Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42768-023-00184-w

ARTICLE

Photovoltaic waste management in sub‑Saharan Africa: current

practices in Burkina Faso
Kodami Badza1 · Yrebegnan Moussa Soro1 · Marie Sawadogo1

Received: 21 August 2023 / Revised: 28 October 2023 / Accepted: 24 November 2023

© Zhejiang University Press 2024

Abstract
Sub-Saharan Africa is witnessing a proliferation of photovoltaic (PV) waste due to the increasing number of solar PV power
plants. PV waste (panels, batteries, electrical cables, mounting structures, and inverters) consists of elements such as mercury,
cadmium, chromium, lead, copper, aluminum, fluorinated compounds, and plastics that are toxic to human health and the
environment if a proper management system is not available. Although many studies worldwide have focused on PV waste
management, very few have been conducted in sub-Saharan Africa. This study aims to investigate the current PV waste
management system in Burkina Faso, determine stakeholder profiles, and propose strategies to enhance the existing system.
Documentary research, interviews, questionnaires, and field visits were used in the methodology. The survey showed that
young people, mainly under 30 years of age and with a primary education, dominate (70%) in terms of PV waste collection
and repair activities, while the more technical recycling and export activities are carried out mainly (88%) by stakeholders
older than 40 years and with a secondary education (60%). Among the older stakeholders, 100% are aware of the hazardous
nature of PV waste, whereas 36% are young people. From an environmental perspective, the main source of contamination
observed is the release of lead-rich sulfuric acids into water and soil during the collection and repair phases. During the
recycling of batteries and electrical cables, toxic fumes are emitted into the air, and recycling residues rich in toxic substances
are landfilled. To reduce risks to human health and the environment when managing PV waste, the introduction of legislation,
the multiplication of collection points and appropriate infrastructures, the training and awareness-raising of stakeholders,
and the extended responsibility of manufacturers are recommended. Studies on the economic feasibility of setting up formal
management structures are needed to complete this work.

Keywords Photovoltaic waste · Sub-Saharan Africa · Waste management · Recycling · Batteries · Incineration

Introduction expand electrification through grid extension and the grow-

ing need for electricity [4, 5]. In addition to the energy
Sub-Saharan Africa faces energy vulnerability, including problem, Sub-Saharan Africa is facing the effects of climate
insufficient generation capacity, poor connectivity, low reli- change, which will continue to occur in the coming decades
ability, and high costs, which hamper its development. The [2, 6, 7]. Sub-Saharan African countries have implemented
access rate to energy is on average 40% in urban areas and policies to develop renewable energies to overcome the prob-
less than 20% in rural areas, which is the lowest level in the lems associated with climate change and low levels of access
world [1]. This low electrification rate [2, 3] is partly due to electricity. Among renewable energy sources, solar pho-
to the gap between the availability of resources available to tovoltaic (PV) energy is utilized in multiples of that region.
According to studies led by the World Bank and Berahab
[8, 9], Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest solar potential in
* Yrebegnan Moussa Soro the world, with solar radiation ranging between 1600 kWh/
[email protected] (m2·a) and 2500 kWh/(m2·a) [1].
1
Among all the energy technologies for electricity pro-
Laboratoire Énergies Renouvelables et Efficacité
duction, PVs are the ones that have experienced the fastest
Énergétique, Institut International d’Ingénierie de l’Eau
et de l’Environnement (2iE), 01 BP 594 Ouagadougou, cost reduction [10]. Indeed, the improvement in the conver-
Burkina Faso sion efficiency of the photovoltaic module has played an

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 Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

important role in the drastic decline in the cost of PV com- equipment and PV panels.” The costs of collecting and treat-
ponents, estimated at a decrease of 82% over the past 4 dec- ing waste are the responsibility of the manufacturers and
ades [11, 12]. Solar PV systems have, therefore, been rapidly importers of WEEE or entrusted to approved eco-organi-
adopted in Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, the proliferation of zations [28]. Collection must be accompanied by sorting,
solar PV power plants with grid injection and projects for the selective treatment, and waste recovery. EU Member States
electrification of rural areas by stand-alone PV systems with shall ensure that any establishment or undertaking to carry
or without energy storage are ongoing [9, 13, 14]. out WEEE collection or treatment operations stores and
The solar PV system is mainly composed of PV panels, treats the waste by the technical, economic, environmen-
inverters, regulators, cables, electrochemical batteries for tal, and social requirements set out in the Directive. These
energy storage, and transformers for large power plants. The standards also include the obligation to reprocess hazardous
lifetimes of these PV components are variable; although substances, mixtures, and components.
the lifetime of a PV system is at least 25 years, components A harmonization of national measures relating to batteries
such as batteries have a shorter lifetime, and some need to be and accumulators and their waste has been achieved through
replaced several times before the end of the system’s lifetime the Directive 2006/66/EC of 06/09/06 [29]. The main objec-
[15]. After a few decades of use of PV systems, we are already tive is to regulate the manufacture and disposal of batter-
witnessing the multiplication of PV waste at the end of its ies in Europe to reduce their environmental impact. Several
life [16]. The chemical composition of these elements (lead, PV panel processing centers were created in Europe: Soren
mercury, cadmium, glass, plastics, steel, etc.) can represent (PV Cycle France), Veolia (France), Reiling Unternehmens-
a significant threat to the environment and human health if gruppe (Germany), and First Solar (Germany). The Société
no management or recycling plan is put in place [15, 17–19]. nouvelle d'affinage métaux (SNAM) is the European leader
Numerous studies in the literature have focused on PV in the recycling of used batteries.
waste management. Most related studies have focused on In Asia, there is currently no legislation for the manage-
the management of PV panels [17, 20–22] and end-of-life ment of end-of-life PV components, although some coun-
batteries [15, 23, 24]. Paiano [22] studied PV waste manage- tries are implementing various activities for their treatment,
ment in Italy, emphasizing the importance of eliminating such as Republic of Korea and China [28, 30]. In addition
hazardous substances and recycling resources. Latunussa to being the largest manufacturer of PV panels, China has
et al. [25] investigated new waste recycling techniques to the most significant number of PV installations worldwide
reduce the environmental impact and maximize the recov- [30–32]. Thus, China will be one of the countries most con-
ery of valuable materials. Although numerous studies of cerned with PV plant waste management and treatment in
PV waste management have been carried out around the the next few decades. There is a law on the management of
world, very few have focused on PV waste management in electronic and electrical waste. However, in China, panels
the African context. Indeed, unlike in Western countries, the are not considered electronic waste [17]. In response, China
development of solar PV systems in sub-Saharan Africa has has recently funded about 7 research and development cent-
not been accompanied by legislation on the management of ers on the recycling and disposal of PV panels. On the other
end-of-life PV waste. The aim of this article is to identify, in hand, Republic of Korea signed a PV waste recycling law
the context of Burkina Faso, the stakeholders involved in PV on October 5, 2018 [30]. After establishing collection and
waste management and their profiles, to take stock of current sorting infrastructure and developing recycling technologies
management practices and, finally, to propose strategies for in 2022, the law came into effect on January 1, 2023.
improving the system. In several states, regulations on PV waste management
have multiplied in North America because of the economic
and environmental opportunities that recycling offers. For
Regulatory framework for the management example, in Washington, California, PV system manufactur-
of electrical and electronic waste ers are required to collect and process their waste [33]. The
number of companies specializing in PV module recycling
With the increase in the number of end-of-life PV systems is growing in the USA [28]. The PV recycling market is
installed in the last 2 decades, waste disposal from these dominated by First Solar Company, the largest PV recycler
systems is a major issue. Each country has decided to imple- in the world [34, 35].
ment legislation to address this PV waste issue. In Africa, despite signing up for international treaties
The European Union (EU) developed the WEEE (Waste (Basel Convention) on the transport and treatment of elec-
Electrical and Electronic Equipment) Directive 2012/19/ tronic waste, only 13 countries (Egypt, Ghana, São Tomé
EU [26], whose main objective is to regulate the collection and Príncipe, Kenya, Madagascar, Tanzania, Nigeria,
and promote the recycling of electronic and electrical equip- Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire
ment [27]. PV panels are included in category 4, “consumer and Zambia) have legislation or regulations on electronic
Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

waste management [36]. Progress has been made in imple- Table 1  PV plants installed in Burkina Faso
menting such legislation in countries such as Ghana, Nige- Solar power plant Year of construction Capacity (MWp)
ria, and Kenya [37]. In Ghana, a law on controlling and man-
aging electronic waste was passed in 2016. In Kenya, the YELEEN 2020–2025 51.0
handling, transport, and disposal of e-waste are conditional Zina 2023 26.6
upon obtaining a license from the national management Kodéni 2023 38.0
authority. Senegal is currently preparing to establish a regu- Nagréongo plant 2022 30.0
latory framework. None of these countries has appropriate Pâ plant 2020 30.0
legislation or infrastructure for PV waste management. Nev- Centrale Essakane 2018 15.0
ertheless, although embryonic, draft laws on PV waste man- Zagtouli plant 2017 33.7
agement are being developed at the sub-regional level. The Ziga plant 2017 1.1
lack of a legislative framework for PV waste management
has resulted in the proliferation of informal, environmentally
unfriendly recycling structures [38]. Like in most African
countries, Burkina Faso is not immune to this problem. different large-scale PV projects developed in Burkina Faso
by the state and its international partners. There are also a
growing number of hybrid solar PV/diesel systems with or
Methodology without energy storage throughout the country and street
solar lighting in major cities. As part of the rural electrifica-
Study area tion program, thousands of solar streetlights and telephone
charging systems have been distributed to the rural popula-
This study was carried out in Ouagadougou, the capital of tion [44]. Telephone companies’ use of PV systems also
Burkina Faso. Burkina Faso is a Sahelian country in West accounts for a large share.
Africa. With an area of 274,222 ­km2, the country has a Nationwide, there is a growing volume of PV waste from
population of about 20 million [39]. As in most countries in large-scale power plants and domestic PV systems. This
Sub-Saharan Africa, access to electricity remains an ongoing waste includes mainly panels, batteries, cables, and invert-
challenge in Burkina Faso. Its primary sources of electric- ers. As in most capital cities in sub-Saharan Africa, the
ity supply are thermal power (67%), hydroelectric genera- informal sector plays a major role in e-waste management.
tion (3%), and electricity from neighboring countries, i.e.,
Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana (25%) [40]. The entire fuel oil used Data collection
in thermal power plants is imported. Paradoxically, Bur-
kina Faso has a high potential for energy production from The methodology used for this study consisted of carrying
renewable energy sources, estimated at 60% for solar energy out documentary research and a field trip.
(5.5 kWh/(m2·d)), 10% for biomass, and 30% for hydroelec- Firstly, documentary research was done to acquire a good
tricity [40]. overview of the city in general, specifically of the treatment
The government of Burkina Faso implemented policies of electrical and electronic waste, including PV waste in
in 2012 to promote solar energy development in all regions Ouagadougou. The documentary research consisted of going
to increase access to energy and to cope with daily load through enterprises and government reports. Data relating
shedding. Indeed, the law No. 051–2012/AN of November to PV installations were collected from the National Agency
8, 2012, focused on exemptions from customs duties and for Renewable Energies and Energy Efficiency (ANEREE)
Value-added tax (VAT) for imports of solar energy equip- and the Ministry of Energy, while the Ministry of the Envi-
ment, and VAT exemptions for domestic sales of solar ronment provided the database of PV waste repairers, recy-
energy equipment were approved. clers, and exporters.
During the last decades, major progress has been made in Secondly, field visits, interviews using a questionnaire
the field of solar PV. Burkina Faso government, supported and interview guides were carried out with stakeholders
in these programs by the private sector and international involved in solar waste management. The stakeholders
development partners, has implemented small-, medium-, identified included households, Industrial companies, col-
and large-scale solar projects [15, 41, 42]. Electrification lectors, recyclers, repairers, and exporters. A total of 82
with solar installations has involved public infrastructure households, industrial users, collectors, repairers, 6 e-waste
(schools, health centers, water supply, irrigation), the elec- recycling centers, and 2 PV waste exporting centers were
trification of about 200 villages across the 13 regions of visited. The field visits and interviews took place in May
the country, and the construction of about 4 PV plants with 2022. The questionnaire focused on the gender, age, edu-
injection into the national grid [40, 43]. Table 1 presents the cation level, and knowledge of the hazardous PV waste
 Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

among stakeholders involved in PV waste management. and polluting gas emissions. Waste management is informal
Some details of the stakeholders are presented in Table 2; a and mobilizes various stakeholders.
total of 95 people were interviewed during the field visits.
The study focused mainly on managing waste from panels, PV waste management stakeholders
electrical cables, and batteries. These wastes were chosen,
because they impact human health and the environment most The management of PV waste in the city of Ouagadougou
at the end of life [45]. involves various stakeholders:

• Industrial companies and households (users of PV

Results and discussion systems): they are responsible for collecting PV waste
from their industrial or domestic solar installations.
A PV installation includes mainly PV panels and a Balance These devices include solar panels, inverters, batteries,
of System (BOS). The PV plant consists of several panels and other associated electronic components. This PV
mounted on a metal structure planted on the ground or fixed equipment has three possible routes: it is either sent to a
on the roof. The BOS includes a mounting structure, elec- repairer, sold to collectors, or landfilled.
trical cables, inverters for converting the generated direct • Collectors: These individuals are responsible for collect-
current (DC) energy into alternating current (AC) voltage, ing end-of-life PV waste. This waste is collected from
and batteries for energy storage. Larger PV installations also various sources, including households, industrial com-
have high-voltage transformers to lower or raise the voltage panies, and municipal landfill sites. Equipped with a
of the current produced. The most common PV panels in tricycle or bicycle, they scour the city’s households and
the African market are crystalline silicon panels. Indeed, garbage cans searching for any recyclable waste. At the
these technologies accounted for more than 80% of the end of the day, the waste is sold to informal recyclers or
global panel market in 2020 [46, 47]. They are also adapted to PV waste export centers.
to the climatic conditions of Sub-Saharan Africa. Due to • Repairers: These are companies or individuals who, as
their affordability, lead-acid batteries are the most common part of their business, maintain and repair solar equip-
in African PV installations. ment. They play an essential role in ensuring the durabil-
Regarding legislation on the management of electrical ity and extended life of solar equipment, especially bat-
and electronic waste, only law No. 005/97/ADP of January teries. Most of them are based on small sheds that they
30, 1997, on the environmental code exists. It deals with the use as workshops. They usually replace defective parts.
fight against air, water, and soil pollution by chemical waste Repaired equipment is returned to its owners, while other
equipment is sold to collectors and recyclers or taken
directly to a landfill site.
• Informal recyclers: They often collect used PV and bat-
Table 2  The stakeholders interviewed during the field visits in Oua-
gadougou
tery waste from a wide variety of sources, such as col-
lectors, households, or recycling companies. Their pur-
Stakeholders Number of per- Gender Knowledge of PV waste pose is to extract materials that can be recycled, such as
sons interviewed hazardous
aluminum, copper, steel, and lead. They also reduce the
Households 24 M: 24 Yes: 5 amount of waste sent to landfill sites. The main recycling
F: 0 No: 12 zones are located on the outskirts of Ouagadougou.
No reply: 7 • Exporters: These are generally companies or individu-
Industrial 6 M: 6 Yes: 6
als involved in the e-waste trade. Exporters purchase,
companies F: 0 No: 0
No reply: 0 store, and transport PV components to recycling cent-
Collectors 40 M: 40 Yes: 14 ers in Asia or Ghana. Their sources of supply are local
F: 0 No: 23 repairers, collectors, households, and industrial com-
No reply: 3 panies.
Recyclers 6 M: 6 Yes: 6
F: 0 No: 0
The relationships between these stakeholders and the cur-
No reply: 0
rent management of PV waste in Burkina Faso are shown
Repairers 12 M: 12 Yes: 4
F: 0 No: 5 in Fig. 1.
No reply: 3 The survey also included age, gender, education level,
Exporters 7 M: 4 Yes: 7 and knowledge of each stakeholder’s hazardous nature
F: 3 No: 0 related to PV waste. As shown in Fig. 2, the survey results by
No reply: 0
age reveal a predominance of young people in the activities
Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

Fig. 1  Current PV waste management in Burkina Faso. PV photovoltaic

concerning waste collection and repair. PV waste collection an income by collecting and reselling PV waste. Indeed,
activities, particularly battery collection and PV compo- since the political and security situation in Burkina Faso,
nent repair, are 57% carried out by young people under age there have been millions of internally displaced people, the
30. The presence of young people in these activities can be majority of whom end up in big cities like Ouagadougou,
explained by economic needs, physical capacity, and lack of increasing the unemployment rate [48]. In addition, the
education. The informal sector of waste collection and repair activities involved in collecting and repairing PV waste can
in Ouagadougou offers employment opportunities to young be physically demanding, particularly when transporting bat-
people, particularly those with few other job opportunities teries and panels or dismantling them. Young people are,
(those who are less-educated or out-of-school young peo- therefore, better suited to these tasks than adults.
ple). Young people are attracted by the prospect of earning
45
50
45 40
Primary school Secondary school Not specified
40 Under 30 years Over 30 years Not specified 35
35 30
Number

30
Number

25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
5 5

0 0
Households Industrial Collectors Recyclers Repairers Exporters Total Households Industrial Collectors Recyclers Repairers Exporters Total
companies companies
Stakeholders Stakeholders

Fig. 2  Age groups of the stakeholders Fig. 3  Educational level of the stakeholders
 Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

As shown in Fig. 2, recycling, craft valorization, and

export activities are 88% carried out by stakeholders
older than 40 years of age. Indeed, these activities require
more advanced skills and techniques, which are generally
acquired with experience over the years. The role change
may also be at the origin of the presence of individuals older
than 40 years old in recycling and export activities. On aver-
age, 60% of individuals surveyed admitted to having carried
out collection, and/or repair activities. Indeed, young peo-
ple can enter the sector as waste collectors and, over time,
can move into more advanced recycling or export roles as
they develop their skills and experience.
Figure 3 presents the distribution of the stakeholders by Fig. 4  Storage of out-of-service modules in the open air. July 2022,
education level for the different categories of activities. The Ziga (Burkina Faso)
majority of those involved in collection activities (70%)
had a primary level of education, while secondary educa- These end-of-life management practices have been docu-
tion was more common (60%) among repairers, recyclers, mented throughout sub-Saharan Africa [51]. In fact, no com-
and waste exporters. In fact, 80% of these stakeholders see pany is currently interested in recycling PV panels. Indeed,
various recycling activities as job opportunities accessible to the PV panel recycling business is not yet economically
all without requiring any qualifications. Studies carried out viable [52]. However, in collaboration with international
by Dieng et al. [49] on the management of WEEE have also organizations and NGOs, specific solar panel recycling ini-
highlighted the strong presence of young people. tiatives are underway in some African countries such as Sen-
Unlike household and municipal waste collection and egal, Kenya, and Ghana to assess their feasibility on a large
recycling, where women play an important role [50], 98% of scale. In Europe, on the other hand, several WEEE manage-
PV waste management is carried out by men. A low percent- ment companies have adapted recycling infrastructures for
age of women are found in component storage centers prior PV panel recycling. Deutsche Solar, PV CYCLE, and First
to export. This is because PV waste management activities Solar are the best-known module recycling companies. The
are physically more demanding, notably collection, trans- methods used to recycle modules in these facilities depend
port, and repair. on the type of PV module. They can be mechanical, thermal,
Knowledge of the potential hazards associated with PV or chemical. These methods allow the recovery of copper,
waste management activities is low (36%) among battery silver, aluminum, glass, and silicon [25].
collectors and repairers, average (73%) among recyclers
and artisans, and high (100%) among waste exporters. This
knowledge of potential hazardousness is not related to the Batteries waste management
stakeholders’ age or level of education.
Due to the high purchase cost, out-of-service batteries are in
most cases sent to repairers for regeneration. The sulphation
PV modules waste management of electrodes is the leading cause of premature failure in most
lead-acid batteries [53]. The regeneration process, i.e., desul-
Repairers are given PV modules that break down or reach phation of the electrodes can allow batteries to work for a few
the end of their life. Compared with other PV components, more years [54, 55]. Batteries repair is done in small infor-
very few specialists repair PV modules that have broken mal recharge-maintenance structures in Ouagadougou; there
down. In case of repair, the module is returned to the own- are one hundred such structures. Most of these buildings are
ers. In the case of non-repair, the PV modules are used as located along roads and near water pipes with inadequate
tabletop supports or as roofs for houses. It also happens that infrastructure. The lead-rich electrolyte is, therefore, released
very small modules (solar kits) that have been crushed due into the water and onto the ground. The activity is carried
to mechanical impact end up in landfills. The modules found out by untrained personnel and without individual protective
in landfills usually lack an aluminum frame. The PV module equipment. The survey also revealed that the majority of bat-
is, therefore, not yet disposed of by the informal sector. Out- tery repairers do not have a thorough understanding of the
of-service PV modules from industrial users are stored in risks involved in this activity. Unlike Burkina Faso, licensed
containers or in open air, awaiting export to European recy- companies in other sub-Saharan African countries carry out
cling industries. Figure 4 shows the storage of out-of-service (Nigeria, Senegal, Rwanda, and Uganda) battery regenera-
panels at the Ziga PV plant in Ouagadougou. tion. In October 2022, Be Energy, the world leader in battery
Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

and oil regeneration, opened its doors in Senegal in close Electrical cables and other PV waste management
collaboration with the Senegalese Ministry of the Environ-
ment and the Regional Center for the Basel and Stockholm Electrical cables consist of a conductor, an insulator, and
Conventions. The main objective is to reduce the massive a protective plastic sheath. Copper and aluminum are
amount of battery waste in Senegal. the main conductors used in the manufacture of cables.
Batteries that cannot be repaired are sold to reclaimers, Recycling used electrical cables, therefore, allows the
local recyclers, or directly to battery exporters. In Ouaga- recovery of metals, mainly copper. According to United
dougou city, battery exporters and recyclers require that bat- Nations Environment Program (UNEP) [60], copper is
teries be delivered without acid. Thus, batteries with acid, the third most recycled mineral element after iron and
locally called batteries with water, have a much lower selling aluminum.
price than batteries without acid. This profit margin pushes In Burkina Faso, electrical cables are recycled using the
battery recyclers to dump lead-contaminated acids into the traditional method of open-air incineration without the need
environment (water, soil). This is the first pollution in the for protective equipment. This recovery method involves
battery recycling chain. These mostly mid-level primary col- incinerating the plastic covering the cable and recovering the
lectors, whose main task is to transfer battery waste from one copper and aluminum. Large quantities of toxic fumes are
stakeholder to another, have no knowledge of the dangers of emitted into the air during this process, as shown in Fig. 5,
toxic battery components except for the risks of injury and or the current global trend in waste management is to reduce
sometimes electrocution. greenhouse gases [61]. Once the copper has been recovered,
The informal sector carries out battery recycling. This the incineration residues are landfilled. These practices have
recycling is done in houses and backyards. Recycling is harmful effects on health and the environment. A study car-
done in several phases. The first phase involves cutting the ried out in Nigeria by Manhart et al. [62] showed that infor-
batteries without protective equipment using rudimentary mal waste incineration results in high emissions of dioxins
tools such as axes and machetes. This process results in the into the air. This type of incineration practice has also been
spillage of lead-rich acids into the surrounding soil. Once observed at Agbogbloshie, one of Ghana’s largest informal
the batteries are broken, the recovered lead is melted in the e-waste recycling dumps, and at the Mbeubeuss dump in
open air in traditional smelters fueled by firewood. Lead Senegal [63]. The recovered copper is then sold to local
melting is a highly toxic process for human health and the artisans.
environment, as it releases lead dust particles into the air, Recycling electrical cables by incineration is not gen-
water, and soil [23, 56]. The lead obtained from smelting is erally the preferred method in Europe, as incineration can
sold back to battery exporters as it has a limited number of lead to negative environmental impacts and loss of valuable
applications in the local market. resources. Most European countries favor other recycling
Battery recycling is a dynamic sector carried out by older methods to minimize waste and recover reusable materials.
men than reclaimers. The latter have not received any train- Electrical cables are recycled using physical and chemi-
ing in recycling and do not know the dangers involved in cal separation techniques. Used cables are first shredded to
such a practice. Among the few reclaimers, both primary reduce their size, and the metal parts are physically sepa-
and secondary average levels are noted. Knowledge of the rated from the plastics using gravity and electrostatic separa-
human health and environmental hazards of battery recy- tion techniques. The recovered copper is then smelted and
cling is very low among middle and high school recyclers. refined. These recycling techniques are more economical
This lack of knowledge of the risks is more important among and environmentally friendly.
primary, middle-level recyclers. Mounting structures made mainly of steel or alu-
Battery casings contaminated with lead, and lead smelt- minum are collected directly by scrap dealers or sold to
ing waste (lead oxide) is left open. Due to the proximity of aluminum recyclers. The price of these metals has risen
traditional smelters to homes, the surrounding population sharply recently, so all iron and aluminum scrap is col-
is exposed. Although a report by the Basel Convention pro- lected. In the majority of cases, recycled aluminum from
hibits environmentally unfriendly practices, which are also mounting structures and module frames is used by local
major sources of human health contamination [57], these craftsmen to make cooking pots. The use of recycled alu-
open-air lead smelting practices are common in Burkina minum in the manufacture of cooking pots in Africa is a
Faso. Indeed, between 2007 and 2008 in Dakar, Senegal, long-standing practice in Africa and offers many advan-
about 18 children under 5 years of age died from acute lead tages, including reduced dependence on natural resources,
poisoning caused by informal lead battery recycling activi- preservation of the environment, and the creation of eco-
ties in the area [58, 59]. nomic opportunities.
 Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

Proposal for a PV waste management processing facilities. At the same time, companies, the gen-
strategy in Burkina Faso eral public, and all those involved in the PV waste recovery
chain must be made aware of the risks to human health and
PV waste management in developing countries, particu- the environment posed by poor waste management and the
larly in Burkina Faso, is a major challenge due to the rapid benefits of proper recycling. To this end, a program must be
increase in solar PV installations and the lack of appropriate established to identify and list all stakeholders involved in
infrastructure for their disposal. To remedy the environmen- PV waste management.
tal problems associated with the management of this waste,
several strategies can be used to reduce its impact on human Setting up collection systems
health and the environment.
Developing countries need to develop PV waste col-
Legislation and regulations lection systems on a national or regional scale. Several
waste collection strategies exist, each adapted to specific
As PV waste management is not currently included in the needs and situations: door-to-door collection, point-of-
national or regional regulatory framework, governments collection, voluntary collection, and deposit systems.
need to develop and implement appropriate laws and regu- Specific collection points are recommended over other
lations to govern the collection and disposal of PV waste. collection strategies because of the potentially hazardous
Funding sources and the sector’s organization also need to nature of PV waste, particularly batteries. This can be
be well defined. This may include treatment and recycling achieved by establishing these specific collection points
standards, mandatory collection requirements, PV com- in cities or neighborhoods, encouraging individuals and
ponent producer responsibility mechanisms, and penalties businesses to bring back their end-of-life PV compo-
for illegal or environmentally unfriendly waste manage- nents, or organizing periodic collection campaigns. First,
ment practices. In France, for example, on June 26, 2001, collection centers must obtain the necessary authoriza-
decrees required battery manufacturers to ensure that bat- tions from the relevant authorities. The latter must ensure
teries were collected and transported to sorting and disposal that the center complies with local laws and regulations
centers. concerning collecting and transporting PV waste and
safety measures to avoid any risk of leakage or spillage
Awareness‑raising and education of harmful substances into the environment. The follow-
ing diagram illustrates how PV waste is collected. Fig-
It is important to invest in building local capacity to manage ure 6 shows the waste collection strategy.
PV waste. This can include the training of collection and
processing personnel, as well as the development of appro- Promoting recycling and reuse
priate infrastructure, such as recycling centers and secure
Recycling and reusing PV waste are essential strategies
for reducing its environmental impact. Governments can
encourage the development of recycling channels by offering
incentives to recycling companies and facilitating access to
appropriate recycling technologies. The reuse of functional
PV components can also be promoted through donation pro-
grams or low-cost sales. Recycling end-of-life components
offers economic and environmental benefits, particularly in
recovering metals from mounting structures, aluminum from
module frames, or solar-grade silicon for potential reuse in
new PVs. According to the results obtained in this study,
recycling the mounting structure implies an overall reduc-
tion in environmental impacts of around 30%–60%. Waste
that can be fully or partially recycled locally must be sent
to state-approved recycling facilities. The waste concern
is the mounting structures and the aluminum frame of the
modules.
Regarding batteries, informal lead smelting will be
Fig. 5  Open burning of electrical cables in Burkina Faso. May 2022, replaced by modern, environmentally friendly techniques.
Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) Industrial lead smelting can be carried out using modern
Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

Fig. 6  Proposal PV waste management strategy in Burkina Faso

Fig. 7  Secondary lead furnaces, a the blast furnace, and b the rotary furnace. (Reprinted from [64] with permission)

furnaces, such as reverberatory furnaces, electric arc fur- By adopting these strategies, developing countries can
naces, rotary furnaces, blast furnaces, ceramic filters, and improve their PV waste management, reduce environmental
purifiers. An example of a furnace and rotary kiln installed impacts and create economic opportunities by developing
in Ghana is shown in Fig. 7. recycling and reuse channels. However, economic and social
As lead-containing dust emissions are generally the main feasibility studies need to be carried out for each strategy.
source of contamination for workers and the surrounding
population, industrial furnaces have dust collection and air
filtration systems (bag filters, electrostatic precipitators, Conclusion and perspectives
and cyclones). This pollution control system minimizes
lead emissions, thus protecting the health of workers and The problem of PV waste management in Africa, par-
residents in neighboring communities. Industrial lead smelt- ticularly in Burkina Faso, deserves special attention. The
ing achieves 97%–99% purity, unlike ingots from artisanal lack of legislation on waste management is at the origin
smelting, which still contain considerable quantities of lead of the proliferation of informal recycling units in large
oxide. urban areas. Several stakeholders are involved in the PV
 Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy

waste management chain: repairers, collectors, local recy- 6. Bitting, C.D., Atangana, B.D.N., and Tabi, H.N. 2022. Cli-
clers, and exporters. The survey revealed that young peo- mate change vulnerability and sustainable urbanisation in Sub-
Saharan African. Journal of Sustainable Development 15: 132.
ple, mainly under the age of 30 years, and with a primary https://​doi.​org/​10.​5539/​jsd.​v15n2​p132.
level of education, dominate (57%) PV waste collection 7. Adenuga, K.I., Mahmoud, A.S., and Dodo, Y.A. 2021. Cli-
and repair activities, while the more technical activities of mate change adaptation and mitigation in Sub-Saharan African
recycling and exporting are carried out by stakeholders over countries. In Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security
Applications. Cham: Springer. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​978-3-​
the age of 40 (88%). Among older stakeholders, 100% are 030-​63654-8_​16.
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whereas 36% of younger stakeholders. In environmental défis et opportunités. Rabat, Maroc: Policy Center for the New
terms, current PV waste management affects human health South.
9. ESMAP (Energy Sector Management Assistance Program).
and the environment. The discharge of lead-polluted sulfuric 2022. 2022 Mini Grids for Half a Billion People: Market Out-
acid into the environment, the emission of toxic fumes into look and Handbook for Decision Makers. World Bank. Avail-
the air during open-air lead smelting and the incineration able at: http://​h dl.​h andle.​n et/​1 0986/​3 808. Accessed 20 Aug
of electrical cables, and the landfill of lead smelting resi- 2023.
10. Trancik, J.E., and Cross-Call, D. 2013. Energy technologies eval-
dues and plastic casings are the various sources of pollution uated against climate targets using a cost and carbon trade-off
observed. To address the current problem of PV waste man- curve. Environmental Science and Technology 47: 6673–6680.
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Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the German state for African Solar Industry Association.
financial support through the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst 14. Kizilcec, V., and Parikh, P. 2020. Solar home systems: a com-
Scholarship and the Agence Nationale des Energies Renouvelables et prehensive literature review for Sub-Saharan Africa. Energy for
de l’Efficacité for providing data on PV system in Burkina Faso. Sustainable Development 58: 78–89. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.e​ sd.​
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Funding No financial support was received for this study. 15. Antonanzas-Torres, F., Antonanzas, J., and Blanco-Fernandez,
J. 2021. Environmental impact of solar home systems in Sub-
Data availability The authors confirm that the data supporting the find- Saharan Africa. Sustainability 13: 1–19. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​
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Conflict of interest The authors declare they have no competing in- 17. Weckend, S., Wade, A., and Heath, G. 2016. End-of-life man-
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Programme.
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