IGCSE Grade (9)

IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 1
States of Matter
“Matter”
­ Is anything has mass and occupying a space.
­ Is made of tiny particles having energy which causes them to vibrate and / or move.
­ There are three states (phases) of matter: solid, liquid and gas.

Solid Liquid Gas

Lattice: regular 3D
arrangement of particles
in a crystalline solid.

Arrangement of ­ Closely packed ­ Touched ­ Very far apart

particles ­ Regular arrangement ­ Randomly ­ Totally randomly
(lattice) distributed distributed
Intermolecular ­ Negligible ­ Very small ­ Very large
spaces
Intermolecular ­ Very strong ­ Weaker than in ­ Very week
forces solids
Movement of ­ Vibrate in a fixed ­ Slide over each ­ Free to move
particles position other randomly in all
directions
Shape ­ Fixed shape ­ No fixed shape ­ No fixed shape
­ Crystalline lattice (takes the shape of
the container)
Volume ­ Fixed ­ Fixed ­ No fixed volume
(volume of the
container)
Compression ­ Can not be ­ Can be hardly ­ Can be
compressed compressed compressed
IGCSE Grade (9)
­ The movement of the particles depends on:
1. Mass of particles. 2. Their kinetic energy.

“Changes of State”
Energy is given in
Evaporation
Solid Liquid Gas
Condensation

Energy is given out

! N.B. Examples of materials which sublime:

- Iodine is a dark gray solid that sublimes to purple vapour
-White solid CO2 (dry ice) that sublimes to CO2 gas.
-Naphthalene (moth balls) & ammonium chloride.

" Factors affecting evaporation:

1-Temperature: higher temperature leads to faster evaporation
2­Volatility: volatile liquids (having low b.p.) like alcohols evaporate faster
than nonvolatile liquids like water.
3­Surface area: larger surface area leads to faster evaporation.
N.B. 1. When pressure increases over a liquid, the boiling point increases.
IGCSE Grade (9)
2. Evaporation occurs due to moving of air particles which possess large amount
of energy and hit the particles of a liquid giving them kinetic energy enough to overcome
the forces of attraction, escape and diffuse as a gas into the surrounding medium

Heating Curve
Melting point is the temperature at which solid changes to liquid.
Boiling point is the temperature at which liquid changes to gas.
Value of melting point and boiling point depends on the intermolecular forces
between particles.
Temperature
F

D (L + G)
E

B (S + L)
C
A Time

! N.B.
# During melting process the temperature remains constant as the energy is used to
overcome the forces holding the lattice.
# During boiling process temperature remains constant as the energy is used to
overcome the forces between the particles.
# Remember, evaporation occurs at room temperature, while boiling needs heating till
boiling point.
# Any change in state is:
- a physical change such that no new substance is formed.
- a reversible change.
- does not affect the mass of the substance.
IGCSE Grade (9)

“Diffusion”
• Diffusion is the spreading of gas or liquid particles from more concentrated area to
less concentrated one.
• The particles mix and spread by colliding with other moving particles and bouncing
off in all directions.
" Rate of diffusion depends on:
1) Mass:
­ Less dense particles of lower atomic or molecular mass (Ar or Mr)] diffuse faster than
more dense particles of higher atomic or molecular mass at same temperature.
IGCSE Grade (9)
2) Energy:
­ Particles with more kinetic energy diffuse faster than particles of less K.E with the
same mass.
3) Presence of other substance:
­ Diffusion takes place faster in vacuum ( no other substances )
4) Intermolecular spaces:
­ Diffusion takes place faster in gases than in liquids ( gases have larger intermolecular
spaces )

! N.B. No diffusion in solids.

(A) Diffusion in gases:

1. Diffusion of bromine:
The reddish brown bromine gas diffuses upwards between air particles, mix and spreads
uniformly to fill both gas jars.
IGCSE Grade (9)
2. Diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas:
A + B

­ White cloud of NH4Cl is formed nearer to the cotton wool soaked with HCl [more
dense / more relative molecular mass].
­ The ring is not formed immediately because
1­ The particles are not moving in just one direction
2­ The tube is filled with air

NH3 molecules have less mass than the HCl molecule, so diffuse faster, hence the
product (a white cloud of NH4Cl) forms closer to the end where the HCl is

(B) Diffusion in Liquids:

# Diffusion of copper sulfate in water:

­ Blue crystals dissolve, sulfate particles fill inter molecular spaces of water.
­ Both water and sulfate particles are in a continuous random motion& collide.
­ Blue colour of copper sulfate spreads gradually as the blue particles diffuse in
water.
­ Water becomes uniformly blue.
IGCSE Grade (9)

The particles could be:

­ Atoms ex. He.
­ Molecules ex. Br2.
­ Ions ex. Ions in CuSO4

# Gas pressure:
Gas pressure is due to the collision of gaseous particles with the walls of the
container.
­ When the gas is heated in a closed container, its pressure increases ex. pressure
cooker.
­ When the gas is heated, volume increases.
­ When the gas is cooled volume decreases.
IGCSE Grade (9)
IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 2
Experimental Techniques
IGCSE Grade (9)
IGCSE Grade (9)
IGCSE Grade (9)

“Measurements”
1. Volume:
a) Gas ! is measured using gas syringe (cm3), or measuring cylinder.
b) Liquid:
* Accurate ! burette, volumetric pipette or graduated pipette (cm3)
* Rough ! measuring cylinder (cm3)
c) Solid ! measuring cylinder [VSolid = V2 – V1]

2. Time:
! Stop clock ! seconds or minutes which is usually accurate to one or two decimal
places

3. Mass:

! Top pan balance (digital balance) ! which normally give readings to two decimal
places. These must be tarred (set to zero) before use gram

4. Temperature:

! Thermometer ! can normally give readings to the nearest degree Celsius ºC

“Apparatus in the Lab.”

• Test tube: used for any chemical reaction.
• Filter funnel: to filter solution.
• Burette : is the most accurate way of measuring a variable volume of liquid between
0 cm3 and 50 cm3 (e.g. in a titration)
• Volumetric pipette , usually 10 cm3 or 25 cm3( multiple of 5)
• Measuring cylinder: used to measure approximate volumes where accuracy isn´t an
important factor. These are graduated (have a scale so can be used to measure) and
are available in 25 cm3, 50 cm3, 100 cm3 and 250 cm3
• Test tube Rack: to store tubes.
• Beaker: used for dissolving.
• Bunsen burner, Tripod and Gauze: strong heating system.
IGCSE Grade (9)

• Combustion spoon: used for combustion.

• Watch glass: for covering and reduces evaporation.
• Thermometer: used to measure temperature.
• Unglazed porcelain: Anti-bombing granules can be used to ensure smooth boiling of
liquid.
• Glass rod: For stirring and does not involve in the reaction.

Diagram of the set-up for an experiment involving gas collection

IGCSE Grade (9)

Diagram of the set-up for an experiment involving gas collection

IGCSE Grade (9)

“Matter”

Mixture Pure
Made of two or more substances mixed together Made of one type of
(not bonded) in any ratio particles

Element Compound
Made of only one Made of two or more
type of atoms elements chemically-
bonded together in
fixed ratio

Monoatomic Diatomic
Ex. Inert gases Ex. Cl2, H2, O2

" N.B.
! Impurity is the unwanted substance, mixed with the substance you need.
! Medical drugs, water and food flavoring must not contain any impurities that could
harm people (must be safe).
! To make sure of the purity of a certain substance, measure its m.p & b.p.
! Pure substance has a definite, sharp m.p & b.p.
! When the substance has impurities its melting point falls and its b.p rises and both
will be over a range.
! The more impurity there is, the bigger the change in m.p and b.p, and the wider the
range over which melting and boiling occur.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Differences between mixtures and compounds:

Mixture Compound
1- It contains two or more different - 1- It is a single substance made of
substances in any ratio. two or more different elements
chemically bonded in a definite
ratio.
2- No chemical change takes place 2- Involves a chemical change.
3- The components can be separated 3- The components can be separated
by physical means by chemical means.
4- Keeps the properties of their 4- Its properties are different from
components. those of its components.
5- No change in energy when the 5- Energy is given out or absorbed
mixture is formed.
6- Ex. Fe / S 6- Ex. FeS

“Types of Mixtures”
(1) Solid / Liquid Mixture.
(2) Liquid / Liquid Mixture.
(3) Gas / Gas Mixture.
(4) Solid / Solid Mixture.

♣ How to separate the components of a mixture?

(1) Solid / Liquid Mixture

Soluble Insoluble
1) Evaporation. 1) Decantation:
2) Simple distillation. - Pouring the liquid off the insoluble substance
3) Crystallization [big particles]
2) Filtration:
- Sand & Water [small particles]
3) Centrifugation:
- The sample is spun round very fast and the solid is
flung to the bottom of the tube [tiny particles (blood)]
IGCSE Grade (9)

Solution (salty water) = Solute (table salt) + Solvent (water)

• Solution: is a mixture of solute and solvent.
• Solute: is the substance that dissolves in solvent to form solution.
• Solvent: is the substance that used to dissolve the solute [Ex. water , ethanol]

# Solutions can be either:

• Diluted solution: Small amount of solute / 1 dm3 solution.
• Concentrated solution: Large amount of solute / 1 dm3 solution.
• Saturated solution: Formed when no more solute can dissolve in the solution
at a certain temperature.

Dissolving increases by:

1. Heating 2. Stirring 3. Crushing the solute [large surface area]
IGCSE Grade (9)

1) Evaporation:
The solution is boiled till dryness to evaporate the solvent, the powder solid is left
behind.

2) Simple distillation:
- A way to obtain the solvent from a solution.
- The solution is heated till it boils, turns to vapour, and rises into the condenser.
- The solvent is condensed back to a pure liquid and collected, the salt is left behind.

3) Crystallization:
Heat till point of crystallization. Leave to cool, filter and dry between two filter paper.
IGCSE Grade (9)

" N.B.
! Saturated solution must be left at room temperature to cool down ,to get large
crystals
! Do not: 1. stir 2. put in refrigerator

1) Decantation: [big particles]

- Pouring the liquid off the insoluble solid.

2) Filtration: [smaller particles]

• Residue is a substance that remains after filtration,
evaporation or distillation.
• Filtrate is a liquid r solution that has passed
through a filter
• Filter off the insoluble solid. Rinse with distilled water
to remove the soluble substance.

3) Centrifugation: [very small particles]

- The sample is spun round very fast and the solid is flung to the bottom of the tube.
IGCSE Grade (9)

(2) Liquid / Liquid Mixture

Immiscible liquids Miscible liquids

- They do not mix easily. - They are uniformally mixed.
- They are separated using separating - Their separation depends on
funnel according to the difference in difference in boiling point. (Ex. water
their densities. (Ex. oil & water) & ethanol)
[by fractional distillation]

Fractional Distillation
- Used to separate liquids with different b.p.
- The liquid with the least b.p distills first.

# Uses of frictional distillation:

1. To separate liquids from each other.
2. To separate fractions of crude oil.
3. To separate gases such as nitrogen from liquid air, the gases boil off one by one.
IGCSE Grade (9)

(3) Gas / Gas Mixture

• Air is a mixture of gases; its components can be separated by fractional distillation of
liquid air.
• Air is liquefied by applying high pressure and low temperature, then allowed to warm
up :
Nitrogen boils first at -196 o C.
Argon boils second at -186 o C.
Oxygen boils third at – 183o C.
• Diffusion as a less dens gas diffuses faster, ex. H2 and CO2

(4) Solid / Solid Mixture

• By magnet [magnetic property]: Ex. (Fe , Co , Ni)
- Iron /sulfur mixture can be separated by magnet.
• Solvent extraction [solubility]: Ex. (sand / table salt)
! Steps:
* crush the mixture * add water * stir with gentle heating
* filter
((Filter))
Filtrate Residue (sand)
- Heat the filtrate till crystallization point, leave to cool to get crystals or
- Evaporate the filtrate till dryness to get powder
- Mixture of salt and sugar can be separated by dissolving in ethanol (water dissolves
both). Sugar dissolves in ethanol but not salt. Ethanol is flammable, so should be
evaporated on water bath.
IGCSE Grade (9)

• Chromatography:
- Used to separate a mixture of substances [in small amount].

" N.B.
1. Draw the base line in pencil which does not produce spots (ink is not used as it
leaves spots).
2. Apply the spot on the base line, and put the paper in the solvent such that its level is 2
cm below the base line
3. Leave till the solvent reaches near the end of the paper, remove it and dry
4. If the spot is from one substance, it will leave one spot.

# The use of chromatography :

1. Testing for the purity of substances.
2. Discover the substances present.
3. In medical labs.

# The separation by chromatography is due to:

1. Different solubility of the components in the solvent.
2. Different degree of diffusion through the chromatogram paper (capillarity).
IGCSE Grade (9)

• Number of spots = Number of components

• Proteins separate to amino acids and carbohydrates separate to glucose sugar, both
are colourless, so we spray the spots with locating agent to make them visible.
• To identify the spots ,we refer to control or calculate the flow rate Rf (retention
factor)

N. B. To get a chromatogram of chlorophyll follow the following steps:

1. Crush small pieces of green leaves with sand to increase friction and get more extract
2. Add ethanol to dissolve chlorophyll then filter
3. Concentrate the solution over water bath as ethanol is flammable
4. Run chromatography you will get two spots
 IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 3
Atoms, Elements and compounds
“The Atom”
­ The atom is the smallest building unit of an element that take part in chemical
reactions and cannot be splitted into anything simpler.
• The atom consists of:
1. Nucleus at the center (massive) ! [p+ , n0] ∴ The nucleus is positively charged.
2. Negative electrons rotate around the nucleus in energy levels (shells & orbits).
! [p+ , n0 , e–] are subatomic particles.
×
● p+
○ n0
× e–
×
! The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus as mass of (e–) is negligible if
compared to the mass of (p+) and (n0).

Particle Symbol Mass (amu) Charge

Proton p 1 +1
Neutron n 1 0
Electron e 1/1840 –1

Z
X
Symbol of element Proton number = number of p+
Nucleon number = number of p+ + n0 A (Atomic number)
(Mass number)

" Example: 7Li3 " [proton number = 3 , nucleon number = 7] # (p+ = 3 , e– = 3) ∴

n0 = 7 – 3 = 4

# N.B. (number of p+ = number of e–), so the atom is electrically neutral.

Nucleon number is the sum of Number of protons and neutrons inside the nucleus of
one atom.
IGCSE Grade (9)
Proton number is the Number of protons inside the nucleus of one atom
! The heaviest atom has 7 energy levels or electron sells which have different energies.
! Energy of electrons increases as we go far from the neucleus.

K L M N O PQ
+
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2e– 8e– 18e– 32e–

! The last energy level cannot hold more than 8 electrons.

× ×
×× ××
× ×
× + × × × + × ×
× × × × × ×
× ×
×× ××
××
Na11 (2, 8, 1) 17
Cl (2, 8, 7)

× ××
×× ××
×× ××
× ×
× × + × × × × + × ×
× × × × × × × ×
× ×
×× ××
×× ××

K19 (2, 8, 8, 1) Ca20 (2, 8, 8, 2)

Fe26: 2, 8, …, 2 As33: 2, 8, 18, … Sr38: 2, 8, …, 8, 2 Pd46: 2, 8, 18, …, 2

IGCSE Grade (9)

“Isotopes”
1 1 1
1H 2H 3H

p+ = 1 p+ = 1 p+ = 1
e– = 1 e– = 1 e– = 1
n0 = 1 – 1 = 0 n0 = 2 – 1 = 1 n0 = 3 – 1 = 2
(Protium) (Deuterium) (Tritium)

17 17
35Cl 37Cl

• Isotopes: are atoms of same element having same number of protons [p+] but
different number of neutrons [n0].

# N.B.
! Isotopes of an element have
! 1-Same chemical properties (as they have same Number of electrons. Same
electronic configuration and same valence electrons.)
! 2-Different physical properties e.g. density, rate of diffusion (different atomic mass)
IGCSE Grade (9)

333333. The Periodic Table”

The elements are arranged according to the increase of their proton number
­ The group number indicates the number of electrons in the last energy level
(valence e–) in groups from I tp VII.
­ The period number indicates number of energy level occupied in one atom .
­ Group VIII nobel gases have full outer shell

Group I II III IV V VI VII 0

Valence electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

Chemical Bonding
• Except noble gases, elements react with each other:
In order to reach stability, to obtain outer most energy level filled with electrons and
have the configuration of nearest noble gases.
 IGCSE Grade (9)

“Elements”

Metals Non-metals

[1, 2, 3 electrons in outer most energy level] [4, 5, 6 or 7 electrons in outer most energy level]

Lose electrons Gain electrons Share electrons with

(Form +ve ions) (Form –ve ions) non­metal or H atom

Electrostatic attraction force 1 pair ! single / 2 pairs ! double / 3 pairs ! triple

(oppositely­charged ions)

[ionic bond] [covalent bond]

“Ionic Bond”
­ Is a strong electrostatic attraction force between +ve ion (cations) and –ve ions
(anions) due to transfer of electrons from metal to non­metal.
! Example:
(NaCl) (MgO) (CaCl2)
Na11: 2, 8, 1 & Cl17: 2, 8, 7 Mg12: 2, 8, 2 & O8: 2, 6 Ca20: 2, 8, 8, 2 &Cl20: 2, 8 7

×× – ×× 2– ×× –
Na+ ●
× Cl ×× Mg2+ ●
● O ×
× Ca2+ 2 ●× Cl ××
×× ×× ××

• Ion: is a charged atom or group of atoms formed by the gain or loss of electrons
(unequal number of protons and electrons).
• Ionic compound: a compound formed of oppositely charged ions joined by strong
electrostatic attraction forces.
IGCSE Grade (9)

“Covalent Bond”
­ Is formed when atoms of non­metals share one or more pair of electrons forming
molecules.
# N.B. No ions.

“Simple molecules”
" Single covalent: Each atom shares by one electron [The bond is one pair of
electrons]
! Example:
(H2) (Cl2) (HCl)
1H: 1 17Cl: 2, 8, 7 1H: 1 17Cl: 2, 8, 7
×× ●● ××
H ×● H × Cl ●× Cl ● H ×● Cl ×
× ● ×
(H2O) ×× ●● (CH4) ××
1H: 1 8O: 2, 6 6C: 2, 4 1H: 1

●● ●●

×
O
×●
H● H

" Double covalent: Each atom shares by two electron [The bond is two pairs of
electrons]
(O2) (CO2)
8O: 2, 6 6C: 2, 4 8O: 2, 6
×× ●● ×× ××
× × O ●● ×× C ×× ●● O ×
× O ●● ×× O ●
● × ×

(C2H4 )
IGCSE Grade (9)
" Triple covalent: Each atom shares by three electron [The bond is three pairs of
electrons]

(N2) (C2H2)
7N: 2, 5 6C: 2, 4 1H: 1

●× ● ●
×
× N ●× N ●
● H●× C ●● ●● C × ●H
●×

Differences between ionic and covalent compounds

Property Ionic compounds Covalent compounds

Elements in compound Metal and non­metal Two or more non­metals
Type of particle Only ions Uncharged molecules
(small or giant)
Volatility, melting point and High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points
boiling point because ions are held together because intermolecular forces
by strong electrostatic forces are weak
Solubility Most are soluble in water but Most are insoluble in water but
insoluble in organic solvents soluble in organic solvents
Electrical conductivity Conduct when molten or In general do not conduct as
dissolved in water because the solids, liquids or in solution,
ions are free to move. Do not because there are no ions, only
conduct as solids, because the molecules..
ions are stuck in the crystal
lattice
IGCSE Grade (9)

A model of water molecule A model of methane molecule

A model of ammonia molecule A model of carbon dioxide molecule

IGCSE Grade (9)

“Giant covalent structures”

! Contain big number of atoms joined together by:
­ Covalent bond ! (giant covalent structure)
• Allotropes: different structural forms of an element in the same state.

# N.B. Diamond and Graphite are allotropes.

Giant covalent structures

" Diamond:
­ Is a crystalline form of Carbon (C), each C atom is strongly bonded to four carbon
atoms by covalent bonds in a tetrahedral structure.

Properties of diamond Uses

Very high melting point
Hardest substance known Drilling; cutting glass and metals
Does not conduct electricity No free electrons
Colourless crystals that glitter jewellery

" Graphite:
­ Each C atom is strongly bonded to 3 C atoms by covalent bond forming layers of
hexagons held by weak force of attraction.
 IGCSE Grade (9)

roperties of graphite Uses

Black shiny solid
Soft with a slippery almost soapy feel: the layers can slip over each ­As a lubricant
other because of the weak bonds between layers ­In pencils (mixture
of graphite and clay)
Good conductor of electricity because the electrons between the To make electrodes
layers are mobile
High melting point because the strong bonds in the layers have to
break before the graphite can melt
IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 4
Stoichiometry I
is the ratio of the reactants and products in a balanced symbolic equation

“Chemical Formula”
­ Chemical formula is a set of chemical symbols to present a chemical substance.
­ Ex. (NaCl , H2O)
♣ How to write a chemical formula?
Magnesium chloride Calcium oxide
Mg Cl Ca O
Valency 2 1 2 2
MgCl2 CaO

! N.B. Simplify.
Valency is the number of electrons gained or shared by one atom during a chemical
reaction.

" Simple rules for naming compounds:

1) Compounds of 2 elements:
• Metal and non-metal:
­ The metal is put first and the ending of the non­metal changes to (ide), ex.
magnesium chloride.
• 2 non-metals:
­ If contains hydrogen it comes first, Ex. hydrogen sulfide, except ammonia NH3
­ If 2 non­metals, the element in the lower group comes first, ex. nitrogen dioxide.
­ If in the same group, the lower one comes first, ex. sulfur trioxide
• Common names:
­ Water, Ammonia.

! N.B. Radical is a group of different atoms, linked together, carries +ve or -ve
charge, behaves as one atom during chemical reactions.
2) Compounds containing radicals with enough oxygen:
­ (OH–) hydroxide, (NO3–) nitrate, (SO42–) sulfate, (CO32–) carbonate, ( HCO3–)
hydrogen carbonate (PO43–) phosphate
IGCSE Grade (9)
3) Compounds containing radicals with less oxygen:
­ (NO2–) nitrite, (SO32–) sulfite
Remember (NH4+) ammonium is a positive radical, without oxygen
Aluminum hydroxide Sodium sulfate
Al OH Na SO4
3 1 1 2
Al(OH)3 Na2SO4

• Acids: HCl , H2SO4 , HNO3

• Molecular formula: represents number and type of atoms in one molecule ex. C2 H6
• Empirical formula: shows the simplest whole number ratio of the different atoms
present in a substance ex. CH3.

♣ Write the chemical formula for:

1. Phosphoric acid 2. Hydro bromic acid

3. Iron (III) hydroxide 4. Zinc (II) chloride
5. Manganese (IV) oxide 6. Potassium sulfate
7. Copper (II) nitrite 8. Calcium nitride

“Equations for Chemical Reactions”

• A chemical equation: shows the reactants, products and their ratio involved in a
chemical reaction.
* Word equation * Balanced symbolic

# Ex. Sodium burns in chlorine to form sodium chloride

­ The word equation: Sodium + Chlorine Sodium Chloride

­ Balanced symbolic equation: 2Na + Cl2 2 NaCl

IGCSE Grade (9)
♣ Write the chemical equations if:
1. Aluminum reacts with oxygen to form aluminum oxide.
2. Calcium hydroxide reacts with nitric acid to form calcium nitrate and water.

# N.B. State symbols can be written under the formula:

# (s) ! solid
# (l) ! liquid
# (g) ! gas
# (aq) ! dissolved in water “aqueous”

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

• Relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element: is the average mass of the element’s
isotopes relevant to an atom of Carbon 12.

• Relative molecular mass (Mr): is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms
present in one molecule.

# One mole of the substance has a mass equal to the relative formula mass in
gram.

­ Ar of Carbon = 12 "* mass of 1 mole of C = 12 g

­ Mr of Oxygen O2 = 2 × 16 = 32 "* mass of 1 mole of O2 = 2 × 16 = 32 g
­ Mr of MgCl2 = 24 + 2 × 35.5= 95 "* mass of 1 mole of MgCl2 = 24 + 2 × 35.5 = 95 g

Concentration of a solution: is the amount of solute in moles or gram,

dissolved in 1 dm3 of the solution
Unit of concentration of a solution are Mol / dm3 or g / dm3
IGCSE Grade (9)
Complete the following table
Potassium Bromide Calcium Chloride Silicon dioxide

……………….. ……………………….
………………………
Hydrochloric acid Barium Hydroxide Aluminum Nitrate

………………………….
……………………… …………………………
Sulfuric acid Ammonium Nitrate Zinc II Sulfate

…………………………..
…………………………. …………………………
Lithium Phosphate Magnesium Hydrogen Copper sulfate
Carbonate

……………………………..
………………………….. ……………………………
Nitric acid Rubidium Hydroxide Iron III Nitrate

………………….
……………………………….. ………………………….
Sodium Phosphate Ammonium Iodide Iron II Phosphide

……………………… …………………………..
…………………………
Calcium Phosphide Manganese IV oxide Vanadium V oxide

……………………… …………………………
………………………….
Hydrogen Sulfide Phosphorous Trichloride Carbon dioxide

……………………… ……………………………
………………………….
IGCSE Grade (9)
IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 5
The Periodic Table

­ The periodic table is a way to classify the elements

­ The elements are arranged according to the increase of their proton number where
elements show periodicity.

Group: is a set of elements are arranged vertically, having same valence electrons,
valency and consequently chemical properties but different number of energy
levels.
­ Group number indicates valence electrons.
­ Elements in the same group has same chemical properties as they have same valence
electrons
­ Period: is a set of elements are arranged horizontally having same number of energy
levels but different valence electrons, valency and chemical properties [7 periods].
IGCSE Grade (9)
­ Period number indicates number of energy levels (electron shells).
­ The heavy zig-zag line separates metals from nonmetals
­ Metals are found at the left of the zig­zag line.
­ Non-metals are found on the right of the zig­zag line.
­ A group of elements are called “metalloids” [semiconductors], separate the metals
from the non­metals.
­ Hydrogen sites alone, as it has one valence electron but chemically behaves as
nonmetal. It has unique properties.
­ Inert gases are found at the far right of the table (group 0 or group VIII).
­ Starting from the fourth period, at the middle, transition metals are found.
­ Metallic properties decrease across the period, and increase down the group.
­ Non­metallic properties increase across the period and decrease down the group.
­ Alkaline properties decrease across the period, and increase down the group.
­ Acidic properties increase across the period, and decrease down the group.
­ Differences between metals and non­metals.
­ Artificial elements (created in lab) mostly are in the lowest block in the bottom row.
They are radioactive and their atoms break down very quickly (That is why they are
not found in nature)
­ Now if you know where an element is, in the periodic table, you can use the pattern
and trends to predict how it will behave.
 IGCSE Grade (9)
Differences between
Metals and Non-metals

• Physical Differences:

Metals Non-metals
Usually have high melting and boiling Melting points and boiling points are low.
points. Solids at room temperature.
Exceptions: Exceptions:
Group I metals have low melting Those non­metals with macromolecular
points and mercury is a liquid. structures – carbon, silicon, boron, germanium.
Good conductors of both heat and Poor conductors Exception: graphite
electricity.
Hard Soft
Exceptions: Exceptions:
Group I metals are soft. Those non­metals with macromolecular
structures – carbon, silicon, boron, germanium.
High densities Low densities.
Exceptions:
Group I metals have low densities.
Malleable (can have their shape Brittle (do not change shape but break)
changed by hammering) Exception: diamond.
Ductile (can be pulled into wires)
Sonorous (think of a bell) Not sonorous
Can be polished to a luster (shiny) Have a dull surface
Exceptions: graphite, iodine, diamond.

• Chemical Differences:
Chemical Metals Non-metals
property
Electron distribution 1, 2 or 3 valency electrons. 4, 5, 6 or 7 valency electrons.
and bonding These are lost to form cations Either gain electrons to form anions
(positive ions). (negative ions) or share electron pairs.
Type of compound Form ionic compounds with Form covalent compounds with other
non­metals non­metals
Reaction with acids Many react with dilute acids to Do not react with acids to give a salt
give a salt and hydrogen. and hydrogen.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Group properties
“Group I [Alkali Metals]”

• React with water forming alkalis, (pH 12 ! 14).

! Physical properties:
Down the Group
The alkali metals are not typical metals.
­ Soft and the softness increase [Li is the hardest one].
­ Melting point and boiling point decrease.
­ Density increases [Na, K are out of step, k has odd denisty].
­ Low density [first 3 float on water].
­ Good conductors of heat and electricity.
­ Shiny surface.

! Chemical properties:
­ Monovalent.
­ Reactivity increases down the group, as loss of electrons is much easier.
­ Since they are highly reactive, they are stored under oil.
­ They form white solid compounds dissolve in water forming colourless solutions.
IGCSE Grade (9)

1. Reactions with water

Form metal hydroxides (alkalis) and hydrogen gas evolved.
Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Li + 2H2O 2LiOH + H2
N.B Exothermic reaction and becomes explosive as we go down the group.

♣ Li " Readily reacts, floats, melts, bubbles

♣ Na " Vigorous, floats, shots across the water surface, fizzing may catch fire
[golden yellow]
♣ K " Violent, floats, effervescence, hissing sound, catches fire [lilac flame]
♣ Rb " Explosive

! Precautions taken when group (I) metal is put in water:

• Eye goggles.
• Behind a screen [fume cupboard].
• Small pieces of metal in large amount of water.
* All metals are reducing agents as they lose electrons during oxidation reactions
forming positive ions * their oxides are basic.

2. Reaction with chlorine:

Heating the three metals, and plunging them in gas jars of chlorine, they burn brightly
forming chlorides.
2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) 2NaCl(s)
3. Reaction with oxygen
Heating the three metals, and plunging them in gas jars of oxygen, they burn fiercely
forming oxides.

Uses:
♣ Li " Batteries
♣ Na " Street lamps
♣K " Fertilizers
IGCSE Grade (9)

“Group VII [Halogens]”

! Physical properties:
Down the group
1. Non­metals.
2. Diatomic.
3. Poisonous.
4. Melting point, boiling point, and density increase.
5. Bad conductors of heat and electricity.
6. The colour is getting darker
Halogen At room temperature the element is... Boiling point/° C
Fluorine F2 Pale yellow gas ­188
Chlorine Cl2 Yellowish green gas ­35
Bromine Br2 Reddish brown liquid 59
Iodine I2 Black solid 184
! Chemical properties:
1. Oxidizing agents as they gain electrons during reduction reactions forming
negative ions
2. Monovalent.
3. React with metals forming salts
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
2Fe + 3Br2 2FeBr3
2Al + 3I2 2AlI3
4. Chemical reactivity decreases down the group.
Cl2 (g) + 2KBr (aq) 2KCl (aq) + Br2
Colourless reddish brown
Cl2 (g) + 2KI (aq) 2KCl (aq) + I2
Colourless dark brown
Br2 (l) + 2NaI (aq) 2NaBr (aq) + I2
Colourless dark brown
N.B. A halogen will displace a less reactive one from a solution of its halide.
All group I metal halides are colourless.
This type of reaction is displacement and redox reaction.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Transition Metals
Metals are found at the middle of the periodic table.

! Physical properties:
­ High density.
­ High melting and boiling point.
­ Hard as their atoms are compacted.
! Chemical properties:
­ Less reactive, do not corrode readily in the atmosphere. But iron is an exceptional
case­it rusts easily.
­ They show no clear trend in reactivity.
­ Do not react with cold water.
­ Most of them react with steam forming their oxides.
Fe(s) + H2O(g) FeO(s) + H2(g)

Iron

­ Have more than one valency. The Roman numeral tells its valency.
­ Form coloured compounds except zinc.
• Used as catalysts:
Ex. Fe " in making ammonia by Haber process.
V2O5 " in contact process which is a step in manufacture of H2SO4
IGCSE Grade (9)

Redox
Oxidation and reduction reactions always take place at the same time.

Oxidation Reduction
­ Gain of O2 ­ Loss of O2
­ Loss of H2 ­ Gain of H2
­ Loss of electrons (OIL) ­ Gain of electrons (RIG)

Reduction

CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
Oxidizing Reducing
agent agent

Oxidation

Oxidation

3H2 + N2 2NH3
Reduction

Reduction
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
Oxidation
Question: Detect the oxidizing and reducing agents?
2H2 + O2 2H2O

If a substance loses electrons during chemical reaction, it has been oxidized.

If it gains electrons, it has been reduced. The reaction is a redox reaction

N.B. respiration, rusting, and burning are redox reactions

IGCSE Grade (9)
Colour changes in redox reactions [change in oxidation state]:

1. Acidified potassium dichromate VI is an oxidizing agent (K2 Cr2O7), the colour

changes from orange to green

2. Acidified potassium manganate VII (KMnO4) is an oxidizing agent with a purple

colour. If a reducing agent is present, the purple colour will fade to colourless

3. Iodine is an oxidizing agent when reduced to iodide, the colour changes from
dark brown to colourless

4. Potassium iodide is a reducing agent used to test for the presence of an oxidizing
agent as hydrogen peroxide, the colour changes from colourless to dark brown

5. From the famous reducing agents are H2, CO, SO2, C and KI. All can be used to
test for oxidizing agent.

Remember:
• All nonmetals are oxidizing agents [strongest two are F and Cl]
• All metal ions and H+ are oxidizing agents
• All metals are reducing agents [strongest one is cesium]
• All nonmetal ions are reducing agents.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 6
Electrochemistry

“Electrolysis”
• is the decomposition of an ionic compound, when molten or in solution by passage of
an electric current
• is a decomposition reaction, as a chemical compound breaks down into simpler
substances
• Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water as they have
free moving ions.
• Electrical energy changed to chemical energy [ endothermic]

DC-Power

Anode (+) Cathode (–)

Molten
Electrodes PbBr2
(graphite)
Electrolytic Cell
Electrolytic cell consists of :
1. Two electrodes (cathode and anode)
2. External curcit with DC power source
3. Electrolyte molten or aqueous substance that undergoes electrolusis

• Electrolyte: is the compound that conducts electricity when molten or dissolved in

water and breaks down during electrolysis.
• Electrons move from the negative terminal of the battery to cathode, then from anode
to positive terminal of the battery .
• The electrodes are made of graphite or platinum (inert electrodes).
• Electrodes: are rods that carry the electric current to and from the electrolyte.
 IGCSE Grade (9)

Electrolysis of molten lead bromide

! N.B. This experiment is carried out in a fume cupboard because Pb & Br2 have toxic
vapours.

[PbBr2]

Pb2+ 2Br–

Attracted to cathode Attracted to anode

(–) (+)
Half equations Pb2+ + 2e– ! Pb 2Br– – 2e– ! Br2
(reduction) (Oxidation)
" Observation:
­ At cathode " grey colour of molten Pb
­ At anode " reddish brown gas of Br2
IGCSE Grade (9)

Predicting the Products of Electrolysis

# Molten Ionic Compounds:
Compound Product at cathode Product at anode
electrolyzed (–) (+)
Aluminium oxide Aluminium Oxygen
Copper II bromide Copper Bromine
Sodium chloride Sodium Chlorine
Zinc II Iodide Zinc Iodine
# The rules for the electrolysis of a solution:
At the cathode (-), either a metal or hydrogen forms.
­ The going down the reactivity series, the more likely the ion will be discharged
[changed into atom or molecule at the electrode].
­ If the metal is more reactive than hydrogen, its ions stay in the solution and hydrogen
is discharged.
­ If the metal is less reactive than hydrogen, the metal forms.
­ The most reactive metals form the most stable ions; these ions will be difficult
to convert back to metals.

! N.B. The least reactive element will discharge first.

At the anode (+),a non-metal forms.

­ If the electrolyte is a concentrated solution of halide ( Cl­, Br­ or I­), then chlorine,
bromine or iodine is formed.
­ If the halide solution is dilute, or there is no halide, oxygen forms.

Ease of discharge K+ SO42– These ions

never
Na+ NO31– discharged
Mg2+ OH–
Al3+ Cl–
H+ Br–
Cu2+ I–
Ag+
IGCSE Grade (9)

“Solutions of Ionic Compounds”

Concentrated sodium chloride solution (brine):

Brine is obtained by evaporating sea water, till we get concentrated solution.

NaCl H2 O

Na+ Cl– H+ OH–

Half equations:
­ At cathode " 2H+ + 2e– ! H2 (colourless bubbles of gas)
­ At anode " 2Cl– – 2e– ! Cl2 (yellowish­green bubbles of gas)
­ [Na+, OH–] ions are left in the solution; some of the solution is evaporated to get a
more concentrated solution, or evaporated till dryness giving solid sodium hydroxide.
­ Concentration of NaOH is high at cathode

Remember half equation shows the electron transfer at an electrode.

The overall reaction is
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2(g)
IGCSE Grade (9)

What the products are used for ?

" Chlorine is a poisonous – yellow green gas:

Used for making…..
1. The plastic PVC
2. Bleaching agent
3. Water treatment as antiseptic to kill bacteria
" Hydrogen is a colourless flammable gas:
Used for making…..
1. Rocket fuel and fuel for cars under experimental stages
2. Margarine
3. Ammonia by Habber process

" Sodium hydroxide solution, alkaline and corrosive:

1. Soap
2. Detergents
3. Paper
IGCSE Grade (9)

Electrolysis of water:
­ Drops of H2SO4 must be added to conduct electricity as pure
water
is a covalent compound [bad conductor of electricity].
H2 O

H+ OH–
­ At cathode " 4H+ + 4e– ! 2H2
­ At anode " 4OH– – 4e– ! O2 + 2H2O
­ H2SO4 is found in small quantity so it is left over, as water is
used up.

! N.B.
" Volume of H2 is doubled O2 as (2H & 1O)
[H2 : O2] ! 2:1

! N.B.
" Oxidation # loss of electrons (at anode)
" Reduction # gain of electrons (at cathode)

Uses of Electrolysis:
1. Extraction of metals from their ores ex. Aluminium.
2. Purifying copper.
3. Electroplating.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Electroplating

• Is used to plate one metal with a different one.

• The key must be cleaned by sand paper then cotton wool before electroplating so that
the copper sticks to the key.
• The key must be rotated during the electroplating to be covered from all direction.

" Electroplating is used to:

1. Get beautiful (good shiny) appearance 2. Protects from corrosion.
Half equations:
• At anode " Cu – 2 e– ! Cu2+
• At cathode " Cu2+ + 2 e– ! Cu (key)

! N.B.
" Cu, Ni, Cr, Ag & Tin are the most metals used in plating.
" The role of electrolyte is to: * keep the concentration of Cu2+ constant
* conduct electricity
IGCSE Grade (9)

Hydrogen –Oxygen fuel cell

• In electrochemical cells and batteries, Chemical energy changes to electric energy
[Exothermic]
• Fuel cell are electrochemical cells which are supplied continuously with oxygen
and hydrogen gases.
• Hydrogen and oxygen combine without burning in a redox reaction. The energy is
given out as an electric current.
• Only water is formed, no pollution
IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 7
Properties of Acids and Bases
“Acids”
• Acid: is a proton donor, reacts with base to form salt and water.
HCl(aq.) H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
• Acids are pure compounds in water and can be used as diluted or concentrated.

! Physical properties of acids:

1. Sour taste.
2. Has corrosive effect.
3. pH is less than 7.
4. Turns litmus paper red, methyl orange red and thymolphthalein colourless.

• Mineral acids: are strong acids, completely ionized in water i.e. good proton donor
[good conductors of electricity because there more ions present].
• Their solutions have high concentration of H+ having low pH value [pH 1 ! 3].
" Ex. HCl , H2SO4 , HNO3
H2SO4 (aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)

Good Conductor of electricity

• Organic acids: are weak acids, partially ionized in water i.e. weak proton donor [weak
conductors of electricity].
" Ex. Lemon juice contains citric acid, ant stings contain methanoic acid, fizzy drinks
contains carbonic acid and vinegar which is Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
• Their solutions have low concentration of H+ [pH 4 ! 6]

CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO–(aq) + H+(aq)

acetic acid
Weak Conductor of electricity
• The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions, the lower the pH
IGCSE Grade (9)

! Chemical properties of acids:

1) Metal (active metal) + Acid Salt + Hydrogen [Displacement/ Exo.]

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq.) MgCl2(aq.) + H2(g)

2) Metal oxide + Acid Salt + Water [Neutralization/ Exo.]

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq.) + H2O(l)

3) Metal hydroxide + Acid Salt + Water [Neutralization / Exo.]

NaOH (aq) + HCl(aq.) NaCl(aq.) + H2O(l)
OH- (aq) + H+ (aq.) H2O(l)
N.B. The base ammonia neutralizes acids to form ammonium salts
NH3 (g) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3 (aq)
NH3 (g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)

4) Carbonate + Acid Salt + H2O + CO2 [Neutralization / Exo.]

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq.) CaSO4(aq.) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
N.B
+ Metal " Salt + H2
Acid + Metal oxide or hydroxide " Salt + H2O
+ Metal carbonates " Salt + H2O + CO2

“Bases”
• Base: is a proton, acceptor reacts with acid to form salt and water.
• A base can be metal oxide or hydroxide.
• An alkali is a soluble base (aq.).
• Some substances act as bases.
• The pure alkalis are solids except ammonia which is a gas. They are used in lab as
aqueous solutions.
IGCSE Grade (9)

• Examples: aq. ammonia (NH4OH), metal carbonate (CaCO3), metal hydrogen

carbonates (NaHCO3).
• All react with acid to form salt and water.
! Physical properties of alkalis:
1. pH is more than 7.
2. Soapy feeling.
3. Corrosive (concentrated).
4. pH is more than 7.
5. Turns both litmus paper and thymolphthalein blue, and methyl orange yellow.

• Strong alkalis: are completely ionized in water releasing high concentration of

hydroxide ions i.e. good proton acceptor [pH ≈ 11 ! 14]

NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Good Conductor of electricity

• Weak alkalis: are partially ionized in water releasing low concentration of hydroxide
ions i.e. weak proton acceptor [pH ≈ 8 ! 10]

NH4OH (aq) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Weak Conductor of electricity

N.B. 1. All hydroxides are water insoluble except group I hydroxides and calcium &
barium hydroxides.
2. The higher the concentration of hydroxide ions, the higher the PH
! Chemical properties of bases:

1) Metal oxide + Acid Salt + H2O

CuO(s) + H2SO4 (aq.) CuSO4 (aq.) + H2O(l)
Metal hydroxide + Acid Salt + H 2O
OH–(aq) + H+ (aq.) H2O (l)
IGCSE Grade (9)

2) Ammonium salt + Alkali Salt + Ammonia + Water

NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq.) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)

(Pungent smell)
N.B. Bases such as sodium, potassium and calcium hydroxide react with ammonium salts,
driving out ammonia gas with pungent smell.
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

Indicators:
Indicators are used to tell if a solution is acidic, alkaline, or neutral
The indicator paper must be wet when used with gases, to allow the substance to be
dissolved, ionized and release H+ or OH–

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in Neutral Colour in alkali

Litmus paper or solution red Purple blue
Methyl orange red Orange yellow
phenolphthalein colourless colourless pink
Thymolphthalein colourless blue

Thymolphthalein
IGCSE Grade (9)

pH Scale”

• Measures the degree of acidity or alkalinity in a solution. ** Scale from 0 to 14 **

1
• Measures the concentration of H+. """ pH α +
[H ]
Universal indicator:
Universal indicator is a mixture of dyes used to determine the degree of acidity or
alkalinity of a solution. It can be used as a solution or a paper strip.

N.B. pH can be measured accurately by using pH meter or pH paper

IGCSE Grade (9)
IGCSE Grade (9)

“Types of Oxides”
Oxides are compounds containing oxygen and another metal.
Elements

Metals Non-metals

Oxygen Oxygen

Metal Oxide (ionic) Solids Non-metal Oxide [covalent]

Basic oxide Acidic oxide

• Magnesium ribbon burns with white flame leaving a white ash of magnesium oxide
• Hot iron reacts with oxygen. It glows bright orange and throws out a shower of
sparks. Black iron oxide is left.
• Copper is too unreactive to catch fire in oxygen. But when is heated in a stream of the
gas, its surface turns black copper oxide.
• Hot powdered carbon reacts with oxygen. It glows bright red and carbon dioxide is
formed, which is slightly soluble in water.
• Sulfur catches fire and burns with blue flame, and sulfur dioxide is formed.
• Phosphorous bursts into yellow flame in air or oxygen without heating (so it is stored
under water) forming a white solid Phosphorous (V) oxide.
IGCSE Grade (9)

! Basic oxides:
Metal oxides react with acids to form salt and water.
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
White colourless

! Acidic oxides:
Most of non-metal oxides are acidic oxides as:
1. They dissolve in water forming acids.
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4
2. They react with alkalis forming salt and water.
CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(s)
Base acidic oxide Calcium silicate

Preparation of Salts

Salt is an ionic compound, can be prepared by reacting acids with metals, or insoluble
bases, or soluble bases (alkalis), or carbonates.

“Ionic Compounds”
Salts

+ve ion (cation) –ve ion (anion)

- M+(metal ion) - F– , Cl– , Br– , I–
- NH4+ - NO3–
- SO42–
- CO32–
IGCSE Grade (9)

• Solubility rules of salts

# N.B.
1. All nitrates are soluble.
2. All sulfates are soluble except Calcium, Lead, and Barium.
3. All halides are soluble except Silver and Lead.
4. All carbonates are insoluble except sodium, potassium and ammonium carbonate.

To Prepare a Soluble Salt

Insoluble substance
Metal, Metal oxide,
hydroxide or carbonate
Soluble Excess
Acid
salt method

Alkali (Titration)

$ To prepare magnesium sulfate crystals:

Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq.) MgSO4(aq.) + H2(g)
IGCSE Grade (9)

- Place a suitable amount of sulfuric acid in a beaker.

- Add a piece of magnesium till fizzing stops and solid magnesium is seen.
- Filter to remove the excess magnesium.
- Heat the filtrate till point of crystallization, leave to cool, filter & dry between two
filter papers

# N.B. 1. Na, K & calcium cannot be used as they are active metals # violent reaction
and the salt will not be pure as excess metal react with water forming metal hydroxide,
which is water soluble.
2. Water of crystallization is the water molecules present in hydrated crystals.

$ To prepare copper II sulfate crystals:

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq.) CuSO4(aq.) + H2O(l)
IGCSE Grade (9)

- Place a suitable amount of sulfuric acid in a beaker.

- Add copper oxide powder till the colour changes to blue and solid copper oxide is
s
e
e
n
.
- F
i
l
t
e
r
to remove the excess copper oxide.
- Heat the filtrate till point of crystallization, leave to cool,
filter & dry between two filter papers.
- Blue crystals of hydrated copper sulfate CuSO4.5H2O

$ To prepare sodium chloride solution: [Titration]

Acid + Alkali Salt + Water
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
IGCSE Grade (9)

- U
s
ing a pipette put 25 cm3of dilute sodium hydroxide in a conical flask, then add few
drops of phenolphthalein indicator, the solution turns pink.
- Fill in a 50 cm3 burette with dilute hydrochloric acid.
- Add the acid from the burette to the conical flask slowly a little at a time
- Shake the flask till the colour changes from pink to colourless, turn off the tap and
record the volume of acid.
- Repeat the experiment under same conditions [concentration, volume and
temperature] without using indicator; pour the solution in an evaporating dish.
- Heat the solution till point of crystallization, leave to cool, filter & dry between two
filter papers
! Use of indicator:
To show that the reaction is completed as both reactants are soluble, colourless and no
bubbles of gas are formed.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Tests for gases

IGCSE Grade (9)

gas test and test result

ammonia (NH3) turns damp red litmus paper blue
carbon dioxide turns limewater milky
(CO2)
chlorine (Cl2) bleaches damp litmus paper
hydrogen (H2) “pops” with a lighted splint
oxygen (O2) relights a glowing splint
sulfur dioxide turns aqueous potassium dichromate (VI) from orange to
(SO2) green

Flame tests:
IGCSE Grade (9)

Calcium Barium

Cation Flame colour

Lithium (Li+) red
Sodium (Na+) Orange - yellow
Potassium (K+) lilac
Calcium ( Ca2+) Orange-red
Barium ( Ba2+) Light green
Copper(Cu2+) Blue - green
IGCSE Grade (9)

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Test for anions
Anion Test Test result
Carbonate Add dilute acid Effervescence of carbon
(CO32–) dioxide
Chloride (Cl–) Acidify with dilute nitric acid, White precipitate (AgCl).
[in solution] then add aqueous silver nitrate
Bromide (Br-) Acidify with dilute nitric acid, Creamy (off white)
[in a solution] then add aqueous silver nitrate precipitate (AgBr).
Iodide (I–) Acidify with dilute nitric acid, Yellow precipitate (PbI2).
[in solution] then add aqueous lead (II)
nitrate
–
Nitrate (NO3 ) Add aqueous sodium hydroxide Pungent smell of ammonia
[in solution] then aluminium foil; warm (NH3)
carefully
2–
Sulfate (SO4 ) Acidify with dilute nitric acid White precipitate (BaSO4)
[in solution] then add aqueous barium insoluble in excess.
nitrate
Sulfite (SO32-) - Add hydrochloric acid, then - Colourless gas evolved
In a solution. heat (SO2) changes purple aq.
acidified potassium
manganate (VII) paper
colourless
- Acidify with dilute nitric acid - White precipitate soluble in
then add aqueous barium excess acid.
nitrate

N.B.
Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid H2SO4
Sulfites are salts of sulfurous acid H2SO3
IGCSE Grade (9)
IGCSE Grade (9)

Test for aqueous cations

Cation Effect of aqueous sodium Effect of aqueous
hydroxide ammonia
Aluminium (Al3+) white ppt., soluble in excess White precipitate., insoluble
giving a colourless solution in excess
2+
Zinc (Zn ) White ppt., soluble in excess White ppt., soluble in excess
giving a colourless solution giving a colourless solution
Ammonium Pungent smell of ammonia on –
(NH4+) warming
2+
Calcium (Ca ) white precipitate, insoluble in No precipitate or very slight
excess white ppt.
Copper(II) light blue precipitate, insoluble Light blue precipitate,
2+
(Cu ) in excess soluble in excess giving a
dark blue solution
Iron(II) (Fe2+) Green precipitate, insoluble in Green precipitate, insoluble
excess in excess
Iron(III) (Fe3+) Red-brown precipitate, Red-brown precipitate,
insoluble in excess insoluble in excess
Chromium Grey- green ppt. soluble in Grey- green ppt. insoluble in
(Cr3+) excess giving dark green excess
solution

N.B. The precipitate the previous cases is metal hydroxide most of

IGCSE Grade (9)
 IGCSE Grade (9)

" Accuracy: How close a value is to the true value.

" Precision: The degree to which repeat measurements are consistent (close to each other)
 IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 8
Metals
• Chemical activity series: is the arrangement of elements in a descending order
according to the decrease of their chemical reactivity.
• The order of reactivity, based on the reaction with water and dil. hydrochloric acid.

Reactivity series
Metals in order Reaction with Reaction with dilute Reduction of oxide
of reactivity water or steam hydrochloric acid with carbon
Potassium React violently with -
cold water to form Dangerous, explosive
Sodium the hydroxide and violence -
hydrogen.
Calcium Reacts quickly with Very vigorous reaction -
cold water to form the chloride
and hydrogen.
Magnesium Very slowly with Very vigorous reaction Metal oxides above
cold water but to form the chloride zinc cannot be
burns in steam to and hydrogen. reduced with carbon.
form its oxide and
hydrogen.
Zinc React when heated All metal oxides
in steam to form the starting from zinc can
solid oxide and React to form the be reduced by heating
Iron hydrogen. metal chloride and with carbon to form
Do not react with hydrogen the metal.
cold water.
* Hydrogen

Copper Does not react with Metals below Reduced to copper.

cold water or steam hydrogen do not react
with dilute acid.
* The non-metal hydrogen is included in the first column of the table to show that metals above it react
with dilute acid to form a salt and hydrogen, whereas metals below it do not react with dilute acid.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Heat

- A reactive metal has a strong tendency to lose electrons and form ion.
- The more reactive the metal, the more stable its ion and its compounds are. They do
not break down easily.
- The more reactive metal replaces less reactive one in its salt solution
- More reactive metals which above hydrogen in reactivity series, replace hydrogen of
acids
- Reaction with oxygen

K Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe Sn Pb H Cu Hg Ag Au

Burn very Burn to form oxide React very Do not

brightly and with decreasing vigor slowly to form react
vigorously the oxide
IGCSE Grade (9)

Making use of the reactivity series:

! Extraction of metal from its ore:
- Highly reactive metals which are above C in chemical activity series are extracted from
their ores (highly stable compounds) by electrolysis. This is a powerful method, but it
costs a lot because it uses a lot of electricity.
- Less reactive metals which are below C in chemical activity series are extracted from
their ores by reduction using C. Many ores are oxides or compounds easily convert to
oxides which are reduced by carbon
Electrolysis

K Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe Sn Pb H Cu Hg Ag Au

Active metals Reduction by carbon Native elements

- Unreactive elements are found in Earth’s crust native or uncombined.

IGCSE Grade (9)
Examples of metal extraction from their ores:

1. Extraction of iron from haematite

2. Extraction of aluminium from bauxite
IGCSE Grade (9)

Extraction and Uses of Metals

“Extraction of Iron in Blast Furnace”

- Iron ore is haematite Iron III oxide.
- Blast furnace is fed (charged) through the top of the furnace by:
- Haematite (Fe2O3), mixed with sand and other compounds
- Limestone (CaCO3)
- Coke (C), pure carbon, made from coal.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Stage 1: The coke burns giving off heat

C(s) + O2(g) CO2 (g) (Exothermic step)

Redox
Stage 2: carbon monoxide is made

CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g) Redox

Strong reducing agent
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g) Redox
Pig iron

What is lime stone for?

CaCO3(s) CaO (s) + CO2(g) Thermal decomposition
Lime
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(s) Neutralization
Basic acidic slag
oxide oxide less dense than Fe

Or CaCO3(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(s) + CO2(g)

Pig iron is brittle and hard as it contains (4 ! 5%) carbon from the coke.
Slag is used to reinforce the high ways and runways of airports.
The waste gases; hot carbon dioxide and nitrogen come out from the top of the furnace

" Aluminium is extracted from bauxite by electrolysis.

" Bauxite is the main ore of aluminium.
IGCSE Grade (9)

! Uses of metals:
♣ Aluminium "Aircraft [low density]
Food container – Cooking pans (resists corrosion), nontoxic
High voltage cables [good conductor of electricity , low density]
# N.B. Al resists corrosion due to the formation of a protective
layer Al2O3.

♣ Zinc "Coins – Roofing alloys – Galvanizing of iron to resist corrosion.

♣ Copper "Wiring – Piping – Cooking pans
Strong and excellent conductor and easily drawn into wires and can
be bent easily

“Alloys”
- An alloy is a mixture of metal and one or more different element.
- Alloys are designed to have properties better suited for a particular use.
- Alloys are harder and more resistant to corrosion than the original metal

+ + + +
e– e– e– e– Presence of different sized atom
will prevent the layers
+ + + + from slipping

e– e– e– e–

The regular arrangement of a metal lattice structure is distorted in alloys

IGCSE Grade (9)

♣ Brass " Zn 70 % "Hard strong and shiny " Musical instruments,

Cu 30 % door knobs and keys
♣ Bronze " Cu 90 % " Hard "Status, ornaments
Tin 10 %
♣ Steel " Fe 99.7 % "hard "Car bodies, bridges, and
C 0.3 % construction of buildings
♣ Stainless steel " Fe 74 % "does not corrode " Kitchen sinks, Cutlery,
Cr 14 % and chemical plants
Ni 8 %
♣ Solder " Tin 50 % " has lower melting point than its components
Lead 50 % "Making electrical connections
Aluminium alloys are used in aircrafts, as they are strong and light

Corrosion of metals
• Corrosion of metals is the attack of air, water or any surrounding substance to
the metals.
• Metals corrode when react with oxygen and other gases forming compounds.

! Rusting:
- Only iron and steel can rust forming hydrated iron oxide Fe2O3.xH2O (flakey layer).
- Rusting is redox reaction.
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 4H2O(l) 2Fe2O3.2H2O(s)

- Iron rusts faster in salty water (ionic compounds) as salts speed up oxidation.
- Also high temperature speeds up rusting.
IGCSE Grade (9)

! prevent rusting:
1. Barrier method which is to cover the iron and keep it out of contact with
oxygen and water by painting greasing or covering with a different metal
(galvanization).
2. Let more active metal corrodes instead (sacrificial protection).
IGCSE Grade (9)

Galvanization:
- This is a way to protect iron from rusting, where iron is coated with a layer of zinc
by electrolysis. The zinc coating keeps air and water vapour away[barrier method]
IGCSE Grade (9)

Recycling:
Recycling is the reuse of discarded materials after purification
Ex. Aluminium, copper, glass, papers and some plastics.
Recycling is very useful because:
1. It saves raw materials and our natural resources.
2. It decreases pollution.
3. It saves money needed to buy and extract ores especially in the electrolysis of
aluminium.

Disadvantages

• More transport on roads carrying used metals to recycling centers

• Energy consumed in collecting materials and sorting them per material type
IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 9
Chemical Changes and Energy
“Exothermic and endothermic reactions”
• Chemical reactions may be exothermic or endothermic.
A + B ! AB B
Thermometer

A A
Ti Tf
• During any chemical reaction, bonds of reactants are broken and bonds of products are
formed.
* Bond breaking " endothermic step * Bond formation " exothermic step

“Exothermic Reaction”
! Accompanied by release of energy [Tf > Ti].
A + B AB + Heat

Hot Surrounding

­ The chemicals lose energy, the surrounding gain energy ∴Temperature increases
­ Surrounding means reaction mixture, air in and around the beaker, the beaker itself and
the thermometer

Energy level diagram

IGCSE Grade (9)

­ Energy content of reactant is greater than energy content of product.

­ The product is more stable than reactant.
! Energy needed to break bonds of reactants is less than the energy produced
during formation of products.
" Ex. Neutralization – Combustion – Displacement – Precipitation – Condensation –
Freezing (any physical process takes place by cooling).

Activation energy is the minimum energy needed to start the reaction

“Endothermic Reaction”
! Accompanied by absorption of heat [Tf < Ti].
A + B + Heat AB

Cold Surrounding

­ The chemicals gain energy, the surrounding loses energy ∴Temperature decreases

Energy level diagram

IGCSE Grade (9)

­ Energy content of reactant is less than energy content of product.

­ The product is less stable than reactant.
! Energy needed to break bonds of reactants is more than the energy produced
during formation of products.

" Ex. Decomposition [CaCO3 CaO + CO2]

" – Dissolving of some salts [NH4Cl, KNO3] – Photosynthesis – Evaporation – Melting
(any physical process takes place by heating).

• Some exothermic reactions need heat from a Bunsen burner just to start bond breaking.
Then the energy given out by the reaction breaks further bonds.
• For endothermic reactions like the decomposition of calcium carbonate, you must
continue heating until the reaction is completed.

Production of Heat Energy

• Fuel: is the substance that can be used as a source of energy.

Fuel

Fossil Non-fossil
­ Ex: Coal ­ Ex: Ethanol
­ Petroleum ­ Hydrogen
­ Natural gas Radio­active isotope U235(Which
­ Mainly made of C & H (except coal) does not burn), used in nuclear
­ When burns ! CO2 + H2O power stations
­ Non­renewable ­ Some are renewable.
IGCSE Grade (9)

To compare between the heat energy released from burning two different fuels:

[N.B. The idea is: Heat given out by the fuel = Heat gained by the water in the metal can]

1. Take a certain volume of water using a burette and put it in a metal can.
2. Put a specific mass of fuel in a spirit burner.
3. Set the apparatus as shown below.
4. Use the thermometer to measure the initial temperature of water T1.
5. Burn the fuel in excess oxygen
6. When the fuel is burned completely record the time, and the final temperature of water
T2.
7. Calculate, how much the temperature of water increased in a specific time
8. Repeat the experiment using the second fuel under same conditions [ water volume,
mass of fuel, Initial temperature of water, time of burning & distance between
the metal and the spirit burner]
9. Compare the temperature rise for both fuels.
The fuel which gives a greater temperature rise in the
certain time is the better one.

Possible errors:
1. Inaccurate volume of water.
2. The distance between the spirit burner and water
can is not the same.
3. The thermometer may touch the metal can, so it
would measure the temperature of the can not the water.
4. Incomplete combustion due to shortage of oxygen
5. Mass of fuel is not the same.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 10
Rate of Reaction
Physical and Chemical changes:
Physical change is a change in state or nature of the same substance.

Chemical change takes place during chemical reaction as new substance is formed.

Physical change Chemical change

1-Easily reversed - 1- Usually difficult to reverse
2-No new substance is formed - 2- New substance is formed
3- Energy changes usually 3-Energy changes usually
small and not significant considerable and
significant
4. Usually called chemical
reaction.

Differences between mixtures and compounds:

Mixture Compound
1- It contains two or more different - 1- It is a single substance made of two
substances in any ratio. or more different elements
chemically bonded in a definite
ratio.
2- No chemical change takes place 2. Involves a chemical change.

3- The components can be separated by 3. The components can be separated

physical means by chemical means.

4- Keeps the properties of their 4. Its properties are different from

components. those of its components.

5- No change in energy when the mixture 5. Energy is given out or absorbed

is formed.

6- Ex. Fe / S 6. Ex. FeS

IGCSE Grade (9)

• Chemical reaction takes place when: reacting particles collide with enough energy
to form the product (successful collision).
• Activation energy: is the energy needed to activate the reactants, break the bonds
and start the reaction.

• Some reactions are very fast, others are slow.

Examples of fast reactions:
1- Explosions and fireworks.
2- Precipitation reactions as solutions of ionic compounds react quickly
3- Coal mining
Examples of slow reactions:
1- Rusting of iron.
2- Formation of fossil fuel.
A + B C + D
Reactants Products
• Reaction rate: is a measure of how fast the reaction takes place.

Change in concentration of reactant or product

Rate =
Time
[The rate of reaction is inversely proportional to the time]

To find the rate of reaction, we should measure:

- Concentration of reactant used up per unit of time or
- Concentration of product produced per unit of time
IGCSE Grade (9)

♣ How to measure the rate of a reaction?

• Volume of gas produced.
• Decrease in mass of reagent due to a gas release.
• Temperature.

(1) Reactions give a gas as one of the products:

a) Measuring the volume of gas produced / unit time:

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Magnesium

! N.B. HCl is excess which means” more than enough to react”.

- Test tube containing HCl to separate the reactant, adjust the start of reaction and
avoid timing error.
 IGCSE Grade (9)

Total volume of hydrogen

The average rate of reaction = ---------------------------------
Total time for the reaction

! N.B. The volume of hydrogen is:

" 12 cm3 after the first minute.
" 24 cm3 after the second minute.
" 12 cm3 in the second minute.

b) Measuring the mass loss / unit time:

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2!

! N.B. Balance reading decreases as CO2 evolves.

! Cotton wool plugs to prevent splashing of liquids and allows gas to escape.

Mass
(gm)

100 –

50 –

0 ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ Time (min.)

1 2 3 4 5 6
IGCSE Grade (9)

Total mass loss

Average rate of reaction = -------------------------------
Total time of reaction

(2) Reactions give precipitate

Na2S2O3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + SO2 + H2O + S"
Sodium thiosulfate Yellow

The cross disappears when enough sulfur is has formed to hide it’

• This experiment is used to study the effect of changing temperature or concentration

on the time of disappearance of the cross and consequently the rate of reaction
• Each time the total volume of reactants, the conical flask and the printed paper should
be the same
IGCSE Grade (9)

Factors Affecting the Rate of Chemical Reaction

Sometimes, it is useful to increase or decrease the rate of reaction so we have to study
the factors affecting rate of reaction.

i.e. Increase the rate of reaction is due to increase the chance of successful collision

1) Temperature:
When temperature increases: the particles gain thermal energy; more particles have
energy above activation energy and move faster. Number of successful collisions per
time increases. The collisions are stronger # ∴ Rate of reaction increases

N.B. The low temperature in the fridge slows down reactions that make food rote.

2) Particle size: [solids]

- By decreasing the particle size (increasing surface area): more reactant particles
exposed to collide, and more frequent successful collisions increase.
# ∴ Rate of reaction increases

Coarse or Lumps Small granules Powder

Mass V
“Rate increases” “Time decreases”
Powder
lumps lumps

Powder
T T
IGCSE Grade (9)
Explosion:
Explosion is a dangerously chemical reaction.
- In flour mills: large surface area of flammable flour dust catches fire easily; a spark
from a machine could be enough to cause an explosion.
For the same reason, explosions are a risk in wood mills, from wood dust, and in silos
where wheat and other grains are stored. And in factories that make custard powder,
and dried milk. The dust from all these will burn.
- In coal mines: when methane and other flammable gases reach certain concentration,
they form an explosive mix with air. A spark is enough to set off an explosion.

3) Pressure: [gases]

- When the pressure increases: the particles come closer, more particles in same
volume and more frequent successful collisions take place.

∴ Rate of reaction increases

3H2 + N2 2NH3

Total volume
4 moles 2 moles
• When pressure increases, the reaction tends to the direction of formation of NH3 ,
i.e. less number of moles (less volume).
• When pressure decreases, the reaction tends to the direction of formation of H2 & N2
i.e. high number of moles (more volume).
IGCSE Grade (9)

4) Catalyst:
• Catalyst: is a substance that speeds up the chemical reaction without being
chemically changed.
- By adding a catalyst: it lowers the activation energy, more particles have enough
energy to successfully collide.
-
# ∴ Rate of reaction increases

Without
E catalyst V Mass
Catalyst
A+B

With Catalyst
catalyst
AB T T

MnO2
Example: 2H2O2 2H2O + O2!
- Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 is a colourless liquid that breaks down very slowly to
water and oxygen.
- Manganese (IV) oxide is used as a catalyst to speed up the reaction thousands
of time.
- The more catalyst is added, the faster the reaction goes

! N.B.
" Enzymes $ are biological catalysts, protein in nature; work at limited range of
temperature & pH, increasing rate of reaction.
" Amylase in mouth speeds up the breakdown of starch
" Biological detergents contain enzymes that help to break down grease, food stains
and blood stains on clothing in the wash.

5) Concentration:
- By increasing concentration, more particles present in same volume to react, more
frequent successful collisions take place. ∴ Rate of reaction increases
IGCSE Grade (9)

Lower concentration higher concentration

• Generally increasing concentration, increases number of particles in same volume,

and more frequent successful collision take place so rate increases.
• [a curve] Increasing concentration of excess reactant, increases rate of reaction only
which means steeper curve at start while volume of gas produced will be the same.
• [d curve] Increasing concentration of limiting reactant, increases both rate of reaction
and volume of gas produced.
• [b curve] Increasing volume of limiting reactant, increases volume of gas produced
but not the rate of reaction.
• [c curve] Halfling concentration of limiting reagent, decreases rate of reaction which
means less steep curve and reduces volume of gas produced to half.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Reversible Reactions
A + B C + D
• Reversible reaction: can proceed in both directions forward and backward.
# Example (1) : Water vapour

Heat

CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O

Hydrated Anhydrous
copper sulfate copper sulfate
(blue) (white)

! N.B. Endothermic reaction.

Crystallization
CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO4.5H2O
Cool
(white) (blue)

! N.B. Exothermic reaction.

CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O

Cool

! N.B. Very important test for presence of water.

Example (2)
3H2 + N2 2NH3
IGCSE Grade (9)

Topic 11
Chemistry of environment
Environment is the layer of air and water that surrounds the earth

Air quality and climate

79% N2 20% O2 0.03% CO2 H2 O 0.3% Inert gases (Ar)

­ Components of air can be separated by fractional distillation of liquid air.

­ Liquid air is warmed up and the gases boil at different temperatures and then
collected one by one.
Nitrogen is collected first (b.p. ­196°C) Followed by Argon (b.p.­186°C), then
oxygen (b.p.­ 183 °C).

• Air pollution: Is any change in air components causing harms for living organisms.
• Air pollutants: Carbon dioxide / carbon monoxide / Particulates / Oxides of Sulfur /
Oxides of Nitrogen / Methane
 IGCSE Grade (9)

Pollutant Source Adverse Action to

effects reduce the
pollutant

! Carbon dioxide Complete combustion Global warming and Reduce use of

Colourless, of carbon­based fuels climate change carbon­based fuels
odorless and and increase green
tasteless areas
• Carbon monoxide: Incomplete Health hazard: prevents Use a catalytic
Colourless, combustion of carbon­ blood from transporting converter
odorless and based fuels oxygen
insoluble
" Particulates Very tiny particles Use of fine mesh
( soot) produced during the filters in diesel
incomplete vehicles.
combustion of fuel
# Sulfur dioxide: Burning fossil fuels ­Acid rain, causing # Use low sulfur
Acidic gas with that contain sulfur deforestation, damage to fuels a
sharp smell mainly in power buildings desulfurization
stations. ­respiratory problems
♣ Oxygen and nitrogen, Health hazard: causes Use a catalytic
Oxides of
nitrogen which react at high severe respiratory converter
temperatures in car problems; photochemical
engines smog and acid rain
Methane From vegetation and Global warming and Reduces rice
waste gases from climate change farming
digestion of animals
• Carbon monoxide is formed due to incomplete combustion of petroleum fuel
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l)
" Carbon particulates are formed due to incomplete combustion of carbon based fuel
partially in diesel vehicles.
2C8H18(g) + 9O2(g) 16C(s) + 18H2O(l)
Octane Oxygen Particulate (Soot) Water
# Acidic rain is rain which is more acidic then normal due to presence of dissolved
pollutants as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
# Desulfurization is the removal of sulfur dioxide (acidic gas) from the flue (chimney)
by neutralization with calcium oxide (base).
 IGCSE Grade (9)
♣
Oxides of nitrogen
­ They are formed due to reaction of air components [Oxygen& nitrogen] at high
temperature inside the car engine.
­ Oxides of nitrogen dissolved in water forming nitrogen dioxide
3 NO2(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
♣ Photochemical smog results when several environment pollutants like nitrogen
dioxide react with sunlight form brown haze seen over many large cities.
It has been linked to respiratory problems and asthma attack.
∗ Lead compounds are added to fuel to help it burns smoothly in engines.
" Carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and unburned hydrocarbons are the car
exhaust

Reducing air pollutants:

1. In modern power stations slaked lime (basic) is used to treat acidic sulfur dioxide
2. Most countries have now banned lead in petrol. But it can still arise from battery
factories.
3. The exhaust of new cars is fitted with catalytic converter, in which harmful gases are
converted to harmless gases.
4. Gas heaters and boilers must be checked regularly, to make sure that air supply is not
blocked by soot.
Carbon Dioxide
$ Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, produced naturally in air as a product of three
reactions:
1. Complete combustion of carbon based fuel:
Burning carbon based fuel ex. Methane releases carbon dioxide
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + Energy
2. Respiration:
Takes place in living cells to provide energy. This energy keeps us warm and very
important for all biological processes.
C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)
IGCSE Grade (9)

3. Generating electricity.

$ When its amount in air increases, it causes global warming i.e. an increases in
average temperature of the atmosphere which leads to climate change.
$ Carbon dioxide is removed from air by photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide and water react in plant leaves, to give glucose and oxygen.
Chlorophyll, a green pigment in leaves, traps sunlight and acts as a catalyst for the
reaction,
Light
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + Oxygen
Chlorophyll
The plant uses the glucose to make the other compounds it needs .The animals eat the
plans. So carbon compounds get passed along the food chain to humans.

$ Properties of carbon dioxide:

1. Colourless and odorless gas
2. Much heavier than air
3. Extinguish fires
4. Slightly soluble in water forming carbonic acid(H2Co3)
!CO2 is a greenhouse gas but not a poisonous one.

Greenhouse gases, and global warming

• Greenhouse gases absorb reflected thermal energy from the earth, and prevent it from
escaping into the atmosphere, which reduces heat loss to space and increases the
temperature of lower atmosphere
• There are several greenhouse gases water vapour, oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and
chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) are also greenhouse gases, but carbon dioxide and
methane are the two main ones
• The level of carbon dioxide in atmosphere is rising because we burn more fossil fuel
each year.
IGCSE Grade (9)
• The level of methane is rising because of
1. The increase in animal farming as methane is a part of their digestion wastes.
2. More landfill sites where waste food decomposed anaerobically by bacteria
producing large amount of methane.
3. Rice farming.
• Advantage of greenhouse gases is providing a suitable temperature at night and protect
us from freezing in absence of sunlight
• Greenhouse effect: is a natural phenomenon in which, thermal energy reflected from
the surface of the earth is trapped by greenhouse gases keeping the temperature of the
earth relatively constant
• Global warming: is the increase in average temperatures around the world due to the
increase in percentage of greenhouse gases
• Climate change: air temperature affects rainfall, and cloud cover, and wind patterns.
The scientists predict that:
­ Areas with heavy rainwater will become very dry, which may increases the
probability of crop failure. Other places will get much wetter.
­ Melting of earth’s polar ice caps will cause sea levels to rise, so low­lying countries
will be at risk of flooding, and faster rate of coastal erosion
­ Species that cannot adapt to the changing climate will die out ex. Polar bears
­ Also migratory patterns of animals and birds will change.
­ Storms, floods, landslides and wildfires will be more frequent and severe.
­ Changing in sea temperature can lead to bleaching coral reefs and loss of marine life.
­ Disturbance of life cycle of some living organisms who are sensitive to any change in
temperature.
IGCSE Grade (9)

• What can we do?

We have to reduce new emission of carbon dioxide, to stop warming getting out of
control. There have been two important climate change conferences Kyoto Protocol of
2005 and the Paris agreement of 2016
­ Reduction of our reliance on fossil fuel for transportation and electricity generation.
­ People should use public transport or bikes or walking rather than going by car.
­ Countries should use clean ways to get electricity like wind power and solar power
from renewable resources.
­ Increase the interest in moving away from petrol cars to electric cars and hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles
­ At generating electricity plants, it may be possible to capture carbon dioxide before it
is released to the atmosphere, and store it under ground.
­ Scientists should find new ways to reduce amount of CO2 entering the atmosphere. For
example capturing it from power stations and chimneys.
­ Planting additional trees to capture CO2 for photosynthesis.

Fertilizers
$ are substances added to the soil to make it more fertile
$ Animal manure is a natural fertilizer. Synthetic fertilizers are made in factories
$ Synthetic fertilizers are minerals which are added to the soil to promote plant growth
and contain Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium[N , P , K]
Ex. Ammonium phosphate, Potassium nitrate
♣ Fertilizers are used to:
1. Get better growth of plant.
2. Get better yield.
3. Compensate used nutrients in the soil.

N ! To make chlorophyll and proteins

P ! To help leaves and roots growth and crops to ripen.
K ! To promote growth and resist diseases
IGCSE Grade (9)

Water
$ Chemical test for presence of water:
Anhydrous copper sulfate changed from white to blue hydrated copper sulfate.
CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO4.5H2O
White Blue
Anhydrous cobalt chloride changed from blue to pink hydrated cobalt chloride.
CoCl2 + 6H2O CoCl2.6H2O
Blue Pink

$ Test for pure water :

Measure the melting point or boiling point .It will be sharp if pure.

$ Sources of water: rivers and ground water. Water contains mud particles, animal
wastes, bits of dead vegetation and microbes like bacteria.

$ Uses of water:
Industrial uses Domestic uses
1. Washing, cleaning raw materials. 1. Drinking and cooking.
2. Food processing. 2. Washing and cleaning.
3. Cooling. 3. Flushing toilets.
4. Electric power stations (the steam drives 4. Drink for animals and water crops
the turbines that generate electricity).

" Tap water is not used in experiments as it contains dissolved substances

­ may interfere with experiments giving unwanted side reactions
­ may interfere with the results in standard analysis
" If tap water is distilled, all impurities will be removed as they have different boiling
points, then used in experiments.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Natural water
Water from natural resources contain beneficial and harmful substances.
$ Beneficial substances:
• Dissolved oxygen
­ Oxygen is very important to support plant and animal life
­ Oxygen enters the water as a result of photosynthesis of aquatic plants or by
diffusion from air.
­ Oxygen is removed by respiration of aquatic plants and animals

• Metallic compounds (minerals)

­ Minerals are dissolved metallic compounds from the rocks that are needed in small
amounts for good health.
­ These include group I metal ions [sodium and potassium], group II metal ions
[calcium and magnesium], and transition metal ions[Fe, Co, Cu, Ni, Zn, and Cr]
­ Calcium supports the health of teeth and bones, while iron is needed in production
of hemoglobin.
$ Harmful substances:
• Some metallic compounds
­ Heavy metals [Pb and Hg] may enter water system via mining, metal smelting,
waste disposal, corrosion and metal Processing plants.
­ Lead can cause liver and kidney damage while mercury affects the nervous system

• Sewage:
­ Human waste water usually treated in certain plants to remove harmful materials.
­ Leaks of sewage into drinking water during natural disaster like earthquakes or
severe weather events.
­ Harmful microbes enter drinking water spreading diseases such as diarrhea, cholera,
dysentery, typhoid and polio.

• Nitrates and phosphates:

­ Run off water containing NPK fertilizers may washed over the surface of the soil into
the rivers
IGCSE Grade (9)

­ They cause the rapid growth of algae forming huge blooms that cover the surface of
water and block out sunlight. Aquatic plants cannot make photosynthesis and will die.
­ Shortage of oxygen level causes death of many aquatic animals

• Plastics
They are poor disposal due to their large quantity, and being nonbiodegradable, these
cause many problems:
1. Fish, whales, turtles, and other animals eat them, damaging their digestive system
and starve to death.
2. Large sea creatures and sea birds may be trapped by discarded fishing nets.

$ Purification of domestic water

This takes place in four steps:
1. Screening is the removal of large insoluble solid objects like rocks and
plastic bags by sedimentation
2. Filtration to remove solid insoluble substances
3. Use of carbon to remove tastes and odors.
4. Chlorination to kill microbes and harmful bacteria.
 IGCSE Grade (9)

TOPIC 12
Organic Compounds

! Organic chemistry is the study of properties and chemical reactions of carbon

compounds.
­ Carbon is tetravalent.
–C– C= –C≡
­ Carbon atoms may link together to form a chain.

–C–C–C–
" Organic compounds are:
1. Hydrocarbons !Organic compounds made of C & H only
2. Hydrocarbon derivatives ! made of C, H & S or O or N
3. Carbon is unique in the variety of molecules it can form as
# Carbon atoms can join to each other to form long chains
# The carbon atoms in a chain can be linked by single, double or triple covalent bonds
# Carbon atoms can also be arrange themselves in rings

“Fuels”

! Substances which are used to release heat energy.

• Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuel.

• Coal has been formed by the anaerobic decay of vegetation over millions of years.
• Petroleum or crude oil is a smelly mixture of hundreds of different hydrocarbons. In
petroleum, hydrocarbon molecules have different shapes and sizes, with different
numbers of carbon atoms, from 1 to 70.
• Petroleum is a non­renewable resource. It is expecting that world’s reserve will last
about 40 years
• Refining oil is the separation of oil into groups of compounds having similar size
boiling point.
 IGCSE Grade (9)

" Fractional distillation:

• Fractional distillation separates petroleum into more useful mixtures of hydrocarbon.
• Fraction is the distillate collected over a narrow range of temperature from the
fractionating tower.
• As we go down the tower:
­ Boiling point increases ­ less volatile
­ Relative molecular mass increases ­ less flammable
­ Chain length increases ­ More viscous (thick & sticky)
 IGCSE Grade (9)

N.B. As we go down the tower boiling point of distillates increases as the chain length
increases and intermolecular attraction forces increase.

The fractions all need further treatment before they can be used:
­ Sulfur impurities should be removed
­ Some fractions are separated further into single compounds
­ Part of fractions may be cracked (breaking molecules down into smaller ones)
 IGCSE Grade (9)

“Naming Organic Compounds”

• The prefix of the name tells the length of the chain (ALK).
• The suffix of the name tells the type of covalent bond between carbon atoms.
Number of ALK ALKANE ALKENE
C
│
1 Meth Methane ─ C ─
│
│ │
2 Eth Ethane ─ C ─ C ─ Ethene C═C
│ │

Propene
Propane
│ │
│ │ │
3 Prop ─ C ─ C ═C
─C─C─ C ─
│
│ │ │

4 But Butane Butene

5 Pent Pentane Pentene
6 Hex Hexane Hexene
7 Hept Heptane Heptene
8 Oct Octane Octene
♣ The organic compounds can be represented by two ways:
" Molecular formula: represents number and type of atoms forming one molecule.
" Displayed formula: represents the arrangement of atoms and type of bonds in one
molecule. The bonds are represented as lines.
" Structural formula: all atoms are indicated using subscript numbers, not all bonds
are shown. Carbon hydrogen bonds are often simplified.
 IGCSE Grade (9)

“Alkanes”

! Alkane is a homologous series of saturated hydrocarbon with a general formula

(CnH2n+2).

• Alkanes have only C to C single bond.

• General formula [CnH2n+2].
• Saturated hydrocarbon.
• Generally unreactive [strong bonds] except for combustion and chlorination.

$ Physical properties:
1. The first 4 members are gases, the next 12 are liquids, and the rest are solids.
2. Boiling point increases with chain length because attraction forces between the
molecules increase.

$ Chemical properties:
(1) Combustion:
­ Reaction with excess O2 to produce CO2 and H2O and heat.
• N.B. Burning is exactly like combustion but when flame is developed.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
­ The incomplete combustion of alkane produces carbon monoxide and water.
(2) Substitution:
H H
Light
H ─ C ─ H + Cl ─ Cl H ─ C ─ Cl + HCl
H H
Methane (g) Chlorine (g) Chloromethane (g) Hydrogen Chloride(g)

♣ Uses of alkane:
1. Making of 2. Preparation of 3. Fuel, Wax and lubricating
alkenes. hydrogen. agent (oil)
 IGCSE Grade (9)

“Alkenes”

! Alkenes are homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbon with a general formula

(CnH2n).

• The carbon chain has at least one double bond (C=C), unsaturated hydrocarbon.
• General formula [CnH2n].
• Highly reactive [addition reaction takes place].
• First 3 members are gases at room temperature.

$ How to prepare alkenes? By cracking of alkanes.

Cracking:
­ Is the breaking down of a long chain hydrocarbon to form smaller ones.
Condition of reaction is heat and catalyst.

SiO2 + Al2O3
C10H22 (g) C8H18 (g) + C2H4 (g)
Decane (naphtha) Octane Ethene

C10H22 (g) C7H16 (g) + C3H6 (g)

Heptane Propene
C10H22 (g) C7H14 (g) + C3H6 (g) + H2 (g)
Heptene Propene
♣ Cracking used to make:
­ Alkene to form polymers. ­ Hydrogen ­ Petrol(octane)
 IGCSE Grade (9)

Addition reaction: Forms only one product.

Turns an unsaturated alkene into a saturated compound.
♣ Addition of bromine which is a test for alkene:
­ Add few drops of bromine water, the colour changes from brown to colourless.
H H Br Br
C═C + Br ─ Br H─C─C─H
H H H H
Ethene (g) Bromine (aq) 1, 2 dibromoethane

(2) Addition polymerization:

­ Polymerization is the formation of long chain molecules
H H H H
n C═C ─C─C─
n
H H H H
Ethene Polyethene
[C2H2n]

­ Alkenes are used: In making polymers and alcohol.

“Alcohols”
! Alcohol is a homologous series of hydrocarbon derivatives of general formula
(CnH2n+1OH).

• OH is the function group.

• Alkanol and the number in the name give the position of OH.
OH
CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CHCH3
 IGCSE Grade (9)

$ Preparation of alcohols:
(1) Catalytic hydration of ethane (the chemical way):
O─H
300°C / 60 atm
C═C + H ─ OH Phosphoric acid ─C─C─
Ethene (g) Water(g) Ethanol(g)

The reaction is reversible and exothermic, high pressure and low temperature would
give the best yield. But in practice the reaction is carried out under optimum conditions
300°C, 60 atm. and catalyst to give a decent rate.

(2) By fermentation of sugary solution (the biological way):

­ Anaerobic fermentation by yeast fungus at 37°C and absence of O2.
­ 37°C if higher temperature, the enzymes will be denatured.
­ No oxygen to avoid oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid.
­ The reaction stops after certain time because the % of ethanol reached the level that
killed the yeast or the mixture gets too warm.
­ The mixture is filtered to remove yeast then fractional distillation takes place to
separate the alcohol.
Yeast fungus
C6H12O6(aq) Fermentation
2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g) + energy
 IGCSE Grade (9)

­ Alcohol is flammable, burns with clean blue flame

­ Less pollutant than petrol as no SO2.
­ Flammable, burns with clean blue flame
♣ Ethanol is used:
­ As fuel for cars (biofuel), as it is quite cheap, made from waste plant material
­ Solvent in perfumes, glues (volatile) and food industry.
­ Alcoholic drinks.
­ Antiseptic.

“ Carboxylic Acids”
! Organic or carboxylic acid is a homologous series of hydrocarbon derivatives of
general formula (CnH2n+1 COOH).

• Weak acid ! partially ionized [pH ≈ 6]

• The function group is the carboxylic group (─ COOH)
• The name is alkanoic acid.

Ethanoic acid: CH3COOH

H O
H─C─ C─O H
H
• Ethanoic acid can be prepared by oxidizing ethanol.

[O]
C2H5OH CH3COOH
• The oxidation can be carried out in two ways.
IGCSE Grade (9)

$ Chemical properties:
1. Displacement reaction reacts with metal forming salt and hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) (CH3COO)2Mg (aq) + H2(g)
Ethanoic acid Magnesium ethanoate

2. Neutralization reaction
NaOH (aq) + CH3COOH (aq) CH3COONa (aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium Ethanoate

$ Homologous Series:
♣ Is a family of similar compounds having:
1. Same functional group.
2. Similar chemical properties and reactions.
3. General formula.
4. Their physical properties are predictable.
 IGCSE Grade (9)

Polymers
• Macromolecule: is a very large molecule made of repeating units.
• Polymer: is a very large molecule made of many monomer molecules.
• Monomer: is a small molecule that join together forming polymer.
• Addition polymerization: is the formation of polymer only by breaking double bond
of monomers. The monomers must have double bonds.
Cl H Cl H
Δ / pressure
n C=C —C–C—
Catalyst
H H H H n
Chloroethene poly chloroethene (PVC)
Plastic
The chains are not all the same length. This is why we cannot write exact formula for
PVC or any polymer.

$ Plastics:
­ Are a group of polymeric materials characterized by their elasticity, ability to be
molded and shaped under heat and pressure.
­ Most plastics are made from chemicals in the naphtha fraction of petroleum
­ Can be molded into shapes without breaking.
$ (PVC): Used in hoses, water pipes & electric insulators.
$ Polyethene: Can be used in making bowls, plastic bottles and plastic bags.
 IGCSE Grade (9)

$ Advantages of synthetic fibers and plastics:

1. Do not conduct heat or electricity(insulators)
2. Flexible and can be coloured.
3. Do not corrode, and durable (not affected by air water and chemicals) water proof.
4. Strong because their molecules are attracted to each other, but also low density
5. Their properties can be changed by changing the monomers and the reaction
conditions.

$ Disadvantages of synthetic fibers:

Polyethene is the biggest problem. It is the most used plastic in the world as 5 trillion
plastic bags are made every year. So they cause many problems:
1. Fish, birds, and other animals eat them and starve to death.
2. They clog up drains and sewers, and cause flooding.
3. Some river beds now contain a thick layer of plastic getting in the way of fish.
4. Non-biodegradable: not broken­down in the environment by microorganisms.
5. Rubbish is collected and brought to landfill sights causing sight pollution.
6. Plastic is flammable, when burns releases toxic gases.
N.B. Polymer wastes can be recycled.
• Some are melted down and made into new products.
• Some are melted and cracked to make small molecules that are polymerized into new
plastic but unfortunately some may cannot be recyclable.
• Some are burnet, and heat is used to produce electricity.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of recycling polymers?
• The best long-term solution to disposal would be to work on degradable plastics
• Biodegradable plastics contain some additives as starch that bacteria can feed on.
• Photodegradable plastics contain additives that breakdown in sunlight.
• Biopolymers grow in plants, or made in tanks by bacteria.