Vectors > COORDINATE SYSTEM > SCALARS > VECTORS > VECTOR MATHEMATICS. LUvzrncing veto quantities and mastering baie vector mathemati ae eset skils in physics. After reading this chapter, you willbe able to: 1 Identify a mathematical coordinate system that will provide a common frame of reference to orient direction in physics problems, = Understand the differences and similarities among scalar and vector quantities, «= Resolve vectors into components, and add vector quantities. COORDINATE SYSTEM Problems in physics often involve the motion of objects. Position, displacement, velocity, and acceleration are key numerical quantities needed to describe the motion of an object. Position involves a specific location, while velocity and acceleration act in specific directions. Using the mathematical coordinate system is ideal to visualize both position and direction. ‘The coordinate system provides a common frame of reference in which the quantities describing motion can be easily and consistently compared with one another. We can place an axis anywhere, and we can orient the axis in any direction of our choosing, If a problem does not specify a starting location or direction, then position the ‘origin atthe object's starting location, In Figure 2.1, a problem involving the m 200 300 Figure Horizontal motion In more complex problems, some quantities cannot be oriented along a common axis. In these problems, direction must be specified in degrees measured counterclockwise (cew) from the positive x-axis, vEcToRS+y, 90° -y 270° Figure 2.2. Coordinate system A coordinate system is a valuable tool that provides a frame of reference when position and direction are critical factors. SCALARS A scalar is a quantity having only a numerical value. No direction is associated with a scalar. ‘The numerical value describing a scalar is known as its magnitude. Some examples of commonly used scalars are listed in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Commonly Used Scalars Guantities involving Benen Time Time—t, period—T, and frequency—f Motion Distance—dand speed— Energy Kinetic energy—KE and potential energy Mass Mass—m and density—p Gases Pressure—P, volume—V, and temperature—T Electicity CCharge—qoor Qand potential voltage)—V Circuits Current—f,resistance—R, and capacitance—C ‘The symbols representing scalars are printed in italics. For example, a mass of 2.0 kilograms will be written as rm (kg. Scalars can have magnitudes that are positive, negative, or zero. 10°C. For example, time = 60 seconds, speed = 0 meters per second, and temperature SAT PHYSICSVECTORS Although scalars possess only magnitude, vectors possess both magnitude and a specific direction, Examples of commonly encountered vectors are listed in Table 2.2. Table 2.2 Commonly Used Vectors Cee Sone Motion Displacement—x, velocity—v, and acceleration—a All forces : Force—F Momentum Momentum—p Electricity and magnetism | Electric feld—B and magnetic feld—B Distinguishing between a vector and a scalar can be a bit confusing. We will look at some examples to illustrate the difference between the two. A mass moving at 20 meters per second in the positive x-direction is an example of a velocity vector. The magnitude 20 meters per second is also the speed of the mass, Recall that speed isa scalar. How then, do we tell scalars and vectors apart? Physics problems contain clues in the text of the problem to help us distinguish vectors from scalars. As mentioned in the previous section, scalar variables are always written in italics. In contrast, vector variables may be written in bold standard print. Examples include force, F, and velocity, v. However, since the magnitude of a vector is a scalar, you may see vector variables written in italics. trick to identifying the quantity as. vector is the inclusion of a specific direction. For example, 20 meters per second in the positive x-direction is a vector. Vector magnitudes can be only positive or zero. However, vectors can have negative direction. Consider the acceleration of gravity, a vector quantity acting in the negative y-direction. The gravity vector includes both magnitude and direction (g = 10 mis, -y) Substituting this exact expression, including the negative y-direction, into an equation is not really workable. Instead the value -10 m/s? may be substituted into equations. The negative sign in front of the magnitude indicates the negative y-direction. This ean be done only if all the vector quantities used in an equation lie along the same axis and itis understood that the signs on all vector quantities represent direction along that axis. This essentially transforms the vector quantities into scalar quantities, allowing normal mathematical operations. As a result, the variable may be shown as a scalar in italics (g= -10 m/s®) rather than in bold print. ‘When a negative sign is associated with a vector quantity, it technically specifies the vector’s direction and assists with proper vector addition. Vectors are represented graphically as arrows. For displacement vectors, the tail of the arrows the initial position of the object, x, and the tip of the arrow is the final position of the object, 27. The length of the arrow represents the vector’s magnitude, and its orientation ates direction. Figure 2.3 shows a car moving 200 meters and its on the coordinate axis in associated vector. Vectors IF YOU SEE a specific direction y Vector Quantity Direction is Important, and it influences vector mathematics: a2 Figure 2.3. Horizontal displacement “The magnitude of the displacement vector, Ax, is the absolute value of the difference between the final position, x,, and the initial position, x, Direction can be seen in the diagram, ‘Ax=.x7— x)= 200-0 = 200 m, to the right (+3) For other vectors, such as velocity and force, the quantity described by the vector occurs at the tail of the arrow. The tail of the arrow shows the actual location of the object being acting upon by the vector quantity. The tip of the arrow points in the direction the vector is acting. ‘The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector quantity. The magnitude and direction described by these types of vectors may be instantaneous values capable of changing as the object moves. In addition, the object may not reach the location specified by the tip of the arrow. ‘These types of vectors are readily seen in projectile motion. In Figure 2.4, a projectile is launched with a speed of 50 meters per second at an angle of 37° above the horizontal The object is - physically located at ‘When the object hits the ground, it stops. the til of the vector ‘The object never reaches the position indicated by the tip ofthe final velocity vector. Figure 2.4. Projectile motion Although only three key velocity vectorsare shown in the diagram, they clearly demonstrate how the magnitude and direction of velocity change throughout the flight, During the motion depicted in the diagram, no two instantaneous velocity vectors are completely alike. You will encounter a variety of vector quantities in the chapters ahead. Knowing how to recognize vectors quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force will improve your problem-solving skills. The importance of vector direction cannot be overstated. Including the correct sign representing a vector’s direction is often the key to arriving at the correct solution. The next sections will demonstrate the importance of vector direction as we review basic vector mathematics. SAT PHYSICSVECTOR MATHEMATICS Components Vectors aligned to the x- and y-axes are mathematically advantageous. However, some problems involve diagonal vector quantities. Diagonal vectors act simultaneously in both the x and y-directions, and they are difficult to manipulate mathematically. Fortunately, diagonal vectors can be resolved into x- and y-component vectors. The &- and y-component vectors form the adjacent and opposite sides of a right triangle where the diagonal vector is its hypotenuse. Aligning the component vectors along the x- and y-axes simplifies vector addition. ‘The magnitudes of component vectors are determined using right triangle trigonometry. In Figure 2.5, vector A is a diagonal vector. It has a magnitude of A and a direction of 6 Figure 2.5. Magnitudes of vectors ‘Vector A, is the x-component of A and is adjacent to angle 8. Vector A, is the y-component of A and is opposite angle 8. Normally, the magnitude of the components of vector A would be determined using the following right triangle trigonometry. Ay= cos 0, +%-direction Ay= Asin}, + ‘The SAT Subject Test in Physics does not allow the use of a calculator. If component vectors are needed to solve a problem, there has to be an easy way to avoid using trigonometry. This can be accomplished if questions involve only three well-known, memorized, right triangles. ction Important Right Triangles On exams excluding calculator use, determining component vectors will be restricted to the key right triangles shown in Table 2.3: Table 2.3 Important Right Triangles (Cree Leela) hyp 3 hyp one é & 4 : i a 4y ap $ wp Typotenuse =2 X side Sraside opposite 30° opposte 37 hypotenuse = 5/4 side adjacent 37 VECTORS IF YOU SEE a diagonal vector, with direction given in Find the xe and y- ‘components. xandy vectors act Independently 63IF You SEE components and need the resultant ail Pythagorean theorem memorized key right triangles. 6a Determining Component Vectors 50 mis A projectile is launched with an initial velocity of 50 meters per second at an langle of 37° above the horizontal. Determine the x- and y-components of the velocity. Draw the component vectors, and identify the adjacent and opposite si 50 mis The 37° angle indicates a 3-4-5 triangle. Determining the magnitudes of each component requires multiplying the hypotenuse by the correct fraction. The direction of each component can be determined by looking at the diagram. 1/5 hyp = 4/5 (50) = 40 m/s, +x-direction 5/5 hyp = 3/8 ($0) = 30 m/s, +y-direction In some problems, the component vectors are known or given and you must determine the vector they describe. Pythagorean theorem and inverse tangent are used to calculate the ‘magnitude and direction of the diagonal vector described by the component vectors. ‘Taking an exam without using a calculator will limit your ability to perform these calculations. Problems will be limited to those easily solved by the Pythagorean theorem, or they will involve the three key right triangles described above. SAT PHYSICSAdding Vectors One important aspect of working with vectors is the ability to add two or more vectors together. Only vectors with the same units for magnitude can be added to each other. The result of adding vectors together is known as the vector sum, oF resultant You can use two visual methods to add vectors, The fist isthe tip-to-tail method, and the second is the parallelogram method. In some problems, the resultant is known or given and you must determine the magnitude and direction of one of the vectors contributing to the vector sum, The sections below detail examples of each of these scenarios. ‘TIP-T0-TAIL METHOD Adding vectors tip to tail is advantageous when a vector diagram is not given. Begin by sketching a coordinate axis. Vectors can be added in any order. However, drawing x-direction vectors first, followed by y-direction vectors, is advantageous. Choose the first vector, and draw it starting from the origin and pointing in the correct direction. Start drawing the tail of the next vector at the tip ofthe previous vector. Keep the orientation of the second vector the ‘same asit was given in the question. Continue this process, adding any remaining vectors to the tip of each subsequent vector. Finally, draw the resultant vector from the origin (tail of the first vector) pointing to the tip of the last vector. Vector addition on the SAT Subject Test in Physies will most likely be limited to the following simple cases: 1 Vectors pointing in the same direction 1 Vectors pointing in opposite directions Vectors that are 90° apart ‘The following examples demonstrate tip-to-tail vector addition for these three common scenarios. ‘Adding Vectors Pointing In the Same Direction A person walks 40 meters in the positive x-direction, pauses, and then walks an additional 30 meters in the positive x-direction. Determine the magnitude and, fof the person's displacement. dire ‘When vectors point in the same direction, simply add them together. Sketch or visualize the vectors tip to tail. The resultant is equal to the total length of both vectors added together. Resultant 40m 30m) Resultant = 40 m+ 30 m= 70m vectors 65Exuns Adding Vectors Pointing in the Opposite Direction A person walks 40 meters in the positive x-direction, pauses, and then walks an ‘additional 30 meters in the negative x-direction. Determine the magnitude and direction of the person's displacement. ‘When a vector points in the opposite (negative) direction, you can insert a minus sign in front of the magr ‘magnitudes. The minus sign actually indicates the vector’s direction, and it represents a vector turned around 180°. Again, sketching or visualizing the vectors tip to tail will help you arrive at the correct resultant. The resultant is drawn from the origin to the tip of the last vector added. ide. Technically, vectors cannot have negative [Resultant 30m 40m Resultant = 40 m + (-30 m) =10 m ene aren eon Start at the origin and draw the x-direction vector first, Then add the tail of the y-direction vector to the tip of the first vector. Finally, draw the resultant from the origin pointing toward the tip of the final vector added. 100m 100m 100m The components and resultant form a 45°-45°-90° triangle. The magnitude of the hypotenuse can be obtained by multiplying a side by the square root of two. hypotenuse = (./2Xside) = (/2)(100), @= 45° Without a calculator, 100 V2 Is the mathematically simplified answer. 66 SAT PHYSICSPARALLELOGRAM METHOD {In some exam questions, a vector diagram may be provided that shows the vectors in a tail- to-tail configuration, You can add these vectors by-constructing a parallelogram, as shown in the example below. ‘Adding Vectors Using the Parallelogram Method Fy" 120N ‘Amass, m, Is acted upon by two force vectors, F, = 16.0 N in the +x-direction and F, = 12.0 N in the +y-direction, as shown in the diagram above. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on mass m. Construct a parallelogram. The diagram below on the left, shows a dashed line drawn from the tip of F; parallel to F, and a second dashed line drawn from the tip of F parallel to F;. In the diagram below on the right, the resultant is drawn With its tail starting at the origin and the tip extending to the Intersection of the dashed lines. The resultant Is the sum of the force vectors (ZF). Fy=120N Fi=16.0N 16.0N ‘The dashed lines have the same lenath as the given vectors. Adding the resultant to the diagram creates two right triangles. Look carefully at the ratlo of the sides. Two 3-4-5 triangles have been formed. XF = 20.0 Nat 37° Finding a Missing Vector Insome problems, the resultant is known and the problem requires you to find the magnitude and direction of a missing vector. This frequently occurs when clues in the problem lead you to the conclusion that the resultant vector has a magnitude equal to zero. In order for two vectors to add up to zero, the vectors must have equal magnitudes and point in opposite directions. Vectors 67Deducing the Existence of a Missing Vector F=10N ‘A mass, m, [is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A 10-newton force acting in the positive x-direction is applied to mass m. The mass remains at rest. Why? {force is either @ push or a pull. When an object remains stationary, all the pushing forces acting on the object must cancel out each other. Therefore, the sum ofall the force vectors is zero. You must conclude that a second force is acting fon the mass to cancel the force given in the problem. The only force capable of canceling the given force is @ 1o-newton force acting in the opposite direction F=10N F=10N SUMMARY DIRECTION IS AN IMPORTANT AND SIGNIFICANT ASPECT OF MANY QUANTITIES, IN PHYSICS. At the start of a problem dealing with vector quantities, visualize the subject of the problem (object or mass) at the origin of a coordinate axis system. Draw vector quantities acting on the object as pointing outward from the object. This allows the coordinate axis system to act as a frame of reference to compare, and mathematically manipulate vector quantities. 2, QUANTITIES IN PHYSICS ARE EITHER SCALARS OR VECTORS. Scalars and vectors share one common characteristic; they both have a numerical size or strength known as a magnitude. Vector quantities have an additional characteristic; they point in a specific direction. Vectors are represented in diagrams as arrows where the length of the arrow is proportional to the vector's magnitude and the direction of the arrow is consistent with the direction of the vector. The magnitude of vectors can be only positive or zero. A negative sign associated with a vector ‘quantity indicates that the vector points in a negative (opposite) direction. 3. VECTOR MATHEMATICS INCLUDES RESOLVING VECTORS INTO COMPONENTS AND ADDING THE VECTORS. Working with vectors that do not lie along a principal axis is difficult. Fortunately, vectors can be mathematically broken down into component vectors that lie along the x- and y-axes. A vector and its component vectors form a right triangle. You can add vectors and vector components together using either the tip-to-tall method or the parallelogram method of vector addition. Only vectors measuring the same quantities, with the same units, can be added together. Knowing the side relationships for the 30°-60°-90%, 3-4-5, and 45°-45°-90° right triangles is essential when solving vector components and when adding perpendicular vectors. isplay, 68 SAT PHYSICSaes cid Cooauibaue) A specific direction Remember that you are working | Vector direction associated with a given | with a vector quantity. very important and quantity can influence vector mathematics, ‘A diagonal vector Find the and y-components. | Without a calculator, this quantity with a involves memorizing the side relationships for three key right triangles: ‘Component vectors and | Use the Pythagorean theorem you need the resultant =——; vector hyp = yladi)’ + (opp) and/or the memorized sides of the three key right triangles PRACTICE EXERCISES 1, Which of the following statements does NOT describe a vector quantity? (A) An object has a speed of 20 m/s in the positive x-direction, (B) A30-newton force acts at an angle of 30° above the horizontal, (©) Acar travels a distance of 2.0 kilometers. (D) The acceleration of gravity, g, is directed downward. (E) A mass is displaced 5.0 meters horizontally. 2. Aprojectileis launched with an initial velocity of 50 meters per second at an angle ‘of30° above the horizontal. Determine the y-component ofthe projectile's initial velocity, (A) 25 mis (B) 30 mis, (© 25,2 mis (0) 40 mis (©) 25¥3 mis VEcToRS3, Two forces act on a 5-kilogram mass. A 16-newton force pushes the mass in the positive x-direction, and a 12-newton force pushes in the negative x-direction. Determine the resultant net force acting on the mass. (A) 4N, -xdirection (8) 4N, +xdirection (©) 14N, +x direction (D) 28N, -x direction (©) 28N, +xdirection QD h=24m Ad 4, A mass is displaced upward along a 30° incline as shown in the diagram above. ‘When it reaches the top of the incline, the mass has a vertical height, h, of 24 meters, What is the displacement, 4d, of the mass as measured along the incline? (A) 1.2V2 m (B) 1.2/3 m (© 30m (D) 243 m (© 48m aN 5, ‘Three forces act on a mass as shown above. Determine the magnitude of force F so that the resultant force acting on the mass is zero, (a) 3N @ 4N (©) 4V2N (D) 5V2 N (E) 5V3N 70 SAT PHYSICSANSWERS EXPLAINED COE eecee eke 1. €€) | NOT; vector | Knowledge/definitions | Answer C reports only the magnitude. There quantity is no mention of a specific direction. This is a scalar and nota vector. a Remeron 2, ¢A) | Initial Side relationships for a | Visualize or sketch the velocity vector and its velocity; 30°; | 30°-60°-90° triangle | components, yeomponent; 4 v=50m % v, is opposite the 30° angle, so its magnitude is half of the hypotenuse. v, = (1/2)(50) = 25 m/s 3. (B) | Twoforces; | Tip-to-tail vector Start at the origin, and add the vectors tip to tail, resultant net | addition ‘The resultant is drawn from the origin to the tip force of the second vector, EP=164(-12)=+4=4N, +xdirection 4. €€) | Inctine; Side relationships for a | The displacement along the incline is the vertical height; | 30°-60°-90° triangle | hypotenuse of a 30*-60°-90° triangle. The displacement; hypotenuse is double the side opposite the 30° along the angle, which in this case is double the height. iid Ad = (2)(2.4 m) = 4.8m vectors 71Pemiecs Three forces; determine the magnitude of force F; resultant force acting on the ‘mass is zero Ritreloeen Side relationships fora 3-45 triangle Ramee Split the diagonal 5-newton force into components. ‘The upward 4-newton component vector is, canceled by the downward 4-newton vector. ‘The leftward 3-newton component vector must also be canceled. F-=3 newtons in the + direction. 72. SAT PHYSICS