EPRI Vibration Diagnostics

QUICK GUIDE
Steam Turbine and Generator Bearing

Vibration Diagnostic Guide
10831714
Bearing Vibration Diagnostic Guide Overview The Data Acquisition and Signal Processing section
Introduction focuses on how the data collected from the
instruments is presented in different ways to allow
This EPRI Field Guide provides users with a the assessment of the main characteristics of the
concise document to support vibration diagnostics vibration.
of steam turbine generators. While many
publications on general machinery vibration exist in The Vibration Excitation Sources and Fault
the industry, there are no publications that provide Descriptions section provides a detailed review of
a single resource for practicing engineers tasked potential steam turbine generator faults that can
with analyzing steam turbine generator vibration. result in vibration issues including sample
This is especially true for those engineers or diagnostic plots for each fault, key diagnostic
diagnosticians who may have limited exposure to identifiers, and potential causes. A companion
the unique characteristics of the measurement and document (EPRI Steam Turbine Generator Bearing
analysis of machinery with fluid film bearings and Vibration Diagnostics Poster) has been developed
the associated specialized instruments. from this section of the Field Guide. This poster
provides a summary of typical vibration related
This Field Guide assumes that the user has some faults that may occur on steam turbine generators
exposure to steam turbine generators and to basic in power generation facilities. It can be used as a
vibration analysis; however, the vibration analysis quick reference for power plant technical personnel
concepts presented include enough detail for an who are responsible for monitoring and diagnosing
entry-level engineer to start and carry out a vibration-related issues on steam turbine
vibration diagnostic evaluation on a steam turbine generators.
generator.
The Vibration Severity Assessment section
Contents discusses the relevant standards that may be used
This Steam Turbine and Generator Bearing to determine the severity of steam turbine
Vibration Diagnostic Guide is separated into six generator vibration.
sections:
The Diagnostic Process Flow Chart may be used
• Section 1: Typical Vibration Instrumentation as a guide through the typical steps followed in
• Section 2: Data Acquisition and Signal assessing and diagnosing steam turbine generator
Processing vibration issues.
• Section 3: Vibration Excitation Sources and
Fault Descriptions Finally, the Sample Diagnostic Case Study provides
• Section 4: Vibration Severity Assessment a review of a vibration issue on a steam turbine
• Section 5: Diagnostic Process Flow Chart generator. This illustrates the application of the
• Section 6: Sample Diagnostic Case Study Diagnostic Process Flow Chart and allows for
comparison of real data to the sample data and
Each section is designed to provide the user with fault descriptions from Section 3.
relevant information with a focus on graphics to
describe the information being presented. Usage Guidelines
The Typical Vibration Instrumentation section • Ensure station, code, and regulatory
provides some background on the typical requirements are adhered to.
instrumentation used in steam turbine generator • This document is meant to be a Guide, not a
vibration monitoring and diagnostics including Standard. As such, situational awareness is
typical sensor locations and operating details. critical in its application.
• Any decisions made based on the contents of
this field guide should include consideration for
personnel safety, environmental impacts,
station reliability, and engineering best
practices.
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Section 1: Typical Vibration Instrumentation
Various instruments are used to measure vibration for steam turbine generator applications. In addition
to vibration instruments, several other parameters are typically measured and used for diagnosing
vibration issues. This section introduces the instrumentation used for vibration measurement of steam
turbine generators.
Shaft Relative Vibration

The shaft relative vibration for a steam turbine generator rotor train is measured using non-
contacting eddy current proximity probes. Proximity probes measure the relative displacement
between the target (rotor) and the probe. The probes are mounted in probe holders in bearing
housings.
1 – to signal processing 4 – shaft

2 – signal conditioning units 5 – bearing housing
3 – non-contacting transducer 6 – bearing
The typical installation will include two probes mounted 90° apart at each bearing. This
arrangement allows the determination of the shaft motion at the plane of measurement. Most
installations will orient the probes at ±45° from top dead center on the bearing housings to avoid
interference with a horizontally split housing. Typical proximity probes have a nominal scale
factor of 200 mV/mil (7.87 V/mm).
The output voltage from a proximity probe
includes both a DC and an AC component.
When the shaft is not vibrating, the AC
component is zero, and the DC component
describes the distance from the probe tip to
3 the shaft surface. When vibration is present,
the DC component is proportional to the
average gap between the probe tip and the
4 shaft surface, while the AC component is
proportional to the vibration amplitude.
Since proximity probes detect the gap between the probe tip and the target surface, it is
imperative that the surface finish of the target surface be free from excessive runout or surface
imperfections that would result in erroneous vibration amplitude readings.
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Absolute Shaft Vibration
The absolute shaft vibration is of particular Absolute Shaft Vibration Instrumentation
interest in steam turbine generators since the
bearing housing/pedestal assembly is not
always rigidly attached to the turbine case or
generator housing. This is important where the
bearing housing/pedestal experiences vibration
in excess of 20% of the absolute shaft vibration.
Traditionally, the absolute shaft vibration has
been measured using shaft riders, which
penetrate the bearing cap and contact the shaft
surface. A seismic sensor is mounted on the free
end of the shaft rider that outputs a voltage
signal proportional to either the acceleration or
velocity of the shaft surface that can be
integrated to the displacement. Since the shaft
rider and attached seismic sensor motion are
1 – to signal processing
independent of the bearing housing motion, the
2 – signal conditioning unit
output signal is proportional to the absolute shaft 3 – shaft
motion rather than the relative shaft motion as 4 – non-contacting transducer
measured by a proximity probe. 5 – seismic transducer
Shaft riders are less common on newer steam turbine generators. As an alternative, a dual-
probe system, that includes a proximity probe and a seismic sensor mounted on the bearing
housing adjacent to the proximity probe, can be used to measure the absolute shaft vibration by
simultaneously sampling the signal from both sensors and combining the output using vector
addition.
Shaft Rider Instrumentation
1 – to signal processing
2 – signal conditioning unit
3 – shaft
4 – shaft rider
5 – seismic transducer
6 – machine structure
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Seismic Sensors
Accelerometers are used to measure the absolute vibration of bearing housings on steam turbine
generators. Standard industrial accelerometers are typically used that output a voltage signal that
is proportional to acceleration with a scale factor of 100 mV/g (10.2 mV/(m/s2)). Either analog or
digital signal conditioning may be used to integrate the output of an accelerometer to velocity or
displacement units. Installation of horizontal, vertical, and axial accelerometers at each bearing
housing is preferred, though it is more common to see only horizontal and vertical sensors on
steam turbine generators.
Pedestal Bearing Measurement Positions Housing Bearing Measurement Positions
For steam turbine generator monitoring purposes, the frequency range for seismic sensors
should be from 10 Hz to ≥500 Hz. For diagnostic purposes, lower or higher frequency data may
be required.
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Supporting Sensors for Diagnostics
Additional sensors that are not measuring vibration are useful for troubleshooting steam turbine
generator vibration issues. Some sensors measure changes to rotor position, loading, or
performance that may influence vibration characteristics.
Phase Reference
A once-per-revolution trigger, commonly referred to as a Keyphasor®, is usually a proximity
probe positioned to sense a depression or protrusion on the rotor. This device measures shaft
speed and provides a reference position on the rotor to which vibration sensors can be
compared.
Axial or Thrust Position

Thrust position measurements are made with eddy current proximity probes positioned to
measure the average (DC) gap between the stationary probe tip and a target surface on the
rotor. The thrust position may vary as the speed or the load changes, or if there is damage to
the thrust bearings or thrust collar.
Eccentricity
Rotor eccentricity provides an indication of the amount of bow (mechanically, thermally, or gravity
induced) in a rotor. This is accomplished by using a proximity probe that is monitored at low
speed operation. The instrumentation includes a single proximity probe that is mounted near the
end of the rotor, as far from the nearest bearing as practical. This is often at the outboard end of
the High Pressure turbine module.
Differential Expansion
Differential expansion provides a measurement of the difference between the axial expansion of
the rotor and the turbine case. During startup or load changes, the rate of thermal growth for the
rotor may differ from the turbine case. If the difference is substantial, the rotor may come in
contact with stationary components, resulting in a rub, as well as high vibration, which could
damage the turbine.
Bearing Metal Temperature

Increases in vibration, changes in bearing load or eccentricity, or changes in thrust position may
result in an increase or decrease in bearing metal temperature. This measurement is collected
from a thermocouple, or RTD, imbedded in the bearing sleeve or pad for tilting pad bearing
applications. In the absence of bearing metal temperature, bearing oil drain temperature may be
a useful parameter to monitor; but, it should be noted that this parameter responds more slowly
to changes in bearing condition than the bearing metal temperature.
Other Operational Parameters

Other parameters, such as steam pressure and temperature, condenser vacuum, generator
reactive power, or VARs, lube oil supply temperature/pressure/flow, bearing oil drain
temperature, ambient temperature, or load may be useful in evaluating turbine generator
vibration data.
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Section 2: Data Acquisition and Signal Processing
Raw voltage output data from vibration transducers is converted to vibration signals and processed to
aid in the diagnosis of vibration issues. This may occur in the Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI)
hardware, permanent diagnostic software, or a temporary data acquisition system installed for
troubleshooting and diagnostic purposes. This section outlines the different kinds of plots used in steam
turbine generator vibration analysis and what they represent.
The voltage output from proximity probes includes both a DC and an AC component. Both components
are valuable in assessing the condition of a steam turbine generator. The AC component is typically
referred to as vibration, and the DC component is referred to as gap voltage. Assessing vibration
characteristics and severity is accomplished by using various plot configurations that use either the AC
or DC signal, or a combination of the two. The plots may be generated using the raw voltage signal or,
more commonly, a signal appropriately adjusted, based on the scale factor for the measurement
instrument. Additionally, signal processing tools may be used to restrict or filter the frequency range of
vibration included in the plot.
Trend Plots
Trend plots provide the most basic representation of vibration data. The plots indicate the
vibration amplitude as a function of time. They can be useful for both steady-state (constant
speed/load) operation or during transient conditions (startup/coast down/load changes). The
amplitude may include all frequencies (direct); or, it may be filtered to certain frequencies (1X,
2X, subsynchronous, etc.). Trends of 1X phase or gap voltage are also useful for assessing
changes to machine conditions over time.
Trend plots are useful for assessing steady-state operation or transient conditions (speed or load)
data.
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Time Waveform Plots
A time waveform plot is displayed in
Cartesian coordinates with the horizontal
axis displaying time (seconds or
milliseconds) and the vertical axis
displaying amplitude (mils, in/sec, g’s, etc.).
Time waveform plots are often generated
as unfiltered, or direct plots. Overall, or
direct, plots include all of the frequency
components recorded during sampling.
Waveform plots can also be filtered at

certain frequencies (1X, 2X, nX,
subsynchronous) to allow the examination
of the rotor response at a certain frequency.
Waveform plots can be compensated to
eliminate any runout from the plotted
waveform.
Time waveform plots are, by nature of the data acquisition process, of short duration. They can
be used to compare changes in conditions at steady-state operation or during a transient event.
Spectrum Plots
Spectrum plots are generated by
transforming a time waveform from the
time domain (amplitude vs. time) to the
frequency domain (amplitude vs.
frequency). They are extremely useful
for quickly assessing the frequency
content of the vibration signal. The
horizontal axis may be reported in any
frequency unit, such as cycles per
minute (CPM) or cycles per second
(Hz) or can be normalized to the shaft
rotational speed (orders).
Spectrum plots may be generated for either steady-state or transient data.
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Full Spectrum Plots
Full spectrum plots can be generated
when a pair of orthogonal proximity
probes are available at a bearing. The
plot includes a positive and negative
portion of the horizontal frequency
axis. The positive portion of the plot
indicates forward rotor precession at a
frequency, while the corresponding
negative frequency component
describes the reverse precession
component at that frequency.
The horizontal axis may be reported in any frequency unit (cycles per minute or second) or can be
referred to the shaft rotational speed (orders). For purely circular, forward precessional motion, the
full spectrum plot will show a single frequency component at +1X. Reverse precession will be
indicated by a larger peak at -1X than at +1X. As the -1X amplitude approaches the +1X amplitude,
the orbit will become more elliptical. Identical forward and reverse components indicate that the
orbit is nearly a straight line at that frequency.
Full spectrum plots may be generated for either steady-state or transient data.
Waterfall Plots
Waterfall plots indicate changes in vibration frequency content by plotting vibration spectra as time
changes. The plots are configured with frequency units on the horizontal axis, amplitude units on
the vertical axis, and time on a third axis which allows the evaluation of any changes in the
amplitude of spectral peaks over some period of time.
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Cascade Plots
Cascade plots are a subset of waterfall plots where the rotor speed is changing over time. The
third axis on a cascade plot represents rotor speed (and time) and allows the determination of
spectral peak changes over time. While the horizontal axis can be displayed in frequency units, it
is often more accurately displayed in orders of amplitude (1X, 2X, etc.)
Typical Cascade Plot during Turbine Generator CoastDown
Bode Plots
A typical Bode plot includes the 1X vibration amplitude and phase plotted as a function of rotor
speed. This plot provides the ability to identify any rotor (or possible structural) critical speeds by
identifying speeds where there is a local maximum in vibration amplitude and a change in the
absolute 1X phase of the vibration relative to the Keyphasor.
Typical Bode Plot during Turbine Generator CoastDown
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Orbit Plots
Orbit plots are generated by plotting the scaled vibration signals from two proximity probes
mounted at the same axial position on a rotating machine. The two measurements fully define
the vibratory motion of the rotor at the axial position of the probes.
Overall/Direct Orbit Plot Filtered 1X Orbit Plot

Like time waveform plots, orbit plots are commonly generated as direct or filtered orbit plots.
Since direct orbit plots include all frequency components, any non-synchronous components,
including noise and shaft surface defects, are included. Since a filtered 1xRPM orbit plot only
includes one frequency, it will always appear as a circle or ellipse.
Orbit plots are typically generated using only the AC
component of the signal from proximity probes; but,
most software will allow for the inclusion of the DC
component. This can be useful in providing a visual
indication of the rotor position in the bearing and the
amplitude of the vibration relative to the bearing
clearance.
Orbit plots are typically used for steady-state/constant
speed operation but may also be used in assessing
changes to the vibration characteristics during speed or
load transient events to aid in diagnosing any anomalies
that may occur.
Direct Orbit Plot – DC Coupled
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Polar or Nyquist Plots
The same 1X amplitude and phase data used
to generate Bode plots can be plotted in polar
coordinates to produce a polar plot or Nyquist
plot. Each critical speed or resonance is
indicated by a loop in the polar plot of data
from startup or coastdown events.
Polar plots are especially useful for identifying
the orientation of the rotor heavy spot when
balancing. It is important to include runout
corrections in polar plots when assessing the
data for use in balance calculations.
During steady-state operation, the polar plot
should not show any abnormal data under
normal conditions, and each probe should
show up as a single point. Changes to 1X
amplitude or phase under steady-state
conditions are indicative of a vibration-related
fault, such as a rub (slow changes) or a un-
balance (step changes) or a thermal bow.
Shaft Centerline Plots

The DC component (or gap voltage) from two probes
during a transient event, or over time, can be plotted
to produce a shaft centerline plot. This plot indicates
the travel of the rotor in the bearing during the speed
changes and is useful in assessing the loading on
each bearing.
These plots are typically used for evaluating the rotor
average position in the bearing during startup or
coast down events but may also be useful during
changes to load or during any vibration amplitude
changes.
In general, the shaft should be operating in the
bottom half of the shaft centerline plot. Caution
should be exercised in assessing shaft centerline
position as the DC gap voltage may be influenced by
thermal growth of the probe, holder, or bearing
pedestal.
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Vibration Data Presentation Guidelines
The typical plots used in steam turbine generator vibration diagnostics with their applicability to
steady-state or transient vibration data analysis are summarized below. Additionally, the
instrumentation that is either Required, Optional, or Not Applicable for those plots is included.
Since Seismic Sensors may not be installed on all steam turbine generators, they are listed as
optional instrumentation.
Operating Condition Instrumentation
Transient Single Proximity Dual Proximity Seismic
Plot Type Sub-Type Steady State Keyphasor
(Speed/Load) Probe Probes Sensors
Overall Vibration x x Required Optional N/A Optional
Filtered (nX) x x Required Optional Required Optional
Trend
Gap Voltage x x Required Optional N/A N/A
Phase x x Required Optional Required Optional
Overall/Direct x x Required Optional Optional Optional
Time Waveform
Filtered (nX) x x Required Optional Required Optional
Half x x Required Optional Optional Optional
Spectrum
Full x x N/A Required Required Optional
Overall/Direct x x N/A Required Optional Optional
Orbit
Filtered (nX) x x N/A Required Required Optional
Overall/Direct N/A x Required Optional Required Optional
Bode
Filtered (nX) N/A x Required Optional Required Optional
Polar Filtered (nX) x x Required Optional Required Optional
Half x N/A Required Optional Optional Optional
Waterfall
Full x N/A N/A Required Required Optional
Half N/A x Required Optional Required Optional
Cascade
Full N/A x N/A Required Required Optional
Shaft Centerline n/a x x N/A Required Optional N/A
Slow Roll Data

Slow-roll data is the vibration data collected from proximity probes while the machine is rotating at
speeds for which rotordynamic effects are negligible and bow is minimal. This is useful for
eliminating the influence of any surface imperfections and runout in the diagnostic plots at normal
operating speeds. Collection of slow-roll data requires a system that can capture data at very low
frequencies, typically ≤300 rpm. Fortunately, this is rarely a problem with many data acquisition
systems designed to handle proximity probes. When possible, a range of slow-roll speeds should
be identified, which is characterized as exhibiting no significant amplitude or phase changes within
the selected upper and lower speeds. Once this range has been identified, any convenient speed
within this range can be used for collection of slow-roll data. The turning gear speed, for example,
is often convenient for large steam turbines.
Once slow-roll data is collected and stored, it can be filtered to include only the 1xRPM component
of the signal. This vector (amplitude and phase) can be subtracted from a 1xRPM filtered vibration
signal acquired at any other speed. This process, called 1x compensation, leaves only the actual
1xRPM vibration left in the output to be used for time waveform, orbit, Bode or polar plots. The
resulting plot is referred to as a compensated plot.
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Section 3: Vibration Excitation Sources/Fault Matrix
This section provides typical vibration plots representing a steam turbine-generator rotor train under
normal operating conditions followed by graphical representations of fault conditions using various
diagnostic plots. For normal operation, all standard graphical representations of vibration data are
included to provide a baseline for comparison to actual operating data when a fault is present.
In the subsequent pages, individual steam turbine generator faults are examined by presenting the
plots that are typically used to identify the fault. In some cases, certain diagnostic plots may not differ
from normal operation, even when a fault is present. Additionally, some diagnostic plots may show
different characteristics, depending on the severity of the fault or the presence of multiple faults,
simultaneously.
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Normal Operation
Normal operation is indicated by acceptable vibration at all measurement positions. Critical speeds may be excited during speed transients;
but, the amplitude will be acceptable. Trend plots show constant amplitude with little or no variation with load. The dominant vibration
frequency is 1X with little or no vibration at any other frequencies.
Amplitude Trend 1X Phase Trend Waveform Spectrum Full Spectrum Direct Orbit
1X +1X
-1X
Full spectrum plot shows one dominant positive Circular or slightly elliptical orbit with no
Amplitude trend plots indicate constant The half spectrum plot shows one dominant
1X phase trends will show a fairly constant Direct waveform plots show no truncation, peak at +1X frequency with no significant evidence of truncation or loops. Phase trigger
amplitude with no significant load or time peak at 1X frequency with no significant
phase value over time. frequencies other than 1X, or spikes. vibration at other frequencies. Peak at -1X is indicates forward precession (Blank-Bright in
dependency. vibration at other frequencies.
lower than +1X. the direction of rotation).
Shaft Centerline Bode Plot - Amplitude Bode Plot - Phase Polar Plot Waterfall or Cascade Other Operational Symptoms
Startup Startup Startup

Coastdown Coastdown Coastdown
1X
Bearing temperature trends are constant with

speed and load and below alarm limits. The
audible noise near the machine does not
indicate any changes from previous surveys or
any abnormal rattling.
The Bode plot (phase) shows a smooth phase The polar plot shows similar amplitude at low
Shaft centerline plot shows normal path from The Bode plot (amplitude) shows acceptable
shift through critical speed, with the rate of speed, through critical speed, and at full speed The waterfall plot will show fairly constant
zero to full speed with no sudden changes. amplitude at critical speed. Some variation
change matching previous startup or coastdown between transient events with acceptable amplitude through multiple time periods with
Eccentricity remains below vertical centerline at between startup and coastdown response is
events. The phase at full speed and very low maximum amplitude at critical speed and at full no significant variation in the 1X amplitude.
full speed. typical.
speed is consistent between events. speed.
Key Diagnostic Indicators Other Notes

• Vibration amplitude is constant and below acceptable limits. • Some variation between a startup and coastdown is typical
• Dominant vibration frequency is 1X. (slight change to critical speed/amplitude).
• Precession is forward. • Amplification factor (a measure of the system damping) may
• Transient characteristics are similar to previous events. vary slightly from startup to coastdown.
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Sudden Mechanical Imbalance (Blade Loss)
A sudden imbalance may be caused by a blade loss, loss of balance weight, or another component normally attached to the rotor. This may
occur during normal operation or during a load or speed transient. It can be differentiated from an electrically induced imbalance because the
changes in vibration characteristics (amplitude/phase) are not reversible by changing load or speed.
Before Event Before Event Before Event
After Event 1X +1X After Event After Event
Before Event
After Event
-1X
Before Event Before Event

After Event After Event
Vibration amplitude trends show a sudden The 1X phase trend will show a step change. The The direct waveform plot (at time of damage) After the event, the half spectrum plot will show Full spectrum plot will show an increase in both Direct orbit plot will show an increase in
increase in amplitude. A similar step change may phase may increase or decrease depending on will show a sudden increase in amplitude. If the an increase in 1X amplitude compared to before +1X and -1X peaks. There may be some increase amplitude as well as a phase change before and
be noted on vibration phase trends. The the angle between the location of the lost amplitude is excessive, some truncation may be the event. Some small amplitude peaks at nX at +/-nX frequencies. The +1X will be higher than after the event indicated by a change in the
amplitude may exceed alarm setpoints. material and the residual unbalance vector. present. frequencies may be present. the -1X peak unless another fault is present. position of the phase trigger marker.
Before Event Before Event Before Event

After Event After Event After Event
The increase in vibration amplitude caused by

the sudden unbalance may result in an increase
1X in bearing metal temperature. If the lost
component becomes lodged in the turbine, the
noise may increase as indicated by rattling or,
more likely, broadband noise due to flow
disturbances.
The Bode plot (amplitude) will show an increase
The shaft centerline plot will normally show a
in amplitude at all speeds after a blade loss. The Bode plot (phase) will show a constant The polar plot shows an amplitude increase and
jump in position immediately after the event, The cascade plot will show a step change in the
Critical speed will not change, and the phase shift from before and after the event that a phase shift after the event. The shift in phase
and the shaft will return to near the pre-event 1X amplitude after the event occurs.
amplification factor should be approximately is constant at all speeds. will be constant at all speeds.
position shortly after.
the same as before the event.
Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

• Step change in 1X amplitude/phase consistent across probes • Blade/Component Fatigue
• No significant change in amplification factor at critical speeds, • Foreign Object Damage
but, amplitude may be very high. • Manufacturing/Maintenance/Operational Errors
• Amplitude and phase are constant after step change.
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Misalignment
Misalignment will generally result in elevated vibration amplitude due to load transfer from one bearing to an adjacent bearing. The increase
will show up as higher amplitude at 1X and 2X in spectrum plots, with 2X amplitude reaching or exceeding 1X amplitude as the severity of the
misalignment increases. The misalignment may be coupling or internal misalignment caused by improper bearing elevations.
1X +1X
2X +2X
-1X
-2X
Direct orbit plots will show evidence of

Misalignment will often result in a 2X response. The half spectrum plot will show elevated 2X
Vibration amplitude trend plots will show The full spectrum plot will show an increase in constrained shaft motion from the
1X phase trend plots will generally be unaffected This will be apparent in the direct waveform plot vibration in the presence of misalignment. The
increased amplitude in the presence of excessive the +/-1X and +/-2X peaks. The positive peaks misalignment. More severe misalignment may
by misalignment. with an increase in peak-to- peak amplitude and relative amplitude of the 1X and 2X peaks is
misalignment. will generally be higher than the negative peaks. result in an orbit resembling a banana, or even a
a 2X frequency component. indicative of the severity of the misalignment.
figure-eight shape.
1X
2X Elevated bearing metal temperatures, combined

with higher 1X and 2X vibration, can be strong
indicators of misalignment. The elevated bearing
temperatures may be caused by both the higher
vibration amplitude and the increased static
load reacted by the bearings in the presence of
misalignment. If seismic sensors are available,
they may show increase in vibration amplitude
at 1X and 2X. For coupling misalignment, a
A waterfall plot (Δ time) will show elevated 1X
Misalignment may result in a shaft centerline A Bode plot (amplitude) will generally be A polar plot will generally be unaffected by phase shift may be observed across couplings
and 2X vibration in the presence of
plot that shows the rotor position farther away unaffected by misalignment, other than an A Bode plot (phase) will generally be unaffected misalignment other than an increase in for sensors in the same orientation.
misalignment. The relative amplitude of the 1X
from the bearing center. This would be increase in amplitude at all speeds over a by misalignment. amplitude at all speeds over a properly aligned
and 2X peaks is indicative of the severity of the
dependent on the severity of the misalignment. properly aligned machine. machine.
misalignment.

• Elevated in 1X and 2X vibration amplitude • Failure to properly align couplings
• Oddly-shaped direct orbit plot showing restriction in motion • Incorrect accounting for thermal growth
• Shaft centerline operating well away from a neutral position
with adjacent bearing showing opposite positioning
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Shaft Crack
A cracked shaft will result in elevated vibration at 1X and 2X with a trend that increases with time as the crack develops. Because of the
reduction in shaft stiffness from the crack, the rotor will tend to bow which will influence rotor behavior. The decreased shaft stiffness from the
crack may result in a decrease in critical speed observed.
Before Crack Before Crack Before Crack
1X After Crack After Crack +1X After Crack
2X
-1X
+2X
-2X
The direct orbit plot will show the 2X vibration

Amplitude trend will get progressively higher as The 1X phase will generally change as the crack A cracked shaft will result in an increase in the
The full spectrum plot will show an increase in component as well as an amplitude increase and
the crack develops. The rate of change will develops and may show a faster rate of change 2X response. This will be apparent in the direct The half spectrum plot will show elevated 2X
the +/-1X and +/-2X peaks. The positive peaks 1X/2X phase shift after the crack. Both the 1X
increase as the crack propagates through the as the rotor stiffness changes quickly due to waveform plot with an increase in peak-to-peak vibration in the presence of a shaft crack.
will generally be higher than the negative peaks. and 2X components will increase as the crack
rotor. crack propagation. amplitude and a 2X frequency component.
propagates.
Before Crack Before Crack Before Crack 1X

After Crack After Crack After Crack 2X
Before Crack
After Crack
Non-vibration related measurement parameters
are rarely affected by a cracked shaft. Offline
NDE inspections are the best method to validate
the diagnosis of a shaft crack. Rotors with sharp
radii at step changes, shrink fits, keyways, or
other stress concentrations may be more
susceptible to shaft cracking. Excessive torsional
vibration may also be a contributor to the
The Bode plot (amplitude) may show a decrease The Bode plot (phase) may show a decrease in initiation and propagation of shaft cracks.
A polar plot will show a shift in critical speed, A waterfall plot (Δ time) will show elevated 1X
The shaft centerline position will not be affected in critical speed due to the reduction in stiffness critical speed due to the reduction in stiffness
increase in amplitude, and a shift in phase in the and 2X vibration in the presence of a shaft
significantly by a shaft crack. with a shaft crack. The slow-roll amplitude may with a shaft crack. The rotor bow and imbalance
presence of a shaft crack. crack. The amplitude will increase over time.
increase as the rotor bows from the crack. vector shift may result in a phase offset.

• Elevation in 1X and 2X vibration amplitude that increases over • Excessive transverse or shear stresses
long time period with accelerated growth near failure • Large stress concentrations at shaft steps, keyways, or other
• Reduction in critical speed due to lower shaft stiffness discontinuities
• Indications of rotor bow as crack progresses • Shock loading from generator faults
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Static Rotor Bow
A rotor may bow if it remains stationary for a long period of time, or if the rotor is damaged. The bow is considered static if the severity of the
bow cannot be reduced by operating the rotor on turning gear. A rotor bow is generally most traumatic if a machine is stopped under load and
not placed on turning gear.
1X +1X
-1X
A static rotor bow will cause an increase in 1X The full spectrum plot for a bowed rotor will
The phase trend will show constant phase with The time waveform plot for a bowed rotor will The half spectrum plot for a bowed rotor will The direct orbit plot for a bowed rotor will show
vibration amplitude that does not change over show elevated 1X vibration both at speed and at
constant speed, though the value will be show elevated 1X vibration both at speed and at show elevated 1X vibration both at speed and at elevated 1X vibration both at speed and at slow
time without manual methods of correcting the slow roll with higher +1X than -1X, indicating
different from an un-bowed rotor. slow roll. slow roll. roll and a circular, forward precession.
bow offline. forward, circular precession.
Startup 1X
Coastdown
A static rotor bow will result in elevated 1X

amplitude at full speed and at slow roll. If an
eccentricity probe is available, this will show
elevated amplitude that will not decrease over
time while on turning gear.
The Bode plot phase will not be especially

The shaft centerline position will not be affected The Bode plot amplitude will show high slow-roll The polar plot will show high slow-roll A cascade plot will show elevated 1X amplitude
helpful if the rotor bow is static, since the bow
significantly by a rotor bow. runout amplitude due to a rotor bow. amplitude, similar to the Bode plot. at slow roll due to a rotor bow.
will not "roll out" during operation.

• Elevated 1X amplitude at slow roll and at critical speed • Leaving the rotor stationary for a prolonged period of time
• Circular orbit plots • Manufacturing or transport issues
• Possible dips in Bode plot amplitude before or after the • Trip under load and failure to place on turning gear
normal critical speed peak • Will require rotor removal to correct the rotor bow
10831714 19
Temporary Rotor Bow
A temporary bow may occur if the turbine generator is left stationary while the rotor is at elevated temperature, such as the case where a
turning gear malfunctions. Unlike a Static Rotor Bow, a temporary rotor bow typically relieves itself after a period of operation at lower speeds
or at full speed.
After Bow Decreases
After Bow Decreases With Bow
1X With Bow +1X
-1X
The full spectrum plot will show elevated +1X The direct orbit plot will be circular after the
The 1X phase trend will show a slow change in The time waveform plot will show elevated 1X The half spectrum plot will show elevated 1X
Amplitude trend will decrease as the rotor bow amplitude after startup. As the bow rolls out, startup with a bow. As the bow rolls out, the
phase as the severity of the bow decreases over amplitude after startup, and the amplitude will amplitude after startup, and the amplitude will
decreases over time. the +1X will decrease; and, the -1X may slightly phase may shift; and, the orbit amplitude will
time. decrease as the bow is rolled out. decrease as the bow is rolled out.
increase as the orbit becomes more elliptical. decrease and may become more elliptical.
Coastdown after Rolling Bow Out Coastdown after Rolling Bow Out
Startup with Bow Startup with Bow
Coastdown after Rolling Bow Out 1X
Startup with Bow
A temporary rotor bow will result in elevated 1X

amplitude at slow roll that will decrease over
time as the bow is rolled out. It may require
operation at reduced speed to roll out the bow.
Evaluating the data from an eccentricity probe
can be useful in determining the severity of a
temporary rotor bow and determining if the
bow has been removed by operation on turning
The Bode plot (amplitude) will show elevated Polar plots will show elevated shaft runout at
gear.
amplitude at slow roll and at speed after The Bode plot (phase) will normally show a slow roll with a temporary bow. As the bow is A waterfall plot will show the 1X amplitude
The shaft centerline position will not be affected
starting up with a rotor bow. There may be a phase shift on coastdown after the bow is rolled rolled out at speed, the phase will slowly shift; decreasing over time after reaching full speed as
significantly by a rotor bow.
local minimum slightly before or after the critical out at operating speed. and, the slow-roll amplitude will be low on the bow is rolled out.
speed peak. coastdown.

• Elevated 1X amplitude at slow roll and at speed that • Leaving the rotor stationary for a prolonged period of time at
decreases with time high temperature
• Circular orbit plots • Temporary rub during startup or slow roll
• 1X phase that changes over time • Steam leaks
10831714 20
Thermal Bow
A thermal bow may occur during operation when a rotor-to-stationary-component rub produces a hot spot at the rub location on the rotor.
This results in a temperature gradient across the rotor and uneven expansion. This may also be known as spiral vibration due to the
presence of loops in polar plots at constant speed caused by the continuous change in the rotor balance condition.
1X +1X
-1X
The amplitude trend will show increases and

The 1X phase trend will show continually The direct orbit plot will be circular with phase
decreases over a period of several minutes to an The waveform plot will show elevated 1X The half spectrum plot will show elevated 1X The full spectrum plot will show elevated +1X
changing phase from 0 to 360° as the 1X vector markers indicating continual phase changing
hour. This may repeat for several hours, amplitude. amplitude. amplitude.
rotates. over a long period of time.
followed by a period of constant amplitude.
1X
Other measurement parameters will not

generally show indications of thermal bow.
The polar plot at full speed will show continual

The Bode plot (amplitude) on startup or The Bode plot (phase) on startup or coastdown
The shaft centerline position will not be affected phase change with some variation in amplitude. A waterfall plot will show elevated 1X amplitude
coastdown is normally unaffected by thermal is normally unaffected by thermal bow since this
significantly by a rotor bow. This plot is why a thermal bow may be referred over time as the thermal bow occurs.
bow since this is a full-speed phenomenon. is a full-speed phenomenon.
to as spiral vibration.

• Elevated 1X amplitude and continuous change of the 1X • Rotor rubs that cause local heating of the rotor and lead to
phase thermal deformation of the shaft
• Polar plots will show indications of “spiral vibration” as the 1X • Inadequate clearance
phase changes over time. • Improper turbine warm-up
10831714 21
Partial Rub
Rubs typically occur at locations with limited radial (or axial) clearance. A partial rub occurs when the rotor occasionally contacts a stationary
surface while travelling through its normal precession. This produces elevated 1X vibration and may produce vibration at fractional
frequencies (1/2X, 1/3X, etc.).
1X
+1X
+1/2X
1/2X -1X
-1/2X
A partial rub will result in elevated 1X and Full spectrum plot will show elevated vibration
The direct orbit plot will show internal loops
A partial rub will result in elevated vibration possibly vibration at fractional frequencies that The half spectrum plot will show elevated at +/-1X and may show peaks at exact fractions
The 1X phase trend generally does not produce with multiple keyphasor marks. The number of
amplitude in the overall, 1X, and, sometimes, are present in the waveform plot. There will vibration at 1X and may show peaks at exact (1/2X, 1/3X…) of the running speed. Some
conclusive evidence of a partial rub. loops will be dependent on the fractional
subsynchronous amplitude. typically be some truncation of the waveform fractions (1/2X, 1/3X…) of the running speed. negative components may be higher than the
frequency produced by the rub.
peaks. positive.
1X
1/2X Rubs may result in elevated noise, bearing

housing vibration, and piping/instrumentation
vibration. It is not uncommon for changes in
Normal Transient
Transient with Rub thrust position to be observed when a partial
rub occurs.
The shaft centerline plot may show some erratic

A Bode plot (amplitude) may show much higher, The Bode plot (phase) may show unexpected A polar plot may show unexpected phase A waterfall plot will show elevated 1X amplitude
behavior during rub events with the rotor
persistent vibration when passing through behavior when passing through critical speed if changes with high amplitude in the presence of and may show peaks at fractional frequencies
position moving at constant speed as the rotor
critical speed if a rub occurs. a rub is occurring. a rub during a transient. with varying amplitude over time.
rubs then clears.

• Elevated 1X amplitude and peaks at fractional frequency • Uneven thermal growth issues
• Erratic shaft centerline position behavior • Inadequate clearances at seals or other locations
• Elevated noise • Excessive vibration from another fault
• Packing run-in during commissioning
10831714 22
Full Annular Rub
A full annular rub occurs when the rotor contacts and remains in contact with a stationary component as it precesses. Vibration amplitudes
are generally higher than for a partial rub, and the dominant vibration frequency is at 1X with no fractional frequency vibration. Rubs that
occur during transients may show excessive vibration even after passing through a critical speed. This is often unsustainable due to
excessive dynamic bearing loads developed during these events.
1X
-1X
+1X
The 1X phase trend may be constant in the The full spectrum plot will show high amplitude A full annular rub will result in a circular direct
A full annular rub will generally result in very Time waveforms will show elevated 1X The half spectrum plot will show elevated 1X
presence of a full annular rub where a thermal at -1X, with the +1X component being much orbit plot with the bright-blank phase marker
high vibration amplitude. amplitude in the presence of a full annular rub. amplitude in the presence of a full annular rub.
bow is not present. lower, indicating reverse precession. indicating reverse precession.
Normal Transient Normal Transient

Transient with Rub Transient with Rub 1X
1X
1X
1X Full annular rubs can be very destructive and

result in elevated noise and vibration on a
1X turbine generator deck. During startup, it may
Normal Transient
Transient with Rub be necessary to reduce operating speed to get
the rub to clear before continuing with startup.
The shaft centerline plot may show the rotor A Bode plot (amplitude) may show much higher, A Bode plot (phase) may show much higher, A polar plot may show unexpected phase
A cascade plot will show much higher 1X
operating away from a normal position, persistent vibration when passing through persistent vibration when passing through changes with high amplitude in the presence of
amplitude in the presence of a full annular rub.
depending on the rub location. critical speed if a rub occurs. critical speed if a rub occurs. a rub during a transient.
Key Diagnostic Indicators

Potential Causes
• Elevated 1X amplitude with circular orbit
• Uneven thermal growth issues
• Reverse precession indicated by orbit plot and full spectrum
• Inadequate clearances at seals or other locations
plot
• Excessive vibration from another fault that causes the
• Unexpected phase and amplitude behavior when traversing at
vibration to exceed available clearance
critical speed
10831714 23
Oil Whirl
Oil whirl is normally caused by improper design of the rotor-bearing system. The presence of vibration components at frequencies slightly
less than 1/2X with varying amplitude are indications of oil whirl. Oil whirl can be aggravated by higher speed, higher oil viscosity, and lighter
bearing loading.
1X
+1X
~.48X
-1X +.48X
-.48X
The direct orbit plot will show the 1X and the

The time waveform plot will show both 1X
The overall amplitude trend will normally show A half spectrum plot will show a 1X peak and a The full spectrum plot will show forward slightly less than 1/2X components. The phase
The 1X phase trend will generally be stable with vibration and a subsynchronous component
high average amplitude with large variations in peak slightly below 1/2X that will normally vary precession and a subsynchronous peak at marker will slowly shift in the direction opposite
constant speed in the presence of oil whirl. near 0.48X with an amplitude that varies over
the presence of oil whirl. in amplitude over time. slightly less than 1/2X. rotation; but, the vibration precession will
time.
remain forward.
Startup Startup ~.48X 1X

Startup
Oil whirl vibration may be affected by changing

the lube oil supply temperature. This has the
effect of changing the rotordynamic coefficients
of the bearings. These changes have a limited
impact on whirl vibration.
The shaft centerline position will normally be

A cascade plot will show the onset of instability
unaffected by oil whirl; however, operation near A Bode plot (amplitude) will generally be A Bode plot (phase) will generally be unaffected A polar plot will generally be unaffected by oil
with a subsynchronous peak showing up at a
the bearing centerline will be more susceptible unaffected by oil whirl. by oil whirl. whirl.
frequency slightly less than 1/2X.
to oil whirl.

• Subsynchronous vibration in the 0.43-0.49X range • Inadequate rotor-bearing system design (low damping)
• Varying amplitude of the subsynchronous vibration • Excessive bearing clearance
• Sensitivity to bearing oil supply temperature • Low lube oil supply temperature
• Phase markers rotate on direct orbit plots • Unloaded bearing due to shaft misalignment
10831714 24
Oil Whip
Oil Whirl will transition to Oil Whip when the whirl frequency reaches the first natural frequency. The subsynchronous vibration will lock onto
the unstable natural frequency and will not continue to increase with the rotor speed. The subsynchronous vibration will increase and can be
damaging.
Fn
+Fn
1X +1X
-1X
-Fn
The amplitude in the direct orbit plot will grow

The overall amplitude trend will show very high The full spectrum plot will show elevated +/-1X
The time waveform plot will show both 1X The half spectrum plot will show elevated 1X after the transition from whirl to whip. The
amplitude in the presence of whip. The The 1X phase trend will generally be stable with and very high subsynchronous vibration at the
vibration and a subsynchronous component at and very high subsynchronous vibration at the precession will remain forward, and the phase
amplitude may increase until a limit cycle is constant speed in the presence of oil whip. unstable natural frequency. The precession will
the unstable natural frequency. unstable natural frequency. marker will continuously shift in the direction
reached. be forward.
opposite rotation at a faster rate.
Startup Startup Fn ~.48X 1X

Startup
Oil Whip will be extremely destructive to the

turbine generator. The vibration amplitude will
generally grow over time.
The shaft centerline position will normally be A cascade plot will appear similar to oil whirl
unaffected by oil whip except that operation A Bode plot (amplitude) will generally be A Bode plot (phase) will generally be unaffected A polar plot will generally be unaffected by oil until the transition to whip; then the
near the bearing centerline will be more unaffected by oil whip. by oil whip. whip. subsynchronous vibration frequency will remain
susceptible to oil whirl. constant.

• Subsynchronous vibration at the first forward, damped natural • Inadequate rotor-bearing system design (low damping)
frequency of the rotor bearing system • Excessive bearing clearance
• Varying amplitude of the subsynchronous vibration • Operating >2 times an unstable natural frequency prone to oil
• Sensitivity to bearing oil supply temperature whirl
10831714 25
Electrically Excited Vibration
Electrically induced vibration of generators may be caused by problems with electrical components (shorted turns or winding issues),
improper manufacturing, or installation issues with the generator rotor/frame. This normally shows up at twice the electrical line frequency
(100 or 120 Hz), and the amplitude will vary significantly with generator load and reactive power (VARs).
+2XLF
2XLF +1X
1X
-1X
-2XLF
Electrical issues that produce vibrations at twice

The time waveform plot will show 1X vibration Full spectrum plots will often show elevated
The vibration amplitude trend may show The 1X phase will generally be unaffected by Half spectrum plots will often show elevated the electrical line frequency (2XLF) will result in
and a large component at twice the electrical amplitude at more than twice the electrical line
significant dependency on generator load. electrical issues. amplitude at twice the electrical line frequency. a direct orbit plot that shows an internal loop
line frequency. frequency.
for every revolution (phase marker).
Startup Startup 2XLF

Startup 1X
Generator electrical issues will generally show

elevated vibrations at twice electrical line
frequency (2XLF). This will often be
accompanied by an audible hum sound near the
generator. Seismic measurements on the
generator frame or end windings will show
elevated vibration at twice electrical line
frequency. Making changes to VARs and load
A cascade plot will show a peak at twice can isolate the source of the vibration to the
electrical line frequency (2XLF). The amplitude generator.
The shaft centerline plot will generally be A Bode plot (amplitude) will generally be A Bode plot (phase) will generally be unaffected A polar plot will generally be unaffected by
may vary with generator load. The 2X line
unaffected by electrical issues. unaffected by generator electrical issues. by generator electrical issues. generator electrical issues.
frequency component will drop out when the
generator is de-energized.

• Inability to distinguish between 2X RPM and 2X line frequency • Generator air gap irregularities
for two pole generators • Generator end winding or frame resonance
• The 2X component will instantly be removed when the
generator is tripped
10831714 26
Mechanical Looseness
Mechanical looseness may come from excessive bearing liner, retainer to pedestal clearance, or pedestal to foundation looseness.
Looseness of rotating components may also result in elevated harmonics of running speeds and/or 1X amplitude and phase changes over
time.
1X +1X
2X +2X
3X -1X +3X
4X -2X
-3X +4X
-4X
Direct orbit plots may indicate that there is

The half spectrum plot will show elevated The full spectrum plot will show similar
The overall amplitude trend will show elevated The 1X phase trend will normally be unaffected The time waveform plot will show elevated some truncation depending on the source of the
amplitude and multiple harmonics of running characteristics to the half spectrum plot with all
amplitude and may show larger variations from by mechanical looseness unless the loose amplitude and multiple harmonics of running looseness. The orientation of the truncated
speed. The amplitude of the harmonics will frequencies indicating forward precession (+nX >
sample to sample. component is attached to the rotor. speed. portion of the orbit may be useful in identifying
normally decrease with increasing frequency. -nX).
the source.
Startup Startup 1X
Startup
2X
3X
Mechanical looseness may result in audible
noise and elevated seismic vibration measured
on bearing housings, bearing pedestals, or
foundations. Operating Deflection Shape
surveys or Motion Amplification videos can be
extremely helpful in diagnosing mechanical
looseness.
A waterfall plot will show elevated amplitude at
The shaft centerline plot will normally be The Bode plot (amplitude) will not show The Bode plot (phase) will not show indications The polar plot will not show indications of harmonics of running speed. There may be
unaffected by mechanical looseness. indications of mechanical looseness. of mechanical looseness. mechanical looseness. some variation in the amplitude at the harmonic
peaks.

• Multiple harmonics of running speed in the spectrum plots • Inadequate post-maintenance inspection
• Truncation evident in the time waveform and the direct orbit • Failure of bearing housing/pedestal bolting
plots • Foundation or grout cracking
10831714 27
Excessive Bearing Clearance
Excessive bearing clearance may be caused by design or maintenance issues. Other causes could be a loss of Babbitt material on the
bearing liner or pads. This can increase the vibration amplitude if the clearance is due to wear during operation from the change in the
bearing stiffness and damping coefficients.
1X +1X
2X +2X
3X
-2X -1X
The 1X phase trend will normally be unaffected A half spectrum plot may show elevated 1X
by excessive bearing clearance other than a The time waveform plot may show some amplitude and some minor peaks at harmonics. The full spectrum plot will show similar The direct orbit plot will show forward
The overall amplitude trend will indicate higher
possible change in phase over time if the elevated 1X amplitude but is generally The harmonic peak amplitudes are generally not characteristics to the half spectrum with all precession with a nearly circular orbit as the
than normal amplitude.
excessive clearance is due to wear during unaffected by excessive bearing clearance. as high as peaks with typical mechanical frequencies showing forward precession. clearance becomes more excessive.
operation. looseness issues.
Normal Clearance Coastdown after Rolling Bow Out 1X

Excessive Clearance Startup with Bow
Normal Clearance
Excessive Clearance Excessive bearing clearance resulting in elevated
vibration may actually cause lower bearing
metal temperatures or lube oil drain
temperatures. Gap voltage trends can be used
in addition to shaft centerline plots to assess the
change in bearing clearance over an extended
period of time. Bearing lift checks can be
conducted offline to assess the actual bearing
The Bode plot (amplitude) may indicate a lower The Bode plot (phase) may show the phase shift clearance.
The polar plot will show similar behavior to the A waterfall plot may indicate increasing
The shaft centerline plot may show the rotor critical speed with higher amplitude and higher through critical speed occurring at a lower
Bode plot with elevated amplitude through amplitude at 1X if the clearance is increasing
operating near the bottom of the bearing. amplitude at operating speed with excessive frequency due to reduced stiffness with
critical speed and at operating speed. over time.
bearing clearance. excessive bearing clearance.

• Excessive 1X amplitude • Bearing design, manufacturing, or setup deficiencies
• Shaft operating near the bottom of the bearing in the shaft • Excessive bearing wear due to oil contamination, ESD or
centerline plot that decreases as the clearance increases overloading
• Lower than expected critical speed
10831714 28
Electrostatic Discharge
Electrostatic discharge at the bearings occurs when there is a problem with the rotor grounding system. Any residual electric charge in the
rotor or electric charge induced by saturated steam will be discharged through the bearing oil film and will damage the bearing. This can often
be misdiagnosed as an instrumentation fault. If left uncorrected, this will lead to excessive bearing clearance and vibration and bearing
temperature problems.
1X +1X
-1X
A direct orbit plot will show instantaneous

The overall amplitude trend will show The time waveform plot will show erratic,
A half spectrum plot will be unaffected by ESD A full spectrum plot will not be affected by ESD spikes in random directions with erratic
instantaneous spikes and will normally trend up The 1X phase trend will be unaffected by ESD. instantaneous spikes (± direction) during arc
since the arc events are of such short duration. since the arc events are of such short duration. amplitudes. The spikes will not occur at the
over a long period of time. events.
same angular location.
Startup Startup 1X
Startup
Time Spikes in the time waveform plots may also be

apparent in the AC component of the thrust
probe signals as well as a change in thrust
position over time. Bearing metal temperatures
may be expected to increase over time as well.
The shaft centerline plot may show the rotor

A waterfall plot may show an increase in the 1X
position drop in the bearing over an extended The Bode plot (amplitude) will be unaffected by
The Bode plot (phase) will be unaffected by ESD. The polar plot will be unaffected by ESD. vibration amplitude over a long period of time as
period of time as the bearing clearance ESD.
the bearing clearance increases from ESD.
increases from ESD.

• Erratic spikes in time waveform and direct orbit plots • Residual magnetism of rotors
• Increasing vibration amplitude over long term • Failure of shaft grounding system
• Changing shaft centerline position over long term
10831714 29
Labyrinth Seal Instability
Labyrinth seal instability, or steam whirl, is a generic term used to describe the condition in which the combination of destabilizing forces from
circulating steam flow in labyrinth seals and from steam forces at the blade tips results in subsynchronous vibration. The condition may be
benign with the subsynchronous frequency and amplitude varying over time but never reaching damaging levels.
1X
+1X
Fn
-1X +Fn
-Fn
The half spectrum plot will show peaks that vary A direct orbit plot will show indications of
An overall amplitude trend will show significant The time waveform will show indications of Full spectrum plots will show similar indications
The 1X phase trend will be unaffected by slightly in amplitude and frequency. The peaks subsynchronous vibration. Since the amplitude
variation in amplitude as the subsynchronous subsynchronous vibration with varying to the half spectrum plots with forward
labyrinth seal instability. will generally be centered near the rotor will typically be less than the 1X amplitude, the
amplitude varies over time. amplitude over time. precession at all frequencies.
damped natural frequency. orbit may appear noisy.
Startup Startup Startup 1X

A rotor experiencing labyrinth seal instability

may be sensitive to steam flow rates, lube oil
temperature and pressure, partial arc versus full
arc steam admission, and turbine-generator
load.
The shaft centerline plot will not generally show A waterfall plot will show subsynchronous
indications of labyrinth seal instability, though The Bode plot (amplitude) will not show The Bode plot (phase) will not show indications The polar plot will not show indications of vibration energy that may vary slightly in
operation closer to the bearing center will make indications of labyrinth seal instability. of labyrinth seal instability. labyrinth seal instability. frequency and amplitude. The amplitude will
a system more susceptible to instability. generally be lower than the 1X peak.

• Subsynchronous vibration that varies in amplitude and • This is normally a design issue that cannot be corrected
frequency with time without changes to seal design (clearance, tooth orientation,
• Amplitude is sensitive to steam admission forces and to etc.).
turbine generator load. • May indicate a need for bearing design modifications
10831714 30
Operation on Resonance
Operating a turbine generator on a critical speed or a structural resonance will result in elevated 1X vibration amplitude. This is normally the
result of a design deficiency but can also be caused by changes to the system that cause shaft critical speeds to shift, or structural issues,
such as foundation degradation, that result in changes to structural natural frequencies.
+1X
1X
-1X
The full spectrum plot will show elevated +1X

The overall and 1X amplitude trend plots will
The 1X phase trend will be unaffected by The time waveform plot will show elevated 1X The half spectrum plot will show a high amplitude when operating on resonance. The - The direct orbit plot will show forward
show elevated but constant amplitude with
operation on resonance at constant speed. amplitude when operating on resonance. amplitude at 1X when operating on resonance. 1X amplitude will depend on the ellipticity of the precession with elevated amplitude.
constant speed when running on resonance.
orbit plot.
1X
Measurement from seismic instrumentation can

help to confirm operation on resonance. If the
machine has not previously operated on
resonance, changes to foundation stiffness or
bearing clearance may cause the structural
natural frequencies or rotor bearing critical
speeds to shift into the operating speed range
and will require correction.
A Bode plot (amplitude) will show elevated The Bode plot (phase) will show a phase shift as A polar plot will show the phase shifting and the A cascade plot will show the 1X peak increasing
The shaft centerline position will generally not
amplitude at the operating speed when the operating speed is approached when amplitude peaking as the operating speed is in amplitude as the operating speed is
be useful in diagnosing operation on resonance.
operating on resonance. operating on resonance. approached when operating on resonance. approached when operating on resonance.

• 1X amplitude peak and phase shift as operating speed is • Design deficiency
approached • Changes to support structure (bearing pedestals or
• 1X amplitude and phase sensitivity to small changes in foundation)
operating speed • Bearing clearance issues
10831714 31
Bearing Loose in Housing
Bearings are typically installed into housings or bearing retainers with a slight interference. This is often referred to as "bearing crush". If
there is inadequate crush, the bearing may be loose in the housing. This can produce high 2X vibration that is difficult to differentiate from 2X
electrical line frequency vibration until the generator is de-energized.
+2X
2X +1X
1X
-1X
-2X
The overall and 1X amplitude trend plots will The 1X phase trend will be unaffected by The time waveform plot will show elevated 1X The half spectrum plot will show elevated 1X The full spectrum plot will show elevated +1X The direct orbit plot will show a loop for each
show elevated amplitude with a loose bearing. inadequate bearing crush. and 2X amplitude. and 2X amplitude. and +2X amplitude shaft rotation due to the elevated 2X amplitude.
Startup Startup 1X 2X
Startup
A loose bearing can result in elevated 1X and

harmonics on seismic sensors on the bearing
housing. Bearing crush checks can be conducted
offline to validate a loose bearing diagnosis.
The Bode plot (amplitude) will generally be A loose bearing will result in elevated 2X
The shaft centerline position will generally not unaffected by a loose bearing, other than The Bode plot (phase) will generally be A polar plot will generally be unaffected by a amplitude that persists even as the generator is
be useful in diagnosing a loose bearing. slightly higher amplitude at full speed and unaffected by a loose bearing. loose bearing. de-energized and the turbine generator coasts
through the critical speed. down.

• High 2X vibration amplitude • Design deficiency
• The 2X vibration component will persist when the turbine • Improper shimming of the bearing
generator is tripped.
• Fretting indications on the bearing housing/liner
10831714 32
Glitch
Glitch is a term used to describe damage such as corrosion or scratches on the proximity probe target area. This will result in spikes in the
time waveform plots and elevated 1X amplitude. The location of the spikes will be at a fixed location when compared to the phase timing
marker on time waveform or direct orbit plots. This does not affect the health or reliability of a turbine generator but will make detecting or
diagnosing other faults difficult.
1X +1X
-1X
The 1X phase trend will be unaffected by glitch, The time waveform plot will show a spike in the The direct orbit plot will show spikes that are
The overall and 1X amplitude trends will show The half spectrum plot will show elevated 1X The full spectrum plot will show elevated +1X
though the phase value may not represent the positive or negative direction. This will be fixed inangular location when multiple rotations
elevated amplitude due to glitch. amplitude. amplitude.
actual high spot from vibration. consistent with each shaft rotation. of the shaft are plotted.
1X
Since glitch only affects the measurement of

proximity probes, other measurement
parameters will not be useful in diagnosing this
issue.
A Bode plot (amplitude) will show elevated

The shaft centerline plot will be unaffected by The Bode plot (phase) may be unaffected by The polar plot will show elevated amplitude at A cascade plot will show elevated amplitude at
amplitude at full speed and at very low speed
glitch. glitch. very low speed due to glitch. 1X at all speeds due to glitch.
due to glitch.

• Spikes in time waveform and direct orbit plots that are at a • Scratches or corrosion on the proximity probe target areas on
fixed angular location relative to the phase timing marker the shaft
• Elevated amplitude at all speeds • Improper protection of the probe target areas
10831714 33
Section 4: Vibration Severity Assessment
Multiple resources are available for steam turbine generator vibration severity assessment including
international standards, manufacturer recommendations, or sophisticated assessment of vibration,
based on calculation of bearing dynamic pressures. This section outlines several options for
assessment of steady-state and transient vibration severity.
ISO 20816 (Mechanical Vibration – Measurement and Evaluation of Machine Vibration) provides
guidelines for measurement of machinery vibration. Part 2 of this standard (ISO 20816-2) provides
recommendations for measurement and evaluation of machine vibration for Land-based gas turbines,
steam turbines, and generators in excess of 40 MW, with fluid-film bearings and rated speeds of
1,500/1,800/3,000/3,600 RPM. The ISO 20816-2:2018-01 standard provides limits based on
measurements of bearing housing vibration, shaft relative vibration, and shaft absolute vibration.
10831714 34
ISO 20816-2 Evaluation Zones [1]:
The ISO standards provide Evaluation Zones to assess vibration severity. They are defined as follows:
Zone A: The vibration of newly commissioned machines normally falls within this zone.
Zone B: Machines with vibration within this zone are normally considered acceptable for
unrestricted long-term operation.
Zone C: Machines with vibration within this zone are normally considered unsatisfactory for long-
term continuous operation.
Zone D: Vibration values within this zone are normally considered to be of sufficient severity to
cause damage to the machine.
ISO 20816-2 Bearing Housing Vibration Limits [1]:
ISO 20816-2 Shaft Relative Vibration Limits [1]:
10831714 35
OEM Reference Standards:
Individual steam turbine-generator OEM’s have published reference standards for vibration
limits. Sample limits are listed below for two common OEM’s. These standards should be
checked against limits provided in the equipment manual and/or technical instruction letters
provided by the steam turbine-generator OEM.
Reference Standards for Siemens-Westinghouse Steam Turbine-Generators [2]:
Reference Standards for General Electric Steam Turbine-Generators [3]:
Reference Standards for General Electric Steam Turbine-Generators If Tripped During

Startup [2]:
10831714 36
Section 5: Diagnostic Process Flow Chart
The diagnostic process used by diagnosticians for steam turbine generator vibration analysis will vary based on diagnostician
training, experience with the subject or similar equipment, and the data available. In general, the process should include data
validation, data collection, including operational and maintenance history for the subject equipment or similar units within the fleet,
data assessment, and corrective action planning.
Typical Diagnostic Process Flow Chart
Data Validation Equipment History Evaluation
Collect
Fault Diagnosis Data Assessment Additional Data
Note: Prior to conducting detailed diagnostics, assessments should be made of any risk to personnel safety, environmental impacts,
station reliability, and engineering best practices.
10831714 37
Section 6: Sample Diagnostic Case Study
A sample diagnostic case study of a steam turbine generator is presented to illustrate the application of
the Diagnostic Process Flow Chart to a real application. The subject equipment is the single-flow, high-
pressure steam turbine at a coal-fired power plant that experienced a step change in vibration
measured on both radial bearings shortly after the return to service following a planned maintenance
outage.
Data Validation
• Vibration Anomaly Identified – Alarms were triggered on two of the four radial vibration
probes permanently installed on a high-pressure steam turbine.
• Personnel Error in Identifying Anomaly? – No. Vibration data were reviewed and
confirmed to exceed alarm setpoints.
• Incorrect Alarm Setpoints? – No. The alarm setpoints were configured correctly and in line
with OEM recommendations.
• Defective Instrumentation? – No. The signals from the probes were checked and
confirmed to be valid.
Data Validation Outcome – The vibration anomaly was deemed to be valid. The station
personnel proceeded to the Equipment History Evaluation.
Equipment History Evaluation

• Collect Relevant Machine History
o Historical Vibration Data – Relevant data collected from historian for recent
operation prior to the alarms. This included trend data (1X amplitude and phase,
overall amplitude, gap voltage).
o Recent Transient Vibration Data – The machine was recently restarted and
transient data plots (Bode plots, polar plots, and shaft centerline plots) were collected
from the vibration database.
o Data from Support Instrumentation – Relevant data from the plant historian was
collected, including bearing temperatures, steam temperatures and pressures, load.
o Recent Maintenance History – The station was recently restarted following a
planned maintenance outage. The work scope for the high-pressure turbine included
installation of the spare rotor, new packing, installation of an upgraded bearing design
to prevent elevated vibration at high load conditions, and other periodic maintenance.
• Previously Identified? – No. This was a new condition that had not been previously
identified either before the maintenance outage or immediately after startup.
• Result of Operational Changes? – No. The turbine was operating under steady-state
conditions when the vibration amplitude experienced a step change.
• Result of Maintenance Activity? – Unknown. The turbine had operated with acceptable
vibration for approximately three days prior to the step change. No ongoing maintenance on
the turbine or auxiliary equipment was occurring at the time of the step change. However, the
turbine had recently returned from a maintenance outage.
• Vibration Acceptable? – No. The vibration amplitude exceeded overall alarm setpoints on
two of the four radial vibration measurement positions. Since the amplitude increase was
persistent following the step change and was not a temporary condition, the decision was
made to conduct a detailed diagnostic evaluation.
Equipment History Evaluation Outcome – Proceed to Collect Additional Data.
10831714 38
Collect Additional Data
• Adequate Data Available for Diagnosis? – No. Permanently installed proximity probes
provided the initial indication of the vibration anomaly, and the vibration data acquisition
system provided detailed vibration data from the recent startup and during the event.
However, no seismic sensors were permanently installed on the bearing housings.
Additionally, questions were asked about the health of the bearing housing, pedestal,
grout, and foundation.
The available data in the plant historian for thermodynamic parameters, bearing metal
temperatures, and other support sensors was determined to be of sufficient quality that no
additional sensors beyond Bearing Housing/Pedestal vibration and motion amplification
videos were required.
• Collect Additional Vibration or Support Instrumentation Data

o Bearing Housing/Pedestal Vibration – A temporary vibration data acquisition
system was deployed. This included multiple accelerometers mounted on the
bearing housing, bearing pedestal, and associated piping.
 The data collected showed excessive vibration amplitude on the bearing
housing/pedestal near the bearing with no significant vibration at the bottom
of the bearing pedestal that would indicate degraded grout or foundation
issues.
o Motion Amplification Video – A high speed camera was used to capture video of
the bearing housing, bearing pedestal, and foundation during operation of the high-
pressure turbine.
 The motion amplification videos corroborated the bearing housing/pedestal
vibration measurements. No significant vibration of the foundation or
indications of degraded grout or bolting were noted.
Collect Additional Data Outcome – The additional bearing housing/pedestal vibration
sensors and motion amplification video provided adequate data. Proceed to Data
Assessment.
10831714 39
Data Assessment
• Steady-State Data Evaluation
o 1X Amplitude Trends – The
1X amplitude trends were
steady, and the amplitude
was acceptable for the three
days of operation prior to the
step change. After the step
change, the amplitudes were
high but stable.
o 1X Phase Trends – The 1X phase trends were stable prior to the amplitude step
change. The 1X amplitude step change was accompanied by a 1X phase shift on
all four proximity probes. The phase shift was consistent (~30 degree shift) on all
four proximity probes.
o Shaft Centerline Plots – The
shaft centerline plots showed
a sudden shift in position
when the step change
occurred. The trend of the
gap voltage from the
proximity probes indicated
that the gap voltage (and rotor
position) was fairly erratic for
a short period of time
immediately after the
vibration step change.
o Other Steady-State Data Plots – Other plots of vibration data at steady state
showed no significant changes other than the increase in the 1X amplitude and
corresponding phase shift.
• Transient Data Evaluation
o Bode Plots and Polar Plots – Both the 1X Bode and 1X polar plots from startup
before the vibration step change were compared to the coast-down plots recorded
after the step change. The comparison indicated that the 1X amplitude was higher
throughout coastdown, and the phase shift identified after the step change was
persistent during the coastdown. Additionally, there was no indication of a change
in critical speed (frequency) or amplification factor (damping level) at critical speed
that would indicate bearing damage.
o Other Transient Data – There was no significant diagnostic information identified
in the coast-down shaft centerline or cascade plots evaluated from coastdown after
the vibration step change.
10831714 40
Data Assessment (continued)
• Support Sensor Data Evaluation
o Thrust Position Plots –
Trends of the turbine rotor
thrust position showed a
sudden shift in the rotor
position at the time when the
radial vibration step change
occurred.
o Bearing Metal Temperatures – Trends of the bearing metal temperatures showed

a slight increase after the vibration step change.
o Other Support Sensor Data – The only notable change in the behavior of the
turbine and turbine vibration after the step change were indications that the radial
vibration was sensitive to load and the condenser vacuum. This behavior was not
apparent prior to the step change.
Data Assessment Outcome – The Data Assessment included a thorough evaluation of

steady-state and transient vibration data, as well as a review of support sensor data. Proceed
to Fault Diagnosis.
Fault Diagnosis
• Compare Data to Fault Matrix
o The data collected in the Data Assessment was evaluated and compared to potential
faults. The most important information indicated a significant 1X vibration amplitude
increase accompanied by a phase shift on all four available proximity probes. This
was accompanied by a sudden shift in rotor position (radial and thrust) at the time
of the event. The transient data did not indicate that the vibration increase was
caused by bearing failures.
o The data was most like the description of a Sudden Mechanical Imbalance (Blade
Loss) as described on Page 17 of this guide document.
• Identify Corrective Actions based on Fault Diagnosis
o The turbine was removed from service, and an internal inspection of the rotor was
conducted. The inspection confirmed the fault diagnosis by finding that two first-
stage blades and a section of the shroud band had been ejected from the rotor.
o No changes to operation were identified that could have prevented the failure.
o A thorough root cause analysis was conducted, which identified design and
manufacturing deficiencies that led to blade fatigue and a subsequent failure.
10831714 41
Bibliography
[1] “API Standard Paragraphs Rotordynamic Tutorial: Lateral Critical Speeds, Unbalance
Response, Stability, Train Torsionals and Rotor Balancing,” API Recommended Practice 684
2nd Edition, August 2005.
[2] Childs, D. (2013), Turbomachinery Rotordynamics with Case Studies, Minter Spring
Publishing.
[3] Bently, D.E. and Hatch, C.T. (2002), Fundamentals of Rotating Machinery Diagnostics, Bently
Pressurized Bearing Press.
[4] Vance, J.M. (1988), Rotordynamics of Turbomachinery, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
[5] ISO 20816-1:2016, Mechanical vibration – Measurement and evaluation of machine vibration -
Part 1: General Guidelines.
References
[1] ISO 20816-2:2017, Mechanical vibration – Measurement and evaluation of machine vibration -
Part 2: Land-based gas turbines, steam turbines and generators in excess of 40 MW, with fluid-
film bearings and rated speeds of 1500 r/min, 1800 r/min, 3000 r/min and 3600 r/min.
[2] Guidelines for Reducing the Time and Cost of Turbine-Generator Maintenance Overhauls and
Inspections, Volume 3 – Balancing and Alignment. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA; 2004. 1011014.
[3] GEK 100469A, “Allowable Rotor Vibration Limits,” GE Power Systems, Revised March 2000.
Acknowledgements
The following organization, under contract to the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), prepared
this report:
Kelm Engineering LLC

13711 Banks View Court
Houston, TX 77059
Principal Investigators
D. Pavelek
R. Kelm
EPRI thanks the following contributors and advisors, who reviewed the report and provided feedback:
K. Han Sik, Korea East-West Power Co., Ltd
B. Zhou, FM Global
S. Hesler, Electric Power Research Institute
10831714 42
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QUICK GUIDE

Steam Turbine and Generator Bearing

Shaft Relative Vibration

1 – to signal processing 4 – shaft

Pedestal Bearing Measurement Positions Housing Bearing Measurement Positions

Axial or Thrust Position

Bearing Metal Temperature

Other Operational Parameters

Waveform plots can also be filtered at

Spectrum plots may be generated for either steady-state or transient data.

Typical Cascade Plot during Turbine Generator CoastDown

Typical Bode Plot during Turbine Generator CoastDown

Overall/Direct Orbit Plot Filtered 1X Orbit Plot

Shaft Centerline Plots

Slow Roll Data

Startup Startup Startup

Bearing temperature trends are constant with

Key Diagnostic Indicators Other Notes

Before Event Before Event

Before Event Before Event Before Event

The increase in vibration amplitude caused by

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

Direct orbit plots will show evidence of

2X Elevated bearing metal temperatures, combined

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

The direct orbit plot will show the 2X vibration

Before Crack Before Crack Before Crack 1X

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

A static rotor bow will result in elevated 1X

The Bode plot phase will not be especially

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

A temporary rotor bow will result in elevated 1X

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

The amplitude trend will show increases and

Other measurement parameters will not

The polar plot at full speed will show continual

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

1/2X Rubs may result in elevated noise, bearing

The shaft centerline plot may show some erratic

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

Normal Transient Normal Transient

1X Full annular rubs can be very destructive and

Key Diagnostic Indicators

The direct orbit plot will show the 1X and the

Startup Startup ~.48X 1X

Oil whirl vibration may be affected by changing

The shaft centerline position will normally be

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

The amplitude in the direct orbit plot will grow

Startup Startup Fn ~.48X 1X

Oil Whip will be extremely destructive to the

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

Electrical issues that produce vibrations at twice

Startup Startup 2XLF

Generator electrical issues will generally show

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

Direct orbit plots may indicate that there is

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes

Normal Clearance Coastdown after Rolling Bow Out 1X

Key Diagnostic Indicators Potential Causes