the Moon is 17 arc seconds in longitude (the direction of
precession) and 9.2 arc seconds in obliquity (axial tilt) over a period of 18.6 years (ref. 19).
The long term change in axial tilt is in the order of 2.5° but the oscillation period is around
40000 years. Within a year deviations due to the Moon, the precessions and the axial tilt
variation can all be neglected.

Although the duration of a tropical year is known accurately Earth has no well defined new
year because the number of solar days in a year is not an integer number. Earth dates are only
approximations and our calendar roughly keeps track of the tropical year by inserting leap
days following an agreed schedule. As a consequence calendar date and the date based on the
time of year Φ can differ. The vernal point passage is the real reference for the tropical year.
This means that assigning a defined value ΦV to the vernal point passage actually defines the
astronomical new year at Φ=0.

3.19 Anomaly converter

The anomaly converter is a tool for quick conversion

of the three anomalies into one another. A value can
be typed in any of the three anomaly fields and the
converter will display the other two anomalies that
belong to the specified one, using the eccentricity of
an ellipse as shown in the corresponding field. The
eccentricity is initially taken from the main window. The field with color green is currently used
as the input to the anomaly conversions.
If the eccentricity is modified this also triggers a conversion. The anomaly field that is green at
that time is the input to the conversions.

A double click (or ctrl-Y) on the Mean or the True anomaly field retrieves its value at the cursor
position in the Equation of time diagram (a time of year Φ) and then displays the eccentric and
true or mean anomaly belonging to it.

A double click (or ctrl-Y) on the Eccentricity field retrieves the current value of the main
window and then triggers the conversions, where the green field serves as input. To select a
field as input give it focus by a mouse click or a tab stop.

If the option stay on top is selected then the window will remain at the top level. Otherwise it
can disappear behind a window that receives focus. Use the F4 key to return to the anomaly
converter window or select it again from the main menu. In appendix C the anomalies are
explained in detail.
 22

3.20 Exporting Daylight times and Illumination data over a year

The Daylight button

(ctrl-L) places a table
with sunrise times, sunset
times, peak illumination and
average illumination for the
720 time of year positions (Φ)
on the clipboard. The sunrise
and sunset times are
compensated for the specified
elevation. The times are not
compensated for changes in
declination and right ascension
of the Sun during a day and
are actually predicted values
for T = 12:00. This
approximation won't hold for a
planet with a small number of
sidereal days per year. No
realistic lower limit can be
given since the quality of the approximation also depends on the amplitudes of declination and
equation of time over a year.
The preview exports option in the main menu enables previewing these data in a graph shown
here. The white and gray curves are sunrise and sunset times for a latitude of +50⁰ and a
longitude of 0⁰ on Earth (El-rs=0⁰). The thin green line indicates the change in time of year in
one mean solar day (the day span). The line is centered horizontally at the time of year at the
cursor position in the equation of time diagram, the vernal point in this case, Φ = 77.5⁰ or
2.58 months. It's centered vertically at T = 12:00, the time of reference. For Earth it's almost
vertical. When that's the case the approximations are good, also for the peak illumination
(yellow), the average illumination (orange) and the insolation. The cursor is at the longest day.
Now suppose Earth had only 5
solar days in a year, so 6
sidereal days per year. The
second graph results. The day
span line isn't vertical anymore
and covers a fifth of the year.
The position at T = 12:00 has
remained where it was (the
vernal point), but the real
sunrise and sunset will take
place at the intersections of the
day span line and the sunrise
curve or the sunset curve.
To see the sunrise and sunset
in the Sun window press the
Noon button and scroll to
sunrise and sunset. You'll see
that they match. The
illumination curves should be
read at the cursor line at
Φ = 20 Mar, but will they also match? We'll see in the next paragraph. Note that the time on
the right Y-axis is clock time T, not time of day t. More examples in appendix E.

At an eccentricity e>0.95 no insolation value is displayed because of a lack of data points near
perihelion. The illumination scale maximum is 480 for the same reason.
To use the day span line as cursor first enable the standard cursor. Switch to the day span
cursor with the space bar or a click on 'Day span' in the legend. (See 3.21).
 23

3.21 Exporting Sun position and Illumination data of a day

The Record button

(ctrl-I) places a table of
clock time T, the Sun's azimuth
and elevation, the illumination
and an average illumination
value for the 1440 planet
minutes of a day (t) on the
clipboard. The link with time of
year Φ is maintained so the
data are compensated for
changes in declination and right
ascension of the Sun during the
day. When complete, the time
of day returns to where it was.
Within the limitations of 3.18
this method is exact. To center
the day on an exact time of
year, first select the time of
year and press the Noon
button, then start recording.

The two example graphs correspond to the examples of the daylight time and illumination
calculations. The horizontal axis here is time of day t (proper time) in hours. So Earth is at the
vernal point at T = 12:00, latitude 50⁰, longitude = 0⁰. In the top graph there are 366.242
sidereal days per year and in the bottom graph 6.
The green curve is the Sun's elevation. The Sun's azimuth is shown as compass direction. To
interpret it as degrees: the minimum is 0⁰, the maximum 360⁰ and the scale 30⁰/div.
The top graph corresponds to the daylight graph. Sunrise and sunset are the times where
elevation crosses zero. The peak illumination (yellow) on this day is 0.66, the average
(orange) is 0.21. These values are the same as indicated by the vertical day span line.

The day in the bottom graph

clearly spanned a substantial
part of the year: the elevations
at t = 0 and t = 24 are quite
different. Also the illumination
curve is slightly asymmetrical.
However, its peak at 0.66
matches the peak from the
daylight graph and also the
average level (orange) of 0.21
matches the average from the
daylight graph very well.
(There the illumination values
should be read at Φ = 77.5⁰ or
2.58 months, where the day
span line is at 12:00).

The clock time T is part of the

data copied to the clipboard. It
isn't shown in the graph because it's either T = t or T = 24:00 – t, the latter only for prograde
rotation with less than 1 sidereal day per year. For slowly rotating planets recording a day can
cover more than a planet year (see 4.4 and appendix E).

Both the Sun position and the Daylight graph have the option to show a cursor line and six
fields where the data at cursor are displayed. A click inside the graph area and the left and
 24

right arrow buttons on the keyboard enable the cursor. A right click and the esc key turn off
the cursor. The cursor can be dragged holding the left mouse button down and moved with the
mouse wheel and the arrow keys. The down arrow key copies the cursor position from the
main window to the Daylight graph. The up arrow key does the opposite.

The six data fields are from left to right: the horizontal axis value and the four vertical axes
values in the order of the graph's legend (day span not included). The Daylight graph has a
sixth field with the daylight time and in case the planet is Earth, the horizontal axis value is
given as averaged Earth date instead of months. The Sun position graph has the length of the
day expressed in years in the sixth field.

When the day span line is used as cursor the fields will display data in its color. Sunrise and
sunset times are at the crossings the day span line has with their lines, and are the ones
closest to T=12:00. The daylight time is only displayed if both a sunrise and a sunset time is
found. Illumination data can't be displayed. For long day spans the Sun position graph can be
used to find the illumination, albeit for one day at a time.

3.22 Menu options

EquaTime has a main menu in the main window. Main and astronomical data window have a
popup menu.

Main window

File Save as my planet: save the current planet parameters in the ini file as
My Planet, including parameters from the Sun window
Save Coordinates: save current latitude, longitude, sunrise/set elevation and
atmosphere on/off for the current planet
Exit: end program and save current parameters for the next session
Edit Standard Windows menu
View Origin marker: shows the planet's surface coordinate origin
Location marker: shows the location (latitude, longitude) in the Sun diagram
on the planet disk at the clock time given
Fixed size: don't adapt the planet diameter to its distance from the Sun
Axes in front: draw the hairline axes in front of the planet
Dark mode: sets black as background color and red as south pole color
Analemma Month markers: show the positions where mean planet months begin
Line graph: connect all points on the analemma by a line
Projection: show the analemma as a projection on a flat surface with fixed
scale, instead of an angular analemma with variable scale
Orbit Vernal point fixed: set the vernal point of the orbit at the positive X-axis
Perihelion fixed: set the perihelion of the orbit at the positive X-axis
Time of year fixed: set a selected time of year in the orbit at the positive
X-axis
Orbit speed: shows the normalized orbit speed at cursor or at the position of
reference.
Equation of time Diagrams: update the diagrams and show them in default mode
Components: show the two components of the equation of time in the
diagram
Declination & RA: show declination and right ascension in the diagram
Distance: show the distance of the planet to the Sun in the diagram
Planets Earth: use Earth parameters from the ini file
Mars: use Mars parameters from the ini file
Mercury: use Mercury parameters from the ini file
My Planet: use My Planet parameters from the ini file
Reset planet data: set axial tilt and orbit parameters to zero and sidereal
days to a default value
 25

Undo reset: recall the parameters that were set to zero by a reset
Options Auto resume: automatically recalculate the diagrams of the last session, for
Earth resume at present clock time, for Mars resume at anomaly today
Instant mode: automatically update the diagrams after a parameter change
Preview exports: on: always have the graph window available to preview
exported data, off: the graph window must be opened manually
Anomaly today: set the system date as averaged time of year (the value can
differ from calendar date by one day for Earth, the option is also available
for Mars)
Present clock time: set the system time as clock time in the Sun window and
the anomaly of the present day in the main window (Earth only)
Run Realtime: perform the necessary settings and play the time of day
conform the system time and date (Earth only)
Window Sun: show the Sun window
Table: show the astronomical data window
Anomalies: show the anomaly converter window
Graph: show the preview window for data from the Sun window
Line up: show the three principal windows side by side, taking into account
earlier positions and place the anomaly converter window outside the main
window, if possible
Help Manual: opens the online manual in your default browser
About: shows the version number of the program

Astronomical data window

Popup Copy table: copy the astronomical data table to the clipboard
Select time of year: select the active row as fixed time of year for the orbit
diagram
RA in degrees: right ascension in degrees instead of h:m:s

3.23 Shortcut keys

Beside the standard Windows shortcut keys Equatime has:

ctrl-D Slow down play

ctrl-L Save daylight times for a whole year (Sun window)
ctrl-I Record Sun position and illumination data of a whole day (Sun window)
ctrl-R Start or stop play
ctrl-T Get current anomaly and clock time for Earth (Sun window)
ctrl-U Speed up play
ctrl-Y Get the orbit position at cursor as mean or true anomaly or copy the
eccentricity from the planet parameters (Anomaly converter window)
ctrl-Enter Set the clock time without updating time of year (Clock field, Sun window)
F4 Cycle through the program windows
 Enable and move the cursor in the graph window
  Copy the cursor position to or from the Main window (Graph window)
/ Move active cursor to inactive cursor (Graph window)
Space Switch cursors (Graph window)
Esc Disable the cursor (Graph window)
 26

4. APPLICATIONS

4.1 Introduction

We are familiar with the Sun's motion across the sky as seen from planet Earth. In the
initialization file EquaTime.ini Earth's parameters have been preset so that you can
immediately start off with our home world. The other rocky planets also have preset
parameters. Additionally EquaTime can store a planet of your own design as My Planet. The
program stores the parameters last used for a next session.

4.2 Earth

EquaTime keeps track of the Sun at any location and time on Earth. You can customize it to
your location by setting your latitude and relative longitude in the initialization file. Select
Earth by Planet->Earth and then enter your coordinates in the Sun window. EquaTime is now
ready to show:
- the path of the Sun during the year and at any clock time
- sunrise and sunset times through the year (valid for the Sun center and without atmosphere;
you may use an elevation of –0.833⁰ to find sunrise and sunset valid for the Sun's limb and
corrected for atmospheric refraction, ref. 21)
- the amount of sunlight your location is receiving at any clock time and time of year.
The specified longitude is relative to the center of your time zone. If you are located to the
west of the center then the value must be negative. For summer time (+1 hour clock time
shift) subtract 15° from the relative longitude. Save the coordinates and the chosen elevation
for sunrise and sunset by File->Save Coordinates.

An other interesting application of EquaTime is to study how the situation on Earth has been in
the past or will be in the future by modifying the planet parameters. The perihelion passage
and the vernal point are moving towards each other. Our calendar, based on the tropical year,
will keep the vernal point at the same date so it appears as the perihelion passage moving to a
later date. Small changes already change the shape of the analemma. The effect is noticeable
within a human lifetime. On longer time scales the orbit eccentricity and axial tilt vary
(ref. 13,14). The length of the sidereal day increases by 2ms every century (ref. 6,12). At the
formation of Earth a value around 5h is possible and by the time Earth becomes tidally locked
to the Moon the value can rise to more than 40 of our present days.

Parameter Present value Range Rate of Change

Axial Tilt 23.44° 22.0° --- 24.5° variable
Vernal Point passage 77.5° n/a 0
Eccentricity 0.0167 0.002 --- 0.020 variable
Perihelion passage 2.6° 0° --- 360° 0.0172° / year
Sidereal day duration 23:56:04.091 h:m:s (5h --- >40 days) +2ms / century
23.93447 h

It isn't possible to modify these parameters in the initialization file directly from the program
but it can be done with a text editor. The file EquaTime.ini is organized in sections and in each
section there are parameter names and values.
This is the default section for Earth:
[Earth]
Equat=23.44
Vernal=77.5
Eccen=0.0167
Perih=2.6
Revolutions=366.242
The Program section contains the user preferences and the parameters of the previous
session.
 27

4.3 Mars

For Mars (ref. 8,11,16) there is no formal calendar. Therefore the time of vernal equinox ΦV
can be chosen freely. The choice is 0 by convention and then the perihelion passage Mars is at
ΦP = 261° (λP=250°). A calendar that resembles the Earth calendar may be more familiar so
we can alternatively set ΦV = 77.5° (shortly after mid Mars March) and ΦP = 338.5° (early
Mars December). The axial tilt θ = 25.19° is similar to Earth but the orbit eccentricity is much
higher at 0.0934. To maintain an average of 668.59 sols (Mars mean solar day) per year eight
Martian months must have 56 sols and four months 55 sols to complete a year of 668 sols.
Leap days will be necessary on a regular basis to compensate for the remaining 0.59 sols.

Parameter Symbol Mars value Remark

Axial Tilt θ 25.19°
Vernal point passage ΦV 0° alt.: 77.5°
Perihelion passage ΦP 261° alt.: 338.5
Eccentricity e 0.0934
Sidereal sols/year 669.59 668.59 mean solar sols
Orbital period (sidereal) 686.971 Earth days
Rotation period (sidereal) 24.623 (24:37:23) Earth hours

4.4 Mercury

Mercury is extraordinary in the sense that it has negligible axial tilt and the highest eccentricity
of the planets in the solar system (ref. 2). The perihelion precesses 1.5556° per Earth century,
the fastest in the solar system.

Parameter Symbol Mercury value

Axial Tilt θ 0.034°
Vernal point passage ΦV 326.12°
Perihelion passage ΦP 0°
Eccentricity e 0.20563
Sidereal days per year 1.5

The value for sidereal days per year is exact, meaning that the planet is in a 3:2 spin-orbit
resonance, a special case of tidal locking. Together with the high eccentricity the slow rotation
leads to a period during the solar day in which the Sun moves from west to east in the sky.
This happens around perihelion passage. EquaTime will demonstrate this as follows:
- Load the parameters for Mercury.
- Set 10:00:00 as clock time.
- Set relative longitude and latitude to 0°.
- Select Time of Year fixed, choose table row 300 as time of year 300 (start of mean
month 11) and press Diagrams. Equation of time should peak at 94.7 minutes. Note its
appearance as a distorted sine wave and also note that the analemma is a straight line.
- We are now 2 months before perihelion, corresponding to 2 hours.
- Let the time of day run in minutes. The Sun will start to perform its loop at 11:27 and
resume its normal course at 12:33. The loop takes 66 Mercury minutes which is 8.06 days on
Earth. Also note that elevation 90° is reached three times (11:02, 12:00 and 12:58).
- A Mercury solar day is two of its years: 2 x 87.969 = 175.94 Earth days.

In two narrow zones of longitude at the surface two sunrises and two sunsets can be seen in
one day. The loop has to be centered around these times of day as follows:
- Keep latitude at 0°, set longitude to 90°.
- Return to 10:00:00 as clock time. This returns the time of year to 300 (to be sure press
Diagrams again).
The observer is now located at the equator where the Sun will set at 12:00 when the planet is
at perihelion. Let time of day run in minutes. Both at sunset and sunrise the loop occurs. At
 28

the equator the amplitude of the loop is 0.56° in elevation. On Mercury this isn't enough to
make the Sun completely disappear or reappear because at perihelion its diameter is 1.73°. At
higher latitudes the loop can also be seen but the elevation amplitude will be less. Longitudes
0° and 180° are Mercury's hottest places. They have the Sun at an elevation >89⁰ for 18 Earth
days. Finally, to capture an analemma photographically is impossible. At a fixed time of day
the time of year will always be the same.

4.5 Venus

For Venus the parameters are derived from the perihelion date 20 March 2020 (ref. 10) and
the autumnal equinox date 28 May 2020 (ref. 22) which by our definition is a spring equinox.
The events are 69 days apart. With a Venusian sidereal year of 224.7 Earth days we have
ΦV−ΦP = 110.6⁰. We can choose perihelion passage as the start of year. A Venusian sidereal
year has 1.9246 Venusian solar days (retrograde rotation means one more than sidereal
days). The axial tilt close to 180° makes Venus a planet with almost no seasons and the
eccentricity is the lowest of all planets in the solar system. A small equation of time results
with a maximum of 3.2 Venusian minutes. To capture an analemma photographically would
take years. The photo has to be taken at noon and the next noon is 116.8 Earth days later.
Furthermore, in theory an observer could stand on the surface but the Sun would always be
hiding behind a dense cloud cover.

Parameter Symbol Venus value

Axial Tilt θ 177.36°
Vernal point passage ΦV 110.6°
Perihelion passage ΦP 0°
Eccentricity e 0.006772
Sidereal days/year 0.9246

4.6 Uranus

Uranus is parameterized for as follows (ref. 5,9). The planet will be at perihelion on 18 August
2050 (ref. 5) and at northern spring equinox on 9 February 2050 (ref. 9). The events are 190
Earth days apart. With a Uranian sidereal year of 84.01 Earth years this corresponds to
ΦV−ΦP = –2.2⁰. We can choose perihelion passage as start of year. A Uranian sidereal year
has 42718 Uranian solar days (retrograde rotation means one more than sidereal days).

Parameter Symbol Uranus value

Axial Tilt θ 97.77°
Vernal point passage ΦV 357.8°
Perihelion passage ΦP 0°
Eccentricity e 0.046381
Sidereal days/year 42717

The axial tilt makes Uranus have the widest analemma of the planets in our solar system.
The relatively high eccentricity makes the 8-shaped analemma appear slightly rotated and
asymmetrical. However, to capture the analemma photographically is impossible. An observer
cannot stand on the planet and see the Sun. Better places are the solid moons where one can
see the Sun. The analemma will look almost the same there. For a tidally locked moon like
Oberon 2279 sidereal days fit into a Uranian year. Perihelion passage and eccentricity are the
same as for the planet. Axial tilt and vernal point passage may be slightly different.
 29

4.7 My Planet

My Planet is the parameter set you can define to simulate any other planet of the solar system
but also to design a hypothetical planet in order to study the meaning of equation of time and
analemma and their relation to the planet orientation in space and to the position of the Sun
as seen from the planet.

4.8 Sun tracking

In the Sun window you can set the parameters for your location on Earth and see the Sun
position at any time.

Latitude and relative longitude of your location can be obtained from various online services.
In most countries the clock time belongs to a standard time zone that differs from universal
time UT by a whole number of hours. The relative longitude of your location is your longitude
minus the longitude of your time zone center: relative longitude is negative if you are to the
west and positive if you are to the east of the time zone center.

In case of a non-standard time zone use the general approach:

Find the difference dT between the zone time and universal time: dT = T−UT. The longitude of
the time zone in degrees is 15 times dT in hours.
Example: your time zone has T=UT−4.5 hours. The longitude of your time zone is −67.5°
(dT=−4.5 hours). If your location is at −70.4° then this is 2.9° degrees west of the time zone
center and your relative longitude is −2.9°.

In the Sun window the time of day t can be varied in steps of planet seconds, minutes or
hours. Time of year Φ follows by using the main windows parameter sidereal days in a planet
year.
By changing the time of year Φ in the main window the Sun position is shown at a constant
clock time as set in the Sun window. Sunrise and sunset times vary with the time of year. The
equation of time leads to different dates for sunrise and sunset to reach their extremes. The
usual value for sunrise and sunset elevation is –0.83⁰.

For other planets than Earth a similar procedure is followed except that there is no
standardized surface coordinate system. Latitude is defined for most objects because they
have a rotation axis but longitude is arbitrary. A way to proceed is:

- set the clock to 12:00:00

- set zero latitude and relative longitude
- go to either the planet's perihelion (the common choice) or its vernal point (for Mars).

EquaTime will show the Sun position at noon for the point on the planet that would be subsolar
if equation of time were zero at the chosen orbit position: this can be used as the planet's
surface coordinate origin. The link between time of day t and time of year Φ is established
now.

After that:
- set a latitude and relative longitude of your choice
- change the time of day manually (mouse wheel or scroll bar) or by using Run mode
- using the noon button or changing time of year yourself creates a new time link
- relative longitude can be seen as absolute longitude with respect to the coordinate origin and
may have any value between −180° and +180°
- the total change you made in time of day is visible in the Sun window as Δt.
 30

4.9 Insolation and illumination across the planet

Variations in obliquity and eccentricity are often mentioned as reasons for climate change on
Earth. But how big are these variations? For Earth we have 0.002<e<0.02. In 2.17 a formula
is given for Insolation Imax as a function of eccentricity. We obtain: 1.000002< Imax <1.0002, a
variation of 0.0198%. This can't have any effect on climate.
The variation in illumination over a year however can be up to 8.3% at the highest
eccentricity. At the present value of 0.0167 it's 6.9%. On Earth southern solstice takes place
very close to perihelion passage so southern summers are hotter and southern winters are
colder than their northern counterparts. Because of the drift of the perihelion relatively to the
vernal point passage (see 4.2) this
situation changes with a cycle time of
approx. 20900 years.

So at present the illumination curves over

a year for equal latitudes (±β) in the
northern and southern hemisphere are
different. We will now look into the role of
axial tilt variation. It can vary as
22.0⁰<θ<24.5⁰. The planet parameters
are as of today, axial tilt is set at the two
extremes.

The graphic was made using Equatime's

Daylight function in the Sun window (see
3.20). Already with this small variation in
axial tilt it's clear that the polar regions
gain some insolation at the higher axial
tilt, at the cost of the low latitudes. Note
that the insolation for a certain β is
identical to the insolation at –β. This is the
case regardless of eccentricity.

Illumination averages were taken on the

darkest day (lo) and the brightest day
(hi). These curves are different for the
hemispheres. Especially the brightest day
at the poles gets significantly brighter for
θ=24.5⁰. An effect on climate is possible.

Another interesting question is: when does

the equator no longer have the highest
insolation? This appears to be at θ≈54⁰.
Surprisingly the maximum is directly taken
over by the poles.

In the figure we see insolation profiles for

different values of θ. Mercury and Earth
are present, Uranus' curve will be close to
the 90⁰ curve. (For Mercury insolation is
also a function of longitude, because of the
spin-orbit resonance).

At β≈35⁰ insolation hardly depends on

axial tilt.
 31

The next graphic shows the average

illumination on the days of northern and
southern solstice as a function of latitude.
It was made using Equatime's Record
function in the Sun window.
The curves are each other's mirror image
if scaled to their maxima. For Earth
northern solstice takes place about two
weeks before aphelion passage at a
distance to the Sun of 1.0162 AU and
southern solstice takes place about two
weeks before perihelion passage at
0.9837 AU. This accounts for a 6.7%
difference in illumination between the
solstices.

The time between southern solstice and

perihelion passage is 3.4% shorter than
between northern solstice and aphelion
passage. This is caused by the difference
in orbit speed between aphelion and
perihelion.

Average illumination curves for the vernal and autumnal equinoxes as a function of latitude are
cosines of the latitude. Their maxima differ very little. The vernal equinox is at a distance of
0.9959 AU, the autumnal equinox at 1.0036 AU. The difference in illumination is 1.6%.
 32

5. EXAMPLES

5.1 Introduction

Time keeping on Earth has a long history. Sundials were the first clocks and time was
measured on a scale of hours. It took until the arrival of the mechanical clock for the second to
become the unit of time. It was defined as 1/86400 of the mean solar day. Electronic clocks
with a quartz reference ware eventually accurate enough to discover that the mean solar day
is not a constant. When the second was redefined using the atomic clock, it meant the end of
the direct relationship between the second and the planet's rotation period. Since then atomic
time and mean solar time are drifting apart. Earth's rotation will continue to slow down. When
the difference approaches a second a compensation is made which is called the leap second.
The atomic clock is stopped for one second to let Earth catch up (ref. 17).

Equation of time is something completely different. This is about the difference between true
solar time and mean solar time and could already be identified easily with mechanical clocks.
On sundials from those times an analemma was sometimes pictured so that the user could
compensate the true solar time in order to obtain his local mean time or clock time.

On Earth equation of time never exceeds 17 minutes and the phenomenon will go unnoticed to
most of us. On other planets and moons much larger values are possible because of a higher
axial tilt or a higher eccentricity. We'll take a look at some examples.

5.2 Analemma on the Moon

The Moon orbits the Sun together with Earth and stays close enough to Earth to largely neglect
its motion around the planet (≈1.02 km/s compared to 29.8 km/s around the Sun). For the
Moon orbit around the Sun the same eccentricity as for Earth applies.
The Moon's axial tilt to the ecliptic is only 1.54°. This produces a negligible ε2 of 0.01° (0.04
minutes) but it gives a north-south shift. Equation of time ε1 is identical to Earth's (1.95°), but
with a small wobble due to the Moon's motion around Earth.
The time between vernal equinox of the Moon and perihelion of the Earth-Moon system is far
from constant because of the fast axial precession of the Moon. In contrast to Earth's
precession cycle of 25800 years (ref. 7) the Moon completes a precession cycle in 18.61 years
making the two points drift by ≈ 19.4° per year (≈ 1.56° per lunar day). The analemma on the
Moon will therefore slightly change shape already within one lunar day (ref. 3).

At the left the analemma as it would be when the Moon's vernal point and the perihelion
passage of the Earth-Moon system coincide. In the middle the vernal point is 87.6° later in
Earth's year than the perihelion, giving the most open ellipse. At the right the vernal point is
180° later. The actual analemma is always between these situations because an Earth year is
too long to consider the analemma constant.
There are 12.37 lunar solar days in an Earth year, exactly 1 less than the 13.37 sidereal lunar
days because the Moon's rotation is prograde.
 33

Summarizing for the Moon:

Parameter Symbol Moon Value Remark

Axial Tilt θ 1.54° to Earth ecliptic
Eccentricity ΦV 0.0167 same as Earth
Perihelion passage ΦP 2.54° same as Earth
Vernal point passage e 0...360° axial precession, 1 cycle in 18.61 years
Sidereal days per year 13.37 lunar rotations in 1 Earth year

The inclination of the Moon orbit to the ecliptic and the precession of the perigee hardly affect
the analemma.

5.3 Libration of the Moon

The Moon is tidally

sphere
locked to Earth,
always showing the
same hemisphere to visible invisible
observer
observers on the
planet. The Moon has
an apparent diameter
φ
of half a degree. It is
notable that this is S
the same as the
portion of its diameter what you see is what you miss φ
that we cannot see,
leaving a range of 179.5 degrees north-south and east-west visible. So at any given point in
time we can see just under 50% of the Moon surface as illustrated in the figure, where
φ≈0.25°.

Nonetheless 59% of the Moon surface is visible. The extra 9% is a consequence of the Moon's
librations and is only visible part of the time. The tidal lock doesn't work as if the two bodies
were connected by a rod. If that were the case then Earth would occupy a fixed position in the
Moon's sky. Reality is that it's only the orbital period and the rotation period of the Moon
having the same value. The Moon orbit is eccentric and the rotation axis has a tilt. Two effects
that cause the Earth to move along an analemma, which can be demonstrated by EquaTime.

We'll now be looking at Earth from the Moon, and for EquaTime we'll treat the planet as if it
were the Sun and the Moon as if it were the planet. The parameters are (ref. 4):

Parameter Value Remark

Axial Tilt 6.68° Moon rotation axis to orbit around Earth
Eccentricity 0.043–0.066 variable, due to tidal force from Sun
Perihelion passage 0°...360° variable, precession of the perigee (8.85 years)
Vernal point passage 0°...360° variable, precession of the nodes (18.61 years)
Sidereal days per year 1 'year' is a sidereal month (27.32 days) on Earth

- The axial tilt is a constant (the Moon is in a Cassini state, ref. 20).
- Perigee precesses fast, and comes full circle in only 8.85 years. The anomalistic month
(perigee to perigee) of 27.55 days is longer than a sidereal month because the precession is
prograde (3.04° per sidereal month).
- The vernal point of the Moon with respect to Earth (which it orbits) is the point where Earth
crosses the Moon's celestial equator towards its celestial north pole. In our view this is the
descending node of the Moon orbit. It precesses in 18.61 years. The draconic month (from
node to the same node) of 27.21 days is shorter than a sidereal month because the
precession is retrograde (−1.45° per sidereal month).
 34

- Eccentricity is defined here as e=(q-p)/(q+p), where p is perigee distance and q is apogee

distance (pmax=370400 km, qmin=404000 km and pmin=356400 km, qmax=406700 km).
Maximum e occurs when the perigee coincides either with full Moon or new Moon and its
minimum when perigee is at first or last quarter. In a sidereal month the line Sun-Earth shifts
by 26.93° and the perigee advances by 3.04° so that their mutual shift is 23.89°.
Realignment occurs at a mutual shift of 180°, after 7.53 sidereal months, which is the cycle
time of the eccentricity, or 6.97 synodical months (phase to the same phase, 29.53 days).
- The number of sidereal rotations of the Moon per sidereal month is set as sidereal days per
year. The tidal lock makes this value exactly equal to 1.

Just as in example 5.3 the parameters vary too quickly to be considered constant but for one
month the approximation is reasonably good. Four extremes can be identified.

Motion of Earth in the Moon sky: Analemma of Earth

1: minimum eccentricity, vernal point ΦV=85°, declination and hour angle out of phase.
2: minimum eccentricity, vernal point ΦV=0°, declination and hour angle in phase.
3: maximum eccentricity, vernal point ΦV=82.5°, declination and hour angle out of phase.
4: maximum eccentricity, vernal point ΦV=0°, declination and hour angle in phase.
The horizontal mirror images of 2 and 4 occur at ΦV=180°.
The vertical mirror images of 1 and 3 at ΦV=275° and ΦV=277.5°.
In all cases ΦP=0. Any form of analemma between these extremes is possible which makes the
motion of Earth quite complex.

The tidal lock makes keeping time on the Moon by using Earth's position in the sky impossible.
Earth doesn't seem to cycle around the Moon at all (so in EquaTime time of year and time of
day can't be linked).

The Planet view diagram is now a Moon view diagram. Scrolling through the equation of time
diagram illustrates the libration of the Moon during a sidereal month. Vertical and horizontal
motion of the coordinate origin of the Moon (lunar lat=0, lon=0) have the same phase
difference as the analemma of Earth. The view is valid for the sublunar point on Earth. The
condition of the third analemma is favorable for seeing much extra Moon surface. The West-
East and North-South motions are out of phase and the eccentricity is maximal. Not all of the
extra surface will receive sunlight however. This depends on the Moon phase.

For analemma number 3 view 1 is the view of the Moon from Earth with the Moon at the
descending node (Φ=82.5°). The coordinate origin of the Moon is now 7.5 degrees
 35

(EQT=30.2 minutes) to our east (on the left), making an extra 7.5 degrees of the Moon's
eastern side (on the right!) visible. If this is near first quarter that part is lit by the Sun.
View 2 is when Earth is at northern standstill (Φ=180°), viewed from the Moon at apogee.
From Earth the north pole of the Moon has come into sight, making an extra 6.7 degrees at
the north visible and at full moon.
View 3 is at the ascending node (Φ=277.5°), near last quarter, and an extra 7.5 degrees of
the Moon's western side will be visible and lit.
View 4 is when Earth is at southern standstill (Φ=0°), viewed from the Moon at perigee. From
Earth the south pole of the Moon has come into sight, making an extra 6.7 degrees at the
south visible but it's near new Moon. (Since all cycle times are different there will also come an
opportunity to see the extra strip at the south of the Moon).

5.4 Canceling components

The equation of time components ε1 and ε2 have different frequencies. The first completes one
cycle per year, the second two cycles per year so they cannot cancel out for a long period but
for a shorter period they can almost. The conditions are that at some time of year they are
opposite and their derivatives are also opposite. A hypothetical planet has the parameters:

Axial Tilt 25.5°

Vernal point passage 180°
Perihelion passage 180°
Eccentricity 0.05

At the vernal point both components are zero and they are moving in opposite directions,
canceling each other for almost 2 months. During this time the declination of the Sun is
changing rapidly. It's the portion of the first analemma that goes straight up from south to

north. The second analemma results if Vernal point passage is set at 264.3°. The cancellation
of the components now happens around northern solstice and the analemma has a droplet
form.

5.5 Low eccentricity and axial tilt

For relatively low values of eccentricity and axial tilt the equations of time ε 1 and ε2 have the
shape of a sinewave as in the example above. The amplitude of the sinewaves can be
approximated with the following rules:
ε1pk ≈ 460 e
2
ε2pk ≈ 0.018 θ
where ε1pk is within 1% for 0<e<0.3 and ε2pk is within 1% for 0°<θ<27°, θ is in degrees and ε
is in planet minutes (divide the numbers by 4 for ε in degrees). Near the upper limits the
waveforms are already departing from a sinusoidal form to gradually change into their high
value forms.
 36

5.6 High eccentricity

Objects like comets can have orbits with extreme eccentricity. The orbit in the figure has an
eccentricity of 0.98. The semi minor axis b=a√(1–e2) of the orbit is 0.199 times the semi
major axis a. An object in this orbit spends 9.74 of its months in the far half of its orbit. Orbital
speed arrows (blue) are to scale.

object

Sun 2b aphelion
0.98

eccentricity 0.98

Orbital speed at the minor axis is almost 10 times aphelion speed. Perihelion and aphelion
speed have the ratio: uP/uQ = (1+e)/(1−e). For an object with e=0.98 the ratio is 99! For
comparison, Earth has uP/uQ = 1.034 and Mars has 1.21. The ratio of angular speed df/dΦ
(true anomaly change per unit of time) is the square of this and causes equation of time ε1.

When eccentricity is close to 1 an object behaves like it

is in free fall from its aphelion but it just doesn't fall into
the Sun thanks to a small perpendicular speed it had at
aphelion. The free fall curve has no resemblance to a
sinewave and isn't a parabola either. The limit case is
surprisingly simple. The object sees the Sun at an
almost constant right ascension, except for the brief
perihelion passage when α swings by almost 24 hours.
The maximum possible ε1 is therefore ±12 hours. In the
figure we have e=0.98 and θ=0. Perihelion passage is at
Φ=0. The white curve shows the distance from object to
Sun. Right ascension α (=λ=f) changes very slowly at
aphelion. According to ref. 28:
g g
Ur (f) = √ e.sin(f) and Ut (f) = √ [1+e.cos(f)]
p p

where Ur is the radial velocity and Ut the perpendicular velocity of the object, p is the semi
latus rectum of the orbit and g is the gravitational parameter G.m of the Sun and the object,
where G is the gravitational constant and m is the sum of the masses of Sun and object.
Since our time unit is a planet year we can have g=1 and since the distance unit is a(=1) we
can replace p by 1–e2 so the normalized velocities are:
1 1
ur (f) = √ e.sin(f) and ut (f) = √ [1+e.cos(f)]
1−e2 1−e2
1 1–e
At aphelion angular speed df/dΦ = ut(π)/R(π) = √ = 0.05076 in the example and dα/dΦ
1+e 1+e
= 0.102h per mean planet month.
1 1+e
At perihelion df/dΦ = ut(0)/R(0) = √ = 497.5 in the example. Note that ur=0 at both
1–e 1–e

1+e 2 +2.e.cos(f)
apsides. The orbital speed u is the quadratic sum of ur and ut: u(f) = √
1–e2
For f=±arccos(–e) we have u=1. If we substitute this value of f in formula of Appendix G.1 for
the radius we get R=1. The points are on the minor axis. Here the speed in the elliptic orbit
matches the speed in a circular orbit with the same a.
The formulae for df/dΦ at the apsides also follow from Appendix G in limit cases Eπ, E0.
 37

5.7 High axial tilt

The extreme case for equation of time ε2 occurs on a planet with the rotation axis in the orbital
plane. This is illustrated below, where eccentricity e=0.

The left figure shows declination, equation of time and right ascension for θ=5°. For this low θ
the declination and equation of time curves are sinusoidal and right ascension seems a straight
line. Actually equation of time is its deviation from a purely straight line.

The right figure has a high, near extreme, θ=89° and shows three completely different curves.
With the Sun at the vernal point (ΦV=0) nothing happens with the right ascension since the
Sun travels north and only the declination will change, linearly! A triangular curve results. As
soon as the Sun approaches the northern celestial pole the right ascension suddenly increases
sharply to remain constant at 12h for half a year. The Sun linearly travels to the south celestial
pole and there the right ascension makes another jump towards 24h. The sawtooth curve is
equation of time ε2. The maximum possible ε2 is ±6 hours which is reached for θ=90° and
remarkably, at 1° less axial tilt it only reaches up to 5 hours.

An analemma for high

θ resembles the letter
X, if it's displayed as
coordinate (η,δ)
diagram. It is best
shown as points since
this illustrates the quick
change in the Sun's
right ascension and the
equation of time when
the Sun is near the
celestial poles.

Equation of time and

analemma behave
strangely abrupt in this short period of the year but in reality everything keeps going smoothly
as can be illustrated by the projected analemma. The projection looks like a figure of 8 without
any sharp edges and it's what an observer at the equator of the planet would see, keeping in
mind that this analemma spans his entire celestial hemisphere in the north-south direction.
The next paragraph will clarify the extreme cases.
 38

5.8 Celestial pole passage in detail

A special case is θ=90°, when the planet has its rotation axis in the orbital plane. On such a
planet the Sun will reach each celestial pole once a year. The ecliptic is perpendicular to the
equator and the Sun moves neither east nor west from the vernal point, it just moves north.
For an observer at the equator all apparent solar days are equal in length: the sidereal rotation
period of the planet. Nothing spectacular so far but something strange happens at solstice.

In the figure the units on the axes are degrees azimuth and elevation. On this planet a year
has 225 sidereal days so the Sun's declination changes by a constant 1.6° per day. The
observer is at the equator and looking at the northern celestial pole. At day 1 the Sun rises in
the east at 06:00 sidereal time (blue arrows). The position of the Sun is shown at intervals of
30 sidereal planet minutes. The Sun sets in the west at 18:00. In the meantime the Sun slowly
spirals in towards the north celestial pole which is at the horizon. Day 2 and 3 are still normal.
Day 4 is the day of the northern solstice. The Sun rises in the east as usual and seems to set
normally at 18:00 but does this exactly in the north and immediately rises again to set in the
morning at 6:00! Days 5, 6 and so on will also start with a sunset and half a day seems to be
lost or gained, depending on interpretation. Keeping sidereal time on this planet seemed fine
but at each solstice the day and the night will swap places. Not very practical.

Sun motion

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

What if we want to use mean solar time? Now it's up to the observer to decide if there are 224
or 226 mean solar days. The choice for 224 means that equation of time will be calculated as
valid for prograde rotation and a mean solar day is longer than the sidereal day. The choice for
226 means that equation of time will be calculated as valid for retrograde rotation and a mean
solar day is shorter than the sidereal day. Everything will check out in both situations. In
reality nothing changes but the loss or gain of a day is now spread over the year. An equation
of time peaking at ±6 hours may be preferable over a swap of night and day.
 39

The planet in the next figure has θ=89°. There are also 225 sidereal days in a year. Mean solar
time and equation of time are applied. A year has 224 solar days because of the eastward
motion of the Sun on the ecliptic. The view is from the equator in the direction of the celestial
north pole. The large dots show the Sun at noon mean solar time giving 7 points of the
analemma, viewed upside down. The small dots are Sun positions at intervals of 30 minutes
mean solar time. The blue arrows point at 06:00 in the morning. During day 4 the northern
solstice takes place where ε2=0 and the Sun is at maximum elevation (1°) at noon.
Equation of time ε2 swings from +5 to −5 hours in a couple of days.

Sun motion
2

If these parameters are set in Equatime (89°, 0°, 0°, 0, 224) we can select the day of
northern solstice by selecting Time=Φ=90.0 in the astronomical data window. This is day 4 in
the figure. By pressing the noon button and scrolling time back towards morning we find the
sunrise at 04:12, just east of north, at an azimuth of 1.13°, matching the figure that was
created by a spreadsheet.
After pressing noon at Φ=90° you can find all Sun positions in the figure by scrolling to times
that are a multiple of 30 planet minutes backward or forward.

The planet Uranus (θ=97.77°) is close to such a situation although the Sun's path at the day
of solstice is on a spiral that would just stay outside the area of the above figure.
 40

5.9 Minor change, major effect

Parameters θ=90° and e=0.98 are near extreme. For ΦP=ΦV=0 we get the diagrams:

Component ε1 reaches 597 minutes, component ε2 reaches 290 minutes and the sum reaches
718 minutes, far below the theoretical maximum of 1080 minutes. Reasons are the limited
resolution in time of year and eccentricity not being as extreme as it seems. If we could zoom
in on time of year Φ=0 it would appear that ε2 actually peaks at 360 minutes. For e1 the
steepness of the orange curve will increase further to make ε 1 peak at 720 minutes.

The observer on the coordinate origin will see his Sun pass overhead at perihelion and
aphelion. On the date of perihelion passage the Sun makes an awkward move from south to
north as illustrated by the analemma.

Changing ΦV slightly from 0 to 0.3047° makes an enormous difference.

The rotation axis of the planet now points straight into the Sun at perihelion and aphelion, an
orientation change of 90°. An observer at the south pole sees the Sun pass overhead at
perihelion. For the rest of the year the north pole has permanent sunlight and there the Sun
circles the zenith to reach it at aphelion. The questions are: what happened to the analemma
and how can the small change in ΦV rotate the orbit by 90°?

If you know the answers you truly understand orbital mechanics and equation of time!

5.10 Analemma art

The analemmas on the next page may be real for some celestial object. Enjoy.
 41

weather balloon hand crank rain drop helicopter

pancake you should know me obelisk tipping antennas

sand bag ballerina swan lake lane closed

propeller wing egg drunk

bow tie orbiting oranges close to the edge miter

 42

APPENDIX

A. VERNAL POINT AND PERIHELION OF MERCURY FROM ORBIT PARAMETERS

The mean anomalies of

vernal point and perihelion
are two of the key V'
parameters for the equation Ω
P' A
of time. They can be found λ
from comparing dates of λ' V
the events and scaling to
ecliptic
the duration of the planet α
year. For Mercury a vernal Mercury
orbit α'
point is of little interest
because of the negligible
axial tilt of the planet.
That's the reason why dates
for this event are hardly
E,R
ever mentioned. But there
is an alternative way to find
equator
vernal point and perihelion
using orbit parameters. For
Mercury (α,δ except where
indicated) (ref. 2,24): Mercury orbit (view from Earth north pole)

Orbital pole = (280.988⁰, 61.448⁰) = E

Rotation axis = (281.01⁰, 61.414⁰) = R
Longitude of the ascending node Ω = 48.331⁰ (ecliptic coordinates: λ)
Argument of perihelion ω = 29.124⁰ (in planet's orbit plane, λ' from ascending node)

A planet's orbital pole is the normal E to its ecliptic and the rotation axis R is the normal to its
equator. The cross product of these vectors is perpendicular to both and points at a crossing of
the planet's equator and ecliptic. Mercury's vernal point direction is:
R x E = (206.268⁰, -8.1607⁰). The planet must be in the exact opposite position to see the
Sun in the vernal point, so the point on the orbit is: V' = (26.268⁰, 8.1607⁰).
V is Earth's vernal point. The yellow arc is Earth's ecliptic. Only the part with δ>0 is shown.

The perihelion P' is found as follows. Seen from Earth the orbit of Mercury, projected on the far
celestial sphere, is a great circle (orange for δ>0, brown for δ<0) with normal E and crossing
the point Ω. It crosses our equator at a right ascension found from the cross product of our
north pole N and E. Let this vector be A = N x E = (10.988⁰, 0⁰) where it is noted that this
great circle is inclined by θ' = 90⁰–61.448⁰ = 28.552⁰ to our equator, about 5 degrees more
than our ecliptic.

From 2.12 we have α = arctan*(tan(λ)cos(θ),λ). Therefore the ascending node Ω of Mercury

has a right ascension α = arctan(tan(48.331⁰).cos(23.44⁰)) = 45.871⁰.
From A to Ω the right ascension of Mercury's orbit increases by:
45.871⁰–10.988⁰ = α' = 34.883⁰. In its orbit it has to move by λ'Ω according to the formula:
tan(α') = tan(λ'Ω)cos(θ') so λ'Ω = arctan(tan(34.883⁰)/cos(28.552⁰)) = 38.439⁰. To arrive at
the perihelion P', ω must be added to λ'Ω to obtain λ'P' = 67.563⁰, at α,δ = (75.810⁰, 26.217⁰).
To the vernal point V' at α = 26.268⁰ the required increase is:
Δα = 26.268⁰–10.988⁰ = 15.28⁰ so:
λ'V' = arctan*(tan(15.28⁰)/cos(28.552⁰),15.28⁰) = 17.277⁰.
Now we have λ'V'–λ'P' = –50.29⁰. Finally this is translated into mean anomaly. At an
eccentricity e = 0.20563 the eccentric anomaly EV' = –41.72⁰ and the mean anomaly
MV' = –33.88⁰ or +326.12⁰ (ref. 15).
 43

B. VERNAL POINT AND PERIHELION OF MARS FROM ORBIT PARAMETERS

For Mars the orbit

parameters are
(ref. 16,24):
Orbital pole Ω
λ V'
E = (273.373⁰, 65.323⁰) A
λ' V
Rotation axis
R = (317.681⁰, 52.887⁰) ecliptic
α
Longitude of the
Mars P'
ascending node orbit
α'
Ω = 49.558⁰ (λ)
R
Argument of perihelion ω
ω = 286.502⁰ (λ')
E

The same method as in

appendix A is applied. equator

The relations between λ

Mars orbit (view from Earth north pole)
and α and between λ' and
α' are:
α = arctan*(tan(λ)cos(θ),λ)
λ = arctan*(tan(α)/cos(θ),α)
α' = arctan*(tan(λ')cos(θ'),λ')
λ' = arctan*(tan(α')/cos(θ'),α')

From the cross product A = N x E we find α = α' + 3.373⁰.

From the declination of E we find θ' = 90⁰ – 65.323⁰ = 24.677⁰
From the cross product V' = E x R = (84,555⁰, 24.420⁰), the vernal point on Mars' orbit.
The right ascension of the ascending node is arctan(tan(49.558⁰).cos(23.44⁰)) = 47.108⁰
and corresponds to α' = 47.108⁰ – 3.373⁰ = 43.735⁰ so:
λ'Ω = arctan(tan(43.735)/cos(24.677⁰)) = 46.477⁰ and:
λ'P' = λ'Ω + ω = 332.979⁰ and α'P' = –24.84⁰
V' has α' = 84,555⁰ – 3.373⁰ = 81.182⁰ and:
λ'V' = arctan(tan(81.182⁰)/cos(24.677⁰)) = 81.976⁰
The result is λ'V'–λ'P' = –251.003⁰, or equivalently +108.997⁰, which are true anomalies.
Eccentricity 0.0934 leads to eccentric anomaly EV' = 103.851⁰ and
mean anomaly MV' = 98.655⁰ or equivalently –261.35⁰. This is very close to the value found
from comparison of dates (4.2).
 44

C. THE THREE ANOMALIES Y

a=1
Mean and true anomaly are
frequently used in EquaTime.
In the top figure the white ellipse is
the orbit of the blue object at
P
position P. Two auxiliary circles are B
shown: the red circle with a radius C
equal to the semi major axis a of
the ellipse and the green circle with
a radius equal to its semi minor E f
M X
axis b. The primary focus is F. For
simplicity we will choose the semi A b
F
major axis a=1 so that the semi
minor axis b=√(1-e2) and the focus
F resides at x=e, where e is the
eccentricity of the orbit. We'll
assume 1>e>0. The periapsis is at
x=1, y=0. All angles are measured
counterclockwise.

The eccentric anomaly E (blue) is

Eccentric and True anomaly
the defining parameter for the
ellipse:
x=cos(E) and y=b.sin(E),
where E runs from 0 to 2π. (Ref. 15).
As can be seen from the figure the blue line with angle E doesn't point at the object. This only
happens for E=0, π/2, π and 3π/2. A and B are the projections of P on the axes.

The true anomaly f (purple) directly points at object P in orbit as seen from F. It is the angle
traveled by the object since periapsis. Because the semi major axes of the ellipse and the red
circle are the same, the orbit periods are also the same. The mean anomaly M (yellow) is the
angle traveled by object C on the red circle in the time the blue object traveled to P. The speed
on the circular orbit is constant so M is a measure of the time t since periapsis. Let the orbit
period be Y then the time
Y
t = YM/2π. For the purpose of
calculating the position of object P P'
at a given time t, we have
M = 2πt/Y and this M has to be
converted into f and radius r, the
distance FP. As it seems in the
figure M has no geometric meaning M/2
P
and a calculated value is shown. In
the example we have E=66⁰,
f=126⁰ and M=24⁰ at e=0.8 and
b=0.6. The coordinates of P are E X
(x,y) = (0.41, 0.55). We find
A
r = √(AF2+B2) = 0.67. The angle to F
P from the center of the ellipse is
arctan(0.55/0.41) = 53⁰.

Ref. 26 shows a geometric

interpretation of the mean anomaly.
No derivation is given so here's one.
The statement is that the area
inside the yellow lines in the bottom
figure is equal to M/2. This can be Eccentric and Mean anomaly
demonstrated as follows.
 45

The area is the difference between an area inside the lines AP', A to x=1 and the circle
segment x=1 to P', and the area of the right-angled triangle AFP'.
Let these areas be I and J.
For I we use the equation of the red circle and integrate from x = A = cos(E) to x = 1:

1
1 1
I =∫ √1-x2 dx=
2
(x√1-x2 + arcsin (x)) |cos(E)
cos (E)

1 π
= ( – (cos (E) √1-cos2 (E)+arcsin( cos (E))))
2 2

1 π π 1
= ( – (cos (E) sin(E) + ( -E))) = (E – cos (E) sin(E))
2 2 2 2

The triangle has a height AP' = sin(E) and a base AF = e – cos(E) so:

1
J= (e – cos(E)) sin(E)
2

and their difference is:

1 1 1
I–J= [E – cos(E) sin(E) + cos(E) sin(E) – e sin(E)] = [E–e sin(E)] = M as stated, so:
2 2 2

M = E – e sin(E)

which is Kepler's equation and validates the geometric interpretation of M.

We see that M = E = f only for M = 0 and M = π.
We can also consider a similar area but now inside the ellipse by replacing P' by P. This is the
area swept out by the line FP since periapsis. The area is b/a times smaller and equal to:
1
M√1-e2 and is a manifestation of Kepler's law of equal areas in equal times.
2

For E = π/2 and E = 3π/2 the object is on the minor axis of its orbit.
This is halfway apoapsis. Where E = π/2 we get:
M = π/2 – e
which means that the time it takes to get there from periapsis has a minimum:
t ≥ Y.(π/2 – 1)/2π = 0.090845 Y, so any object spends at least about 18% of its time in the
near half of its orbit.

For the object at the semi latus rectum l of its orbit, where f = π/2 and R = 1–e2 = b2,
M can be calculated directly by replacing cos(E) by e in the formulae for I. We get:
Ml = arccos(e) – e √1–e2

2 1
Conservation of specific orbital energy says: v2 =GM ( − ), where G is the gravitational
R a
constant and M is the central mass (ref. 27). Normalization to GM gives:
2 1 1 1 1
v2 = − or v2 − = − . The escape velocity now follows from the limit as a -> ∞.
R a 2 R 2a

Normalizing to the semi major axis a we get the velocities at the apsides:
2 1–e 2 1+e
vQ =√ –1 =√ and vP =√ –1 =√
1+e 1+e 1-e 1−e

The normalized specific angular momentum is:

1–e
hQ = √ (1+e) = √1–e2 = b which is constant for the orbit and can also be derived from vP.
1+e
 46

The average distance from object to primary focus over one orbit revolution can be found with
the help of the eccentric anomaly. From the first figure we can find the distance R as a function
of E as:

R(E)=√(e − cosE)2 +(b.sinE)2 = √(e-cosE)2 +(1 − e2 ).sin2 E

The average distance is:

1 2π
Ravg = ∫ R(M)dM
2π 0

Substituting dM=(1e.cosE)dE we obtain:

1 2π 1 2π
Ravg = ∫ R(E)(1 − e.cosE)dE = ∫ √(e-cosE)2 +(1 − e2 ).sin2 E (1 − e.cosE)dE
2π 0 2π 0

1 2π
Ravg = ∫ √e2 − 2e.cosE+cos2 E+sin2 E − e2 sin2 E (1 − e.cosE)dE
2π 0
2π
1 2π 2 1 1 1 1
Ravg = ∫ (1 − e.cosE) dE= (E − 2e.sinE+ e2 E+ e2 sin 2E)| = 1+ e2
2π 0 2π 2 2 0
2

leading to 1Ravg<1½.
 47

D. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES OF VIEWING THE PLANET FROM THE SUN

The projection of an equator on the celestial sphere is an ellipse with semi major axis r, the
diameter of the planet, and minor axis b.r that depends on the viewing angle. It suffices to
know the declination of the Sun, seen from the planet. The relation between the minor axis
and the declination is b = sin(δ).
Also we have the two extremes of the projected equator. The line that connects these (the
Q-axis) is perpendicular to the projected rotation axis (the I-axis).
Similarly to appendix C we can give a parameter description of the projected equator.
Let h be the parameter:
q = r.sin(h)
i = r.b.cos(h)
Letting h run from 0 to 2π describes the projected equator. After normalizing to r and replacing
b by sin(δ) we have the same equations as in 2.11. We find the coordinate origin for h=ε. The
orientation of the I,Q-axes is given in Appendix G. All views are valid for 12:00 mean solar
time at the yellow coordinate origin of the planet. For ε=0 the 0-meridian coincides with the
rotation axis.
Y
X
rotation (E) origin

N pole path
equator
S

origin
equator
pole path
0-meridian N
S
rotation (E) 0-meridian

prograde θ=47⁰, N visible λ=46⁰, δ=+31⁰, ε=–28⁰ retrograde θ=120⁰, N visible λ=107⁰, δ=+55⁰, ε=+11⁰

0-meridian
0-meridian
equator
N
rotation (E) pole path

origin
S

equator
N
origin
S
pole path
rotation (E)

prograde θ=18⁰, S visible λ=223⁰, δ=–12⁰, ε=+8⁰ retrograde θ=120⁰, S visible λ=342⁰, δ=–15⁰, ε=+49⁰

The axial tilt θ is the angle measured between the Y-axis and a line from the center to the
point where the north pole path touches the left side of the planet disk.
The declination δ = arcsin(i) where the equator crosses the I-axis.
The equation of time ε = arcsin(q) where q is the coordinate of the yellow origin on the Q-axis.
The ecliptic longitude λ follows from the location of the visible pole on its path. Let the length
of the path be 2L. Then λ = arccos(xN/L) if N is visible and λ = arccos(xS/L)+π if S is visible.
 48

E. DAYLIGHT CALCULATION

1. Introduction

In the solar system we find enormous differences between the planets even if we only consider
the five parameters for Equatime: axial tilt θ, vernal point passage ΦV, perihelion passage ΦP,
eccentricity e and the number of sidereal days per planet year.

2. Uranus

For Uranus the Daylight

diagram looks awkward. The
latitude was set at +20°, well
inside the polar region(!). This
manifests itself in a period
when only a sunrise line
(white) is visible and a period
when only the sunset line
(gray) is visible. During these
periods the visible line
indicates the time where the
Sun is closest to the horizon.
With an axial tilt of 97.76°, the
planet has an extreme
equation of time that can reach
almost 220 Uranian minutes.
The day span line at months = 8, looks perfectly vertical because a Uranian year has no less
than 42717 Uranian sidereal days. Within a day the change in orbit position is negligible so the
sunrise and sunset times and the illumination curves are highly accurate. It is noted that
during the period of midnight Sun, between 2.2 and 3.4 months, the average illumination
curve changes shape and has a local maximum where the peak illumination has a local
minimum.

3. Mercury

The contrast with Mercury

couldn't be sharper. Orbit
parameters ΦV and ΦP were
shifted by 180° to get
perihelion passage in the
middle of the diagram. The
observer is at a latitude of 0°
and a longitude of 90° so that
the loop (see 4.4) occurs at
sunset and sunrise.
In the standard interpretation
the diagram shows sunrise and
sunset times that are always
12 hours apart, what one
would expect with θ≈0°. The
times vary through the year
because of equation of time that reaches up to 94.7 Mercury minutes, due to the high
eccentricity. That is, if there were many solar days in a year. There are not. There's half a
solar day in a year. Does that render the diagram useless? Certainly not.
 49

The day span line explains what really happens. Its center is at months = 6 and T = 12:00 and
crosses the diagram twice. Back in time it takes a year to reach T = 0:00 and forward in time
it takes a year to reach T = 24:00. Where it has the same slope as the sunrise or sunset line,
the angular orbit speed of the planet cancels its angular rotation speed and the Sun is
stationary.

Sunset takes about two months to complete. All this time the day span line and the sunset line
stay together. This is where the loop occurs. At sunrise the scenario is the same. At other
times of year, say at 3 months, there will never be a sunrise or a sunset on this location. This
is all caused by the 3:2 spin-orbit resonance of Mercury.
The diagram of a solar day is
shown here. It is in agreement
with the Daylight diagram.
Sunrise and sunset take about
two hours (= 2 months) and
both events are clearly double.
The peak illumination occurs at
T = 6:00 and corresponds to
the Daylight diagram at Φ = 0
months. But that's the only
point that matches the peak
illumination curve. The average
illumination doesn't match at
all, as expected. The Sun
position diagram has the
correct value of 0.17. So for
Mercury it's relatively easy to
figure out what happens over a
year or a solar day.

4. Venus

And then we have a slowly

rotating planet without a spin-
orbit resonance: Venus, the
dullest object for Equatime?
Well, yes. Here's the Daylight
diagram for a latitude of 50°.
The solar day was centered
around Venus' aphelion at
Φ = 180°, 6 months, close to
northern solstice at 6.7
months.
The cursor and the day span
line were both set at 6 months.
Equation of time peaks at only
3.19 Venusian minutes at 2.9
months and 9.1 months (visible
if you look at the sunrise and
sunset lines). According to the
cursor, sunrise is at 5:48:20 and sunset at 18:11:49 at a peak illumination of 0.666 and an
average of 0.2182. According to the day span line sunrise is at 5:53:15 and sunset at
18:13:30. Still a significant difference.
 50

The Sun position diagram is in agreement with the day span line: sunrise at 5:53, sunset at
18:14. At cursor peak illumination: 0.666, average illumination: 0.2178 (0.2% less).

This day began at 2.88 months

and will end at 9.12 months, a
span of 7.24 months. It will
take a long time before a day
like this one will occur again.

Solar days not repeating

exactly is the standard. For
every planet that doesn't have
a number of solar days in a
year that can be written as the
quotient of two integer
numbers this is the case, so
also for Earth.

For Venus the consequences

can be seen already the next
day (not shown) because it will
take place in a different season: northern winter largely. At the chosen location sunrise is then
at 6:08:15, sunset at 17:46:40 and illuminations are 0.616 peak and 0.19 average.

After 25 days everything almost repeats. There are 0.9246 sidereal

days per year, which is 1.9246 solar days. After 25 days 12.99 years
have elapsed.

Finally, the analemma (see 4.5) for Venus is a cigar. It can never
observed from the surface because the Sun is always behind a dense
cloud cover.
 51

F. SPREADSHEET FOR EQUATIME

Data can be exported from the astronomical data window and the Sun window. The
spreadsheet Equatime.xlsx provides examples of what can be done with the data.
The format is tab separated text.

There are three sorts of data export:

Daylight times and Sun position and

Astronomical data
illumination over a year illumination on a day

Copy table from the

Copy window's popup menu or ctrl-L in the Sun or ctrl-I in the Sun
or ctrl-C window window

Sheet Equation of time Sheet Daylight Sheet Sun Position

Paste
Field A1 Field A1 Field A1

The content of the 1st Header line with 1st Header line with
table, including the latitude, longitude and latitude, longitude and
header line with elevation at sunrise/set. time of year (phi).
parameter names.
2nd Header line with 2nd Header line with
parameter names. parameter names.

721 data lines: 1440 data lines:

Col 1: time of year, from 0⁰ Col 1: time of day in
to 360⁰ in steps of 0.5⁰ minutes from 0 to 1439
Data Col 2: Sunrise clock time as Col 2: clock time as
a value between 0 and 1 hh:mm:ss
Col 3: Sunset clock time as Col 3: azimuth in degrees
a value between 0 and 1 Col 4: elevation in
Col 4: Peak illumination degrees
Col 5: Average illumination Col 5: illumination.
Col 6: Day span
as time of year values in Trailer line with average
degrees, arranged from illumination.
clock time 0 to 1 (0:00 to
24:00)).

Preview Equation of time Graph window mode 1 Graph window mode 2

diagram

Sheet Graphs1 contains example graphs for Earth from the astronomical data export.

Sheet Graphs2 contains example graphs for Earth at a latitude of 50⁰ and a longitude of 0⁰
from both Sun window exports.
 52

Graphs1 shows a concept of partial analemmas. Equation of time is the sum of two
components: ε = ε1+ε2. The sum is displayed on the horizontal axis of the analemma diagram
and declination δ is on the vertical axis. We can also make a diagram of ε1 versus δ and of ε2
versus δ and name them eccentricity analemma and obliquity analemma. An obliquity
analemma is always a figure of eight. An eccentricity analemma is an ellipse that gets distorted
at high eccentricity and that reduces to a straight line if the planet has zero obliquity, so it
depends on variation in declination as well. The orientation and the openness depend on the
time between vernal point passage and perihelion passage. These diagrams lack timing
information unlike the analemma in Equatime.

Next there's the Equation of time diagram with colors that correspond to the analemmas, and
a magnified Orbit diagram that has the perihelion at Y=0 and X>0, a new year marker and a
vernal point marker. The unit is the semi major axis of the orbit.

Finally declination and right ascension of the Sun over a year and a distance from the Sun
diagram, also over a year. The vertical unit is the semi major axis of the orbit.
 53

Graphs2 presents the same graphs as in Equatime's graph window with a higher resolution.

Sunrise and sunset are calculated for elevrs = 0⁰. The other parameters (latitude, longitude
and time of year) are also shown between the graphs. Like in Equatime, the day span line is
presented as points. The azimuth is in compass directions. The elevation is at the left vertical
axis.

The illuminations are fractions of the reference illumination: the planet at R = 1, Sun
elevation = 90⁰. The year average of the average illumination in the left graph is called the
insolation, in this case 0.20875 at a latitude of +50⁰.
In the right graph it can be noted that at the vernal equinox there is a negative equation of
time. The light curve isn't centered around minute 720 but approx. 7.5 minutes to the right.
 54

G. MATHEMATICS AND PROGRAMMING

1. General

Programming examples are in generic code. The reserved word else isn't used. Instead the
format is: if condition {then clause} {else clause}.

A] Mean anomaly M is converted to true anomaly f and eccentric anomaly E by function

mtta(M,e,tru) in two steps. A successive approximation based on the formula for eccentric
anomaly finds the eccentric anomaly and the result is converted to true anomaly:
dM
M = E-e. sin(E) = 1-e.cos(E)
dE
where E is the eccentric anomaly and e is orbit eccentricity.

Newton-Raphson method:

if e>0.96 {Q=1.01} {Q=1}

delta=1
E=M
while abs(delta)>maxerror
{ delta=E-e*sin(E)-M
E=E-delta/(Q-e*cos(E))
}

where Q replaces 1 in the derivative. This improves stability for 0.98>e>0.96.

For 0.9999≥e≥0.98 the program uses a Bisection method. In all cases maxerror=1E–7.

Eccentric anomaly is converted to true anomaly:

1+e E E
f=2arctan2 [√1-e sin( 2 ), cos( 2 )]

Depending on parameter tru the function returns f or E as result.

For the anomaly converter a suitable inverse function is:

E=arctan2 [√1-e2 sin(f) ,e+cos(f)]

if E<0 { E=E+2π }

B] The radius is the distance to the primary focal point on an elliptic orbit and is obtained from
true anomaly f by the function:

1– e2
Radius = 1+e.cos(f)
, which is normalized to a and where f is a function of M.

The normalized speed in orbit is found from the expression:

1+e2 +2.e.cos(f)
Uorb = √
1–e2

C] Protected goniometric functions are defined as follows:

arccos2(x) and arcsin2(x) return the mathematical value for arguments between -0.999999
and 0.999999, arccos2(x) returns π for x below the range and 0 for x above the range,
 55

arcsin2(x) returns −π/2 below the range and +π/2 above the range.
Tan2(φ) returns the mathematical value if |(cos(φ)|>0.000001, otherwise it returns
sign[sin(φ)cos(φ)].1E+6.

D] Finding the Earth date as a function of Φ is an approximation. EquaTime uses 720 values of
the index n and the day number is determined as:
day=trunc(365*(n+0.25)/720) mod 365
Φ=n/720
The day number is converted into day and month, where the date cannot be 29 Feb.
For indices 0,1 and 720 the expression returns 1 Jan.

E] Internally EquaTime uses θ', defined as: θ'= π−θ (π/2<θ≤π ) and θ'=θ otherwise.
G(θ) is introduced as the 'gradeness' function of rotation:
G(θ) =+1 for 0≤θ≤π/2 and G(θ) =−1 for π/2<θ≤π

2. Astronomical data

The core procedure of EquaTime is the calculation of the astronomical data for the Sun over a
planet year. The planet year is sampled in steps of 0.5° and 721 rows of data are generated
where the last row is identical to the first. The planet year starts at index N=0 and Φ=0.

The procedure starts with finding the best matching row indexes for the specified perihelion
passage and vernal point in the array. For the perihelion we have:
Nph = trunc(720/2/π*ΦP+0.5)

For the vernal point:

Nvp = trunc(720/2/π*ΦV+0.5)

Range finding routines for equation of time and analemma are initialized at a minimum range
of 0.4°. Peak value |ε1|PK can exceed peak value |ε|PK, peak value |ε2|PK cannot (if at one ε2
peak ε1 adds to it then at the other ε2 peak ε1 will subtract from it). Separate |ε| and |ε1|
maxima must be determined.
The analemma range is the highest of the ranges of |ε| and |δ|. The EQT range is the highest
of maxima |ε1| and |ε| after conversion to minutes. The auto scale values are set by a
normalization procedure that returns the first of a set of standard auto scale values that is
above the value passed to it. The procedure will e.g. set 5° as auto scale when a range of 4.2°
is passed to it.

The true anomalies of vernal point fV and fixed date fF are evaluated for later use:
fV=mtta(ΦV−ΦP,e,1)
fF=mtta(2π.F/720−ΦP,e,1)
where the latter is used when the option time of year fixed is enabled for the orbit and F is the
chosen index.

At index N we have M=2πN/720−ΦP and store the data in bold:

month=N/60
f=mtta(M,e,1)
ε1=(M−v)G(θ')
λ=confine(f−fV, 2π, 0)
R=Radius(M)
u=OrbSp(M)

where month is the mean planet month, used in the equation of time diagram,
and function confine keeps λ in the range 0≤λ<2π, by adding or subtracting 2π.

λ is converted into α by the transformation:

 56

γ=arctan(tan(λ)cos(θ))
where γ is placed in the correct quadrant to obtain α:

if π/2<λ≤3π/2 {γ=γ+π}
if 3π/2<λ<2π {γ=γ+2π}
if G=−1 {α=2π−α} {α=γ}

Right ascension and equation of time at index N are stored:

α
ε2=(λ−γ)G(θ')
ε=ε1+ε2

λ is converted into δ by the next transformation and stored:

Γ(λ). tan(λ) .|tan(θ')|

δ=arctan
2 2
[ (1+tan (λ)+tan (θ')]
√

where Γ(λ)=+1 for 0≤λ≤π/2 or 3π/2≤λ<2π and Γ(λ)=−1 for π/2<λ<3π/2.

For orthographic projection of the analemma at index N two additional items are stored:

ε'=sin(ε)cos(δ)
δ'=sin(δ)

An illustration of the coordinate transformation from λ to (α,δ) is given in 2.12.

3. Analemma

Drawing the analemma in angular coordinates is straightforward. 720 Points of (ε,δ) are placed
as (x,y) on a chart object using auto scale or user scale (which is a range: m) and having
(x,y)=(m,m) in the upper right corner. The scale s is passed to the chart object. Drawing the
orthographic projection of the analemma uses (ε',δ') as (x,y) while ignoring scale settings
(m=1).

When |ε| can exceed π/2 then the analemma scale for the angular diagram is displayed red.
When the cursor actually is in a position where |ε| exceeds π/2 then it's drawn in magenta
instead of dark green.
Month markers are drawn at (x,y)N with indices N=0,60,120 etc., where N=0 and N=660 have
color blue and red to indicate start of year and start of the last (12th) mean month.

4. Planet view

Drawing the planet view starts with setting the color for the planet shape, a sphere with
variable diameter. EquaTime has six planet types: Earth (blue), Mars (reddish brown), Mercury
(dark gray), Venus (light gray), Uranus (pale blue) and My Planet (caramel). The planet type is
a setting, stored in EquaTime.ini.
If variable diameter is enabled the diameter at the index n is evaluated:

if FixedSize=1
{diameter=1}
{diameter=1/R[n]
if e>0.5 {diameter=2*diameter*(1-e)}
 57

The area the planet is displayed on allows the diameter to be 2 times the diameter at radius=1
which falls short if e>0.5. In that case the diameter is adjusted to match the maximum that is
1/(1-e).
The planet disk is positioned so that its center remains within ½ pixel from the diagram center
that represents the subsolar point on the planet.

The location of the poles relative to the diagram center is:

Xnorth = sin(θ')cos(λ)
Ynorth = cos(θ')G(θ') = cos(θ)
Xsouth = −Xnorth
Ysouth = −Ynorth

The observed position in Y-direction of a pole doesn't change over a year.

The observed X-position is at the extremes at the equinoxes λ=0 and λ=π.
The declination of the Sun may not be below −0.00873 for the north pole and not above
+0.00873 for the south pole to be visible, corresponding to ±0.5°.

Next the location of the planet coordinate origin is evaluated. That point is on the equator and
is positioned at a longitude from the subsolar point that is given by equation of time ε. To
display the position the appearance of the equator must be known.
The planet's rotation axis is seen at an angle and can be found from Xnorth and Ynorth.
The equator is perpendicular to the projected rotation axis and the vector pointing to its
position at the edge of the planet disk is chosen 90° clockwise from the vector pointing at the
north pole:

θEQ=arctan2(Ynorth,Xnorth)−π/2.

On a Q-axis with this direction the displacement caused by ε is shown. If the north pole is in
the lower half of the diagram this remains correct.
On the orthogonal I-axis the perpendicular displacement of the point of interest is shown. It's
pointing 90° clockwise from the Q-axis, away from the north pole.
Coordinates q and i are:
q=sin(ε)
i=cos(ε).sin(δ)
where it is noted that |sin(δ)| = √1-r2P
and rP = cos(δ) is the projected distance of a pole from the center of the planet disk.

Next the coordinates q and i are converted into x and y for the diagram:
Xorg = q.cos(θEQ) + i.sin(θEQ)
Yorg = q.sin(θEQ) − i.cos(θEQ)

5. Orbit

Drawing the orbit diagram is done after converting 720 points of (R,φ) to (x,y), a polar to
Cartesian coordinate transformation where R is the distance between planet and Sun and φ is
the true anomaly of the planet in its orbit. An offset determines the reference direction. There
are three options for the reference direction:
- Perihelion (P): φ=f
- Vernal point (V): φ=λ (=f−fV)
- Selected time of year (Φ): φ=f−fF
where fF was set by the user when selecting one of the 720 data points as defined in
paragraph 2. The values of R, λ and f are available in the astronomical data array.
The scale is either 1.5 times the semi major axis or 2 times the semi major axis where the
larger scale is automatically applied for eccentricity e>0.5. The size of the Sun dot is adjusted
together with the scale. The scale is passed to the chart object and the coordinates are:
 58

xN=RN.cos(φN)
yN=RN.sin(φN)
Month markers are drawn at (x,y)N with indices N=0,60,120 etc., where N=0 and N=660 have
color blue and red to indicate start of year and start of the last (12th) mean month.
When the user starts year scrolling, the month markers are replaced by a dark green cursor.

6. Equation of time

Drawing the equation of time diagram first requires to determine the chart object's Y-scale SY.
The equation of time range is obtained from the procedure for the astronomical data. If the
user has selected auto scale the peak value εPK is passed to the normalization procedure after
multiplication by 1440/2π (angle to minutes), otherwise the user range is applied as scale. The
scale for equation of time is the reference and is passed to the chart object as SY. The other
astronomical data are calibrated as follows:
xN=monthN
yN,1=4.εN.180/π
yN,2=4.ε1N.180/π
yN,3=4.ε2N.180/π
yN,4=(RN−1).CR
yN,5=δN.Cδ
yN,6=(αN/π−1).Cα
The X-scale is fixed at 1 mean month/division.
The peak value for (R−1) is eccentricity e and is scale normalized to S R with a minimum range
of 0.01 and CR = SY / SR.
The declination peak value is equal to θ', scale normalized or set to the user range and
Cδ = S Y / S δ .
The right ascension always has the range αmin=0 to αmax=2π and α−π is displayed between −4
and +4 divisions (80% of the Y-range of the chart) so that Cα = 0.8 SY and a scale of
3h/division is obtained.
Finally the scale labels for α, δ and R are displayed if the curves are enabled. The chart object
displays the labels for EQT.

Cursor and selected row in the astronomical data table are managed by the procedures
DrawCursor and MarkDiagrams of the main window.

7. Sun diagram

Drawing the Sun diagram is done by the SunCoordinates procedure and begins with finding
azimuth and elevation of the Sun from declination and hour angle. Within a planet day these
parameters will change and EquaTime will apply a linear interpolation for the given clock time,
which in the program doesn't run from 0 to 2π but from 0 to 1.

d=IPDA(δ)
t=ClockTime*2*π+IPDA(ε)+Lon*π/180
x=sin(d)*cos(lt)+cos(d)*sin(lt)*cos(t)
y=sin(d)*sin(lt)-cos(d)*cos(lt)*cos(t)
z=cos(d)*sin(t)
a=arctan2(z,x)
e=arcsin2(y)

where lt is latitude in radians, Lon is relative longitude in degrees and IPDA (interpolation data
abstime) is a procedure that returns the linear interpolation for the requested item (declination
and equation of time) as a function of AbsTime (see below). The left hand parts are local
variables for declination, local solar time (t=η+π, compared to 2.13 this reverses the sign of
the functions involving η), the three Cartesian coordinates of the Sun on the celestial sphere,
azimuth and elevation. Arctan2 is a library function and arcsin2 is a protected arcsin function.
 59

Variables a and e are displayed as degrees, where by convention a is confined to the range
0°≤a<360°.
The position of the dot representing the Sun is either shown as coordinates e and a or as
projected from the celestial sphere on a flat surface by the transformation:
X=round((Sky.Size/2)*(1+s*sin(a)*(1-abs(e)*2/π)))-Sun.Size/2
Y=round((Sky.Size/2)*(1+s*cos(a)*(1-abs(e)*2/π)))-Sun.Size/2
or:
X=round((Sky.Size/2)*(1+s*sin(a)*(sqrt(1.0000001-y*y))))-Sun.Size/2
Y=round((Sky.Size/2)*(1+s*cos(a)*(sqrt(1.0000001-y*y))))-Sun.Size/2
where the first (X,Y) shows linear elevation and the second shows a projection and s is a
variable having the value 1 or −1 depending on the setting north up or south up and taking
into account that higher Y values result in lower screen position.

If atmosphere simulation is enabled the color of the sky is varied if −twil<e<+twil:

r=round(#60*(0.5+e*90/twil/π))
g=round(#98*(0.5+e*90/twil/π))
b=round(#E0*(0.5+e*90/twil/π))
where r,g and b are the 8-bit color components and twil is the twilight range of 6°, so that a
black sky results for e=−6*π/180 radians and the default blue sky for e=+6*π/180 radians.
The color of the Sun is varied by its green component for 0<e<twil:
g=round(#C0*(e*180/π/twil)+#3E)

The illumination is calculated as:

i=1/IPDA(R)
i=i*i*y
where y is the Sun's vertical position on the celestial sphere and uecc is the eccentricity of the
orbit, keeping in mind that illumination is proportional to sin(e), where e is elevation.
The maximum illumination occurs when R is minimal (1−uecc) and y=1 (Sun at zenith).
The illumination bar's dark part has the height:
ShIllum.Height=round(30*(2-log10(min(max(Illumination,0.0011),100))))
The last pixel of the bright part is only covered when Illumination=0.

8. Tracking time

Keeping track of time begins when the user establishes a link between time of day and time of
year, either by clicking the noon button or by selecting a time of year in the main window
(thereby calling the FormActivate procedure of the Sun window). Both actions reset an
absolute time variable AbsTime of the Sun window, displayed as Δt. From that moment on,
changes made to any time setting will be carried out by a procedure ChangeTime.

Time can be changed by:

- turning the mouse wheel
- moving the time scroll bar
- modifying the clock time field
- requesting system time
- run mode

The amount of time change is passed to ChangeTime and the procedure will:
- display the new clock time
- apply the time change to the absolute time
- calculate the shift in time of year corresponding to the time change
- inform the main window of a new cursor position
- show the absolute time shift Δt since the link was established.

The change in time of year follows from the parameter sidereal days per year. The value is
internally converted to DailyAdv, the ratio between a mean solar day and a tropical year. The
conversion is done by a main window procedure DisplayParameters according to 2.15. Since
 60

the array index N of time of year Φ can have one of 720 values, spaced by 0.5° of mean
anomaly, the new index is:

N=N+round(720*AbsTime*DailyAdv)

after which N is returned to a value between 0 and 720 by adding or subtracting 720 as many
times as necessary. DailyAdv can be up to 1000 (prograde rotation, 1.001 sidereal days per
year) and negative values are possible.

9. Sunrise and sunset

Sunrise and sunset clock time are found from y=0 in the equations of paragraph 7:
sin(δ)*sin(lt)=cos(δ)*cos(lt)*cos(t) or:
cos(t)=tan2(IPDA(δ))*tan2(lt)=daydev with two solutions:
t=arccos2(daydev) and t=2π–arccos2(daydev)
The times are:
trise=confine(arccos2(daydev)-IPDA(ε)-Longitude*π/180,2π,0)
tset=confine(2π-arccos2(daydev)-IPDA(ε)-Longitude*π/180,2π,0)
Both are angles between 0 and 2π. Due to equation of time the values can be outside this
interval and the function confine corrects this. Note that these times differ from the real
sunrise and sunset times because δ and ε change during the day. The values are divided by 2π
and displayed via a library function that converts a number between 0 and 1 to an hh:mm:ss
value.

Daydev is a parameter (not the value) for the deviation from 12 hours of Sun visibility. When
the result for daydev is below −1 the Sun never rises and when it is above +1 it never sets,
circumstances indicated with a grey or yellow color of the fields in which the times are
displayed. Trise and tset are equal in that case and correspond to the times of the Sun's
closest approach to the horizon.

When a specific elevation for sunrise and sunset is specified, variable daydev is adapted as:
daydev=daydev-sin(ElevRS*pi/180)/cos(IPDA(8))/cos(Latitude*pi/180)
where ElevRS (<0) is the specified elevation in degrees. After that, daydev is passed to the
formulae for trise and tset.

When DailyAdv<0 and the clock time runs in negative direction the values of trise and tset are
swapped.

10. Daylight procedure

The daylight button in the toolbar creates a list of sunrise and sunset times for all 720 times of
year as valid for noon as clock time, using the same formulae as in paragraph 9 and taking
into account ElevRS. The list is placed on the system clipboard as tab separated text.
It also creates a list of peak and average illumination. The peak illumination is:
iluPK = (1/DATA[i,11])2.max(cos(lt-δ),0)

The average illumination fraction is a numeric integral over 1440 minutes: iluAV =
1439
1
∑ max(sin(δ)*sin(lt)-cos(δ)*cos(lt)*cos(π*j/720),0)*(1/DATA[i,11])2
1440
j=0
of which the term with j=720 corresponds to the formula for iluPK.

The span of a solar day, centered around the time of year at CursorX in the equation of time
diagram, is the 5th item. Data are scaled to a year of 360⁰ and confined in the range 0⁰ to
360⁰. With i running from 0 to 720:
 61

Φi = confine(CursorX/2+(i-360)*DailyAdv/2,360,0)

The same five data series are sent to the graph window for previewing.

11. Record procedure

The Record button in the toolbar collects the Sun windows data for a whole solar day with a
resolution of 1 minute. While running, the mousewheel and the time scroll bar are disabled to
prevent accidental jumps in time. The recording variable can break the process if set to false
by any event allowed to do so.
Recording begins, local variables are initialized: ilm, the average illumination, the original
AbsTime is stored in tr, the original time of year in cx as a CursorX value.
Depending on the direction the Sun's hour angle has during the day the clock time is changed
to the beginning of the day (DailyAdv>=0) or to the end of the day:

recording=1 n=0 ilm=0 tr=AbsTime cx=CursorX

if DailyAdv>=0 { ChangeTime(-ClockTime) } { ChangeTime(1-ClockTime }

Then two header lines are sent to the clipboard. The first with latitude, longitude and time of
year (cx), the second with data parameter names. The recording process can start. The Sun
window parameters are displayed and an initial call to SunCoordinates (see paragraph 7) is
made. The procedure returns Azimuth and Elevation in degrees and Illumination.

DisplayParameters
SunCoordinates
while recording & n<=1440
{ s=inttostr(n)+char(9)+TimeToStr(ClockTime)+char(9)+
floattostrf(Azimuth,fffixed,7,4)+char(9)+
floattostrf(Elevation,fffixed,7,4)+char(9)+
floattostrf(Illumination,fffixed,7,5)
Add(s)
if n<1440 {ilm=ilm+Illumination}
if g & (n mod 2=0)
{ with FoGraph.MpxGraph
{ Series[0].SetData(n div 2,n/60, 60+2/3*Elevation)
Series[1].SetData(n div 2,n/60, Azimuth/3)
Series[2].SetData(n div 2,n/60,Illumination)
}
}
if n<1440 { FormMouseWheel(sender,shift,-1,mps,hdl) }
if n mod 60=59 { Application.ProcessMessages }
inc(n)
}

The call to FormMouseWheel causes a new call to SunCoordinates for the next data point in the
loop. The Add procedure adds string s to a Tstringlist for the clipboard. Variable g is true if the
graph window is open to display the data. For the graph window the resolution has to be
reduced to 721 values, where the last value must not be included in ilm because it's identical
to the first value. The x-coordinates are scaled to the range of its horizontal axis: 0..24. If the
recording wasn't interrupted the while loop exits with n=1441 and the data for the clipboard
gets a trailer line with the average illumination and is sent to the clipboard. If the graph
windows is open the average illumination is set for Series[3] to display it as a straight
horizontal line. Application.ProcessMessages is only called every hour of ClockTime to speed up
the process.

if n=1441
{ s='illum av'+char(9)+floattostrf(ilm/1440,fffixed,6,5)
Add(s)
 62

ClipBoard.astext=text
if g then begin
{ with FoGraph.MpxGraph do begin
{ Series[3].SetData(0,0.05,ilm/1440)
Series[3].SetData(1,23.95,ilm/1440)
}
FoGraph.SetGraph(0)
}
}
recording=0
Changetime(tr-AbsTime)

Finally the graph is drawn with SetGraph(0), recording ends and the final Changetime restores
the ClockTime to the value it had before the recording.

12. Play procedure

The play procedure of the main window provides automatic scrolling of the time of year.
During play mode no alterations may be made to any parameter. Doing so stops play mode.

play=1
s=0
timer=0
while play {
for m=s to 719 {
MpxTijdverMouseDown(sender,mbLeft,shift,m,0)
while (MilliSecondSpan(time,timer)<speed–0.5) & play {
Application.ProcessMessages}
timer=time
Application.ProcessMessages
if !play {break}
}
s=0
}

The play variable can be reset during ProcessMessages by any event allowed to do so.
Speed is a value in milliseconds that realizes a wait time together with the system time.
The MpxTijdverMouseDown procedure belonging to the equation of time diagram sets the
cursor at position m which is one of the 720 time of year positions and updates the cursors in
the analemma and orbit diagrams. It also sends update commands to the planet view diagram,
Sun diagram and astronomical data table.

13. Run procedure

The run procedure of the Sun window provides automatic scrolling of the time of day. The run
variable can break the loop when reset during ProcessMessages by any event allowed to do so.

run=1 timer=0 count=0

while run {
while (MilliSecondSpan(time,timer)<speed–0.5) & run {
Application.ProcessMessages }
timer=time
if sync {
if count=0 { ChangeTime(Time-Clocktime) LaClock.Font.Color=clRed }
if count=1 { LaClock.Font.Color=clBlack }
count+
if count=60 { count=0 }
}
 63

FormMouseWheel(sender,shift,-1,mps,hdl)
Application.ProcessMessages
}

The FormMouseWheel procedure is repeatedly called after a wait time determined by the speed
variable. The wheel is moved by −1 step, corresponding to the user moving the wheel
downwards, which is forward in time of day. For negative DailyAdv the clock time will run
backwards. FormMouseWheel itself calls ChangeTime and the latter ensures that time of year
and time of day remain linked.
If the sync flag is set the run procedure was called by the Run Realtime main menu option.
The option has set speed at 1000 ms/step and the run mode in seconds. Because of the
limited accuracy of the MilliSecondSpan function, after every 60 steps the Clocktime is
synchronized with the system time (at count=0). The label of Clock time will be colored red for
2 seconds.

14. Astronomical data table

The data table is managed by the FormActivate procedure of the astronomical data window.
Right ascension is converted to hh:mm:ss format by default, the other data are shown in fixed
point format. An OnKeyUp handler contains the routine to place the entire table on the system
clipboard as tab separated text.

15. Anomaly today

The main menu option is available for Earth and Mars. The methods are slightly different.

if Planet=Earth {
d=frac((Date-43831)/365.25)*720+0.5
d=confine(d,720,0)
MpxTijdverMouseDown(Sender,mbLeft,shift,trunc(d),0)
}
if Planet=Mars {
d=frac((Date-44234)/686.97)*720+0.5+NLP
d=confine(d,720,0)
MpxTijdverMouseDown(Sender,mbLeft,shift,trunc(d),0)
}

For Earth the reference date is 43831, 1 January 2020, according to the 1900 date system.
The number of days passed since then is divided by the average number of days in a year
which will be 365.25 until the year 2100. The fraction of the result is the time of year and is
mapped onto the 720 time of year positions available. The 0.5 compensates for the truncate
later on. Variable d is a real and is confined to the allowed range. Its integer part is passed to
MpxTijdverMouseDown to set the cursors in the diagrams at the position closest to the present
day.

For Mars the reference date is its northern vernal equinox of 7 February 2021, which is day
44234 in the 1900 date system. The number of Earth days passed since then is divided by the
average number of Earth days in a Martian year which is 686.97. The fraction of the result is
the time of year on Mars and is mapped onto the 720 time of year positions available. Because
the reference is the vernal point, the index of the vernal point NLP has to be added. The rest is
the same as for Earth but now the cursors are set at the position closest to where Mars is in its
orbit at the present day on Earth.
 64

16. Anomaly converter

The window gets the eccentricity value from the main menu at creation time. The anomaly that
will serve as input to the conversions is the Mean anomaly at creation time. A calculation is
triggered by entering a value in any field. An EdEnter event handler sets the input to the
anomaly of which the field receives focus. The field that most recently received focus is colored
green. When a new value is entered in the Eccentricity field a calculation is also triggered. The
anomaly in the field with color green serves as input.

The conversions are carried out in radians, the displayed values are in degrees.
- M to f calls procedure mtta in the main form with tru=1
- E to f is calculated locally by the formula in paragraph 1
- f to E is also calculated locally by the inverse formula in paragraph 1
- E to M is calculated locally by M = E – e.sin(E)
- M to E calls procedure mtta in the main form with tru=0
- f to M is calculated locally as f to E and E to M.

Double clicking the True field gets the value DATA[CursorX,7], the true anomaly at cursor, and
then triggers a conversion to the other two anomalies. Double clicking the Eccentricity field
gets the eccentricity value from the main window and triggers an anomaly conversion with the
anomaly in the field that is green as input.

17. Graph window

The window has a chart object and scale information panels that can be set for drawing a
graph after the Daylight button in the Sun window is clicked or for doing so after the Record
button is clicked. The unit belonging to it doesn't contain any mathematical processing. This
done by the Daylight and Record procedures in the Sun unit.
The Graph unit contains a SetGraph procedure that can be called with mode 1 to format the
graph for the Daylight data and with mode 2 to format the graph for the Record data. Modes 1
and 2 also clear the graph. When called with mode 0 the data are displayed in the format
requested before.
A cursor and data display procedure is the MouseDown event handler of the chart. In mode 1
the sixth field shows the daylight time. For negative DailyAdv the length of daylight found from
tset–trise would actually be the time of darkness so the value is subtracted from 24 hours.

The day span line as cursor in mode 1 uses the procedure MoveDspan with input parameter
loc, which is the requested position of its center at T=12:00. Variable dsx contains the current
position of the line. If the cursor is enabled then after moving the line a search process starts
for the nearest crossings with the sunrise line and the sunset line. The search starts from
T=12:00. One process searches upwards in T, the other downwards in T. Each search step
gets the day span line's horizontal position x (0≤x≤12) belonging to the T value from its data
array and then gets trise and tset from their respective data arrays at index round(60*x).

The day span line has 721 points ranging in vertical value from 0 to 120, corresponding to 24
hours. Two error variables for trise and tset: dr and ds are initialized at 0.5, corresponding to a
vertical distance of 6 minutes. As soon as a search step detects a vertical distance between
day span line and sunrise or sunset line that is less than that, a crossing has been found and
the value for either trise or tset is set and is only changed in consecutive search steps that
give a better match. Once the vertical distance increases again the best match will be kept and
displayed. The process finds the crossings closest to T=12:00. That'll do fine in most cases,
except for complicated situations with e.g. multiple sunrises and/or sunsets in the reach of the
day span line or with midnight sun or total darkness situations.
 65

SYMBOLS

symbol description Unit

α right ascension h:m:s, °
β latitude °
δ declination °
ε equation of time as an angle angle*
Φ time of year as mean anomaly, counting from a defined new year angle*
η hour angle angle*
θ axial tilt °
λ ecliptic longitude angle*
f true anomaly angle*
ρ (relative) longitude °
a semi major axis of orbit length*
b semi minor axis of orbit length*
D duration of a mean solar day time*
e eccentricity 1
E eccentric anomaly angle*
EQT equation of time as a time time*
M mean anomaly, counting from perihelion passage angle*
P distance between planet and Sun at perihelion (a)$
Q distance between planet and Sun at aphelion (a)$
r distance in general, planet radius length*
R normalized distance between planet and Sun (a)$
S duration of a sidereal day, 1 planet revolution around its axis time*
t time of day (proper time) (D)$
T clock time (mean solar time) (D)$
u normalized orbital speed 1
U orbital speed m/s
V vernal point of the orbit as mean anomaly angle*
Y duration of a planet year time*

* Standard units of length, time and angle can be applied. No specific unit is needed.
$ Quantities are normalized to the planet standards: semi major axis a and mean solar day D
(if not D=∞).
 66

O Sun, Where Art Thou Dwelling?

 67

REFERENCES 1

1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion
orbital motion theory

2] https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/mercuryfact.html
orbit and rotation parameters for Mercury

3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon
orbit and rotation parameters for the Moon

4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit_of_the_Moon
orbit and rotation parameters for the Moon

5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus
orbit and rotation parameters for Uranus

6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_rotation
variation of Earth sidereal day length

7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt
long term variation of Earth axial tilt

8] http://www.planetary.org/explore/space-topics/mars/mars-calendar.html
solstices and equinoxes of Mars (spring 5 May 2017)

9] http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1997JBAA..107..332M
Equinoxes and solstices on Uranus and Neptune2 (J. Meeus) 16 Nov 1996

10] https://www.universetoday.com/145297/following-the-inner-worlds-mercury-
and-venus-in-2020/
Venus perihelion date

11] https://earthsky.org/astronomy-essentials/mars-perihelion-closest-to-Sun
Mars perihelion date, September 16, 2018

12] https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/S/Sidereal+Day
Earth sidereal day length

13] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_precession
Earth axial precession cycle

14] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsidal_precession
Earth perihelion precession

15] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eccentric_anomaly
definition and evaluation of eccentric anomaly

16] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars
orbit and rotation parameters for Mars

17] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second
leap second, slowing rotation of the Earth

1
webpages as of January 2022
2
excellent explanation about the impractical definition of a north pole by the IAU
 68

18] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter
orbit and rotation parameters for Jupiter

19] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_nutation
nutation of Earth's rotation axis

20] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini's_laws
Cassini state of the Moon

21] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise
Atmospheric refraction and Sun diameter

22] https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-
nasa/2000/interplanetaryseasons
Venus equinox dates

23] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus
orbit and rotation parameters for Venus

24] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_pole
Orbital poles of the planets

25] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsis
Perihelion dates and argument of perihelion of Earth

26] https://mathworld.wolfram.com/EccentricAnomaly.html
Relation between mean and eccentric anomaly

27] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vis-viva_equation
Specific orbital energy

28] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_orbit
Radial and tangential velocity