Question 1

a) Distinguish between Audio-Frequency range (AF) and Radio Frequency range (RF).
4marks
Audio-Frequency range (AF).
Frequencies that are ordinarily heard by the average person are said to be in the audio range.
Although the audio range of any two persons may be very different, it is considered to be those
frequencies between 20Hz and 20,000Hz. For example, the lowest note on a piano is
approximately 32Hz, while the frequencies of human speech fall approximately between 200 and
2,500Hz. The range of a pipe organ is from about 16Hz to 5,000Hz, and the highest fundamental
note of the flute is about 4,000Hz. The high-pitched whine from a jet engine may be above
10,000Hz.
Radio Frequency range (RF).
The RF range extends from about 10,000Hz to over 300,000,000,000 (300GHz). For
convenience, the Communications Commission has divided the RF spectrum into different
bands. These frequency bands, their uses, their characteristics, and their advantages and
disadvantages are addressed in detail later in this text. As weather personnel, were mainly
concerned with radio operations in the HF, VHF, UHF, and sometimes SHF frequency bands for
our communications. However, with the added emphasis of satellite communications to our
career field, expect more involvement with communications equipment operating through the
EHF frequency band.

List and explain any 4 Reasons for modulation 4marks

Need for Modulation

Practical Antenna Length (L)
When free space is the communication channel, antennas radiate and receives the signal.
Theory shows that the antennas operate effective only when their dimensions are of the
order of the magnitude of wavelength of the signal being transmitted.

The audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Suppose a frequency of 20 kHz (AF
signal) is to be radiated directly into space. For this,
To reduce the wavelength for efficient transmission and reception (the optimum antenna size is
½ or ¼ of a wavelength). A typical audio frequency of 3000 Hz will have a wavelength of 100
km and would need an effective antenna length of 25 km! By comparison, a typical carrier for
FM is 100 MHz, with a wavelength of 3 m, and could use an antenna only 80 cm long.
Wireless Communication
One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should be carried without wires (i.e.,)
radiated into space. At audio frequencies, radiation is not practicable because the efficiency of
radiation is poor. However, efficient radiation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies
(>20 kHz). For this reason, modulation is always done in communication systems.
Operating Range
The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The greater the frequency of the wave, the
greater is the energy possessed by it. As the audio signal frequencies are small, these cannot be
transmitted over large distances if radiated directly into space. The only practical solution is to
modulate a high frequency carrier wave with audio signal and permit the transmission to occur at
this high frequency (carrier frequency)
Multiplexing
To allow simultaneous use of the same channel, called multiplexing. Each unique signal can be
assigned a different carrier frequency (like radio stations) and still share the same channel. The
phone company actually invented modulation to allow phone conversations to be transmitted
over common lines.
For easy propagation as electromagnetic waves with low loss and low dispersion Simultaneous
transmission without interference from other signals. Well known examples of high frequency
carrier signals are:
 AM radio is 550-1600 KHz
 FM radio is 88 MHz-108 MHz
 TV is 52-88 MHz (channels 1-6), 174-216 MHz (channels 7-12) and 470-900 MHz
(UHF)
 microwave and satellite signals are of the order of several GHz
 infra red fiber optic signals are of the order of 200-300 THz.

b) Classify and describe with the aid of examples Transducer based on the Principle of
Operation 4marks
i. Electro-optical (Photoelectric):
Electro-optical transducers convert electrical signals to light. Examples are:
Cathode ray tube (CRT) - it converts electrical signals into visual signals
Fluorescent lamps- which converts electrical power into incoherent light
Incandescent lamp- makes use of a heated element that converts electrical power into incoherent
light
Light-emitting diode (LED) - converts electrical power into incoherent light
Laser Diode- converts electrical power into coherent light
Others are: Photodiode, photo resistor, phototransistor, photomultiplier which converts changing
light levels into electrical signals
However, Photo detector or photo resistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) converts changes in
light levels into changes in electrical resistance
ii. Electroacoustic:
They convert electrical signals into sound, Examples are as follows:
Loudspeakers and earphone- which converts electrical signals into sound
Microphone- It converts sound into an electrical signal
Tactile transducers- They convert electrical signal into vibration.
Piezoelectric crystal- converts deformations of solid-state crystals (vibrations) to and from
electrical signals
Geophone- It converts a ground movement (displacement) into voltage
Hydrophone – converts changes in water pressure into an electrical signal

Give the Mathematical Representation of AM-DSB 8marks

The exact way in which the amplitude modulated carrier is produced is quite complex and
involves some advanced mathematics. The solution is provided here.
The general mathematical formula for a sinusoidal wave is :
v=V max sin 2 π ft
Where V = instantaneous value of voltage, V max = maximum amplitude of the wave, f =
frequency of wave and t = time.
For a carrier wave having a frequency f c and amplitude Vc, the instantaneous value vc can be
obtained using the following equation.
v c=V c sin 2 πf c t
The simplest information (Message) signal that can be applied will be a pure sine wave. Assume
that this has a frequency fm and amplitude Vi, the instantaneous value Vi can be obtained using
the following equation.
v i=V i sin 2 πf i t
When the carrier is amplitude modulated, the resulting wave is governed by the equation:
V AM =( A c + Ai sin 2 πf i t )sin 2 πf c t
This formula shows that the amplitude of the modulated carrier sine function increases above and
decreases below the carrier amplitude Vc by the instantaneous value of the information signal.
Using standard mathematical rules this equation can be expanded to become:
1
cos A cos B=
2
[ cos ( A+B ) +cos ( A−B ) ]
Using the trig identity
we have:
1
v AM=V c sin 2 πf c t+ V i [ cos(2 πf c−2 πf i )t−cos(2 πf c +2 πf i )t ]
2
And for
v c=V c sin 2 πf c t v i=V i cos 2 πf i t
The AM now governed by;
1
v AM =V c sin 2 πf c t+ V i [ cos(2 πf c−2 πf i )t+cos(2 πf c +2 πf i )t ]
2
Question2
a) Obtain the power in the Carrier and the side bands for a maximum modulation
depth 6marks
m2 1
2
=
Even for a maximum modulation depth of m = 1 for DSBAM the ratio 4+ 2 m 6 , i.e. only
1/6th of the total power is 'useful' power (with 2/3 of the total power wasted in the carrier).

What is the bandwidth required for an FM wave in which the modulating frequency signal
is 2 KHz and the maximum frequency deviation is 12 KHz? 4marks
Solution:

Fm=2kHz; ∆f=12kHz;

Δf 12 k
= =6
M= fm 2 k
From Bessel Table, m=6; n=9.

Hence, BW= 2 (n x fm)= 2 (9 x 2000)= 36kHz

a) When the modulation percentage is 75, an AM transmitter produces 10 kW. How much
of this is the carrier power? How much is the power per sideband? What would be the
percentage power saving if the carrier and one of the sidebands were suppressed before
transmission took place? 10marks

QUESTION 1

QUESTION 1

A. What are the Forms of information 3mrks

B. Mention any 4 reasons for modulation of message signal 4mrks

A – 10MHZ sinusoidal carrier wave of amplitude 10mv is modulated by a 5 KHZ sinusoidal audio signal wave of
amplitude 6m. Find the frequency Components of the resultant modulated wave and their amplitudes.
13mrks

What are the Forms of information 3mrks

 1. Voice/speech
2. Text
3. Image

Mention any 4 reasons for modulation of message signal 4mrks

1. To reduce the height of antenna: For efficient radiation and reception the antennas should have heights
comparable to quarter wavelenghth of the frequency used.
2. To avoid mixing signals : We know that frequency range of audio signal is from 20MHz to 20KHz. If there
are several stations operating over this same frequency range, the programme of different stations will get
mixed up
3. To increase the range of communication: At low frequencies radiation is poor and signal gets highly
attenuated. So baseband signals cannot be transmitted over large distances. Modulation makes it easier for
signals to be transmitted over long distances.
4. To allow multiplexing of signals: The transmission of one signal at a time on a channel is highly wasteful
situation as given channel is being operated very much below its capacity to transmit information. If the
frequency spectra of various signals are shifted by means of modulation so that they occupy different frequency
ranges without overlapping. This technique of transmitting more signals simultaneously on a single channel
after these have been translated to different frequency ranges by the process of modulation is known as
frequency – division multiplexing.
5. To improve the quality of reception : The higher the carrier frequency, better is the selection of signal in the
receiver. The signal communication using modulation technique such as Frequency modulation (FM), pulse
code modulation (PCM) reduce the effect of noise to a great extent.

C. A – 10MHZ sinusoidal carrier wave of amplitude 10mv is modulated by a 5 KHZ sinusoidal audio signal
wave of amplitude 6m. Find the frequency Components of the resultant modulated wave and their
amplitudes. 9mrks

SOLUTION

Original carrier wave frequency Fc = 10MHz

USF of frequency = 10 + 0.005 = 10.005MHz

LSF of frequency = 10 - 0.005 = 9.995MHZ

Amplitude = Vm/2 = 6/2=3mV.

Recall Amplitude of LSF = USF = 3mV

Frequencies USF = 10.005MHz

 Frequency LSF = 9.995MHz

QUESTION 2

A. What is amplitude modulation? 3mrks

B. A 1.5 MHz carrier is amplitude modulated by three sinusoidal signals of frequency 500 Hz, 800 Hz and
1,400 Hz. What are the frequencies in the AM spectrum? 7mrks

C. In an aerial the aerial current (RHS) before modulation is 10 amps. After modulation it rises to 11.6 amps.
Determine percentage modulation. If the carrier power is 10 kw. What is the power after modulation?
10mrks

What is amplitude modulation? 3mrks

Ans. Amplitude Modulation is defined as the varying the amplitude of the message signal in accordance in varying
the amplitude of the carrier signal. In otherwords, amplitude modulation implies the modulation of a coherent
carrier wave by mixing it in a nonlinear device with the modulating signal to produce discrete upper and lower side
bands, which are the sum and difference frequencies of the carrier and signal.

The envelope of the resistant modulated wave is an analog of the modulating signal. The instantaneous value of
the resultant modulated wave is the vector sum of the corresponding instantaneous values of the carrier wave,
upper side band and lower side band.

. In an aerial the aerial current (RHS) before modulation is 10 amps. After modulation it rises to 11.6
amps. Determine percentage modulation. If the carrier power is 10 kw. What is the power after
modulation?

Carrier current L = 10 amp.

Carrier after modulation = Imod = 11.6 amp.

 If the load is assumed to be 1, then

QUESTION 3

Describe the Properties of an electrical signals 3mrks

B. What are the advantages of FM system over Am system? Make a critical comparison 5mrks

C. Derive the AM wave equation and the power relations in an AM wave. 9mrks

D. Obtain the Percentage power wasted in the carrier 3mrks

Describe the Properties of an electrical signals 5mrks

1. Amplitude: This is the maximum distance of a wave between two successive crest or trough
2. Frequency: This is the number of cycles made per second.
3. Phase: this is the angle at which the wave started.

What are the advantages of FM system over Am system. Make a critical comparison 5mrks
 1. Fm signal has a constant amplitude and hence, transmitted power is constant, independent of
modulation depth.
2. Fm offers better noise immunity and it rejects interfering signals because of the capture effect.
3. Fm has greater transmission efficiency because it uses class C amplifiers
4. Fm operates in VHF and UHF ranges
5. Limiter circuits in FM receivers clip off noise signal

Derive the AM wave equation and the power relations in an AM wave.

Let the modulating voltage

Vm(t)= Vm Sinmt -----(1)

Vc(t) = Vc Sinct -----(2)

According to the definition, the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed after modulation,

ma=Vm/Vc= “modulation index”

The instantaneous amplitude of modulated signal is

VAM(t) =VAM sinct -----(6)

The value of VAM in equation (6)

VAM (t)=VC(1+masinmt) Sinct

=Vc Sinct +maVc sinmt. sinct ---(7)

 The equation(8) of an amplitude modulated wave contains three terms. The 1 st term of R.H.8
represents the carrier wave. The 2nd and 3rd terms are identical which are called as “lower side band (LSB)
and upper side band (USB)

VAM(t) VC
Frequency

Spectrum

LSB USB

m m

V
c-m c c + m
Figure 1 shows the frequency spectrum of AM. It shows that two side band terms lying on either
b>w=2 m
side of carrier term which are separated by m. The frequency of LSB is (c-m)and USB is (c+m). The
bandwidth of AM can be determined by using these side bands. Hence “BW is twice the frequency of
modulating signal’.

Power relation in AM:

The modulated wave contains three such as carrier wave, LSB such as carrier wave, LSB and USB
. therefore the modulated wave contains more power than the carrier had before modulation took
place>moreover sine the amplitude of sidebands depends on the modulation index, it is anticipated that
the total power in the modulated wave depends on the modulation index.

The total power in modulation wave will be

Where, Vcarrier= RMS value of carrier voltages

VLSB=VUSB=RM value of upper and lower side band voltage

R= Resistance in power is dissipated

Vc=maximum amplitude of carrier value

VSB= = maximum amplitude of side bands.

Therefore
 Pt=1.5 Pc

QUESTION 4

Explain any 4 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation 4mrks

B. Briefly describe the basic principle of operation of a typical sound transducer in telecommunication
4mrks

C. Describe Trunking in Telephone System 4mrks

D. An Fm transmission has a frequency deviation of 18.75 KHz. Calculate the modulation index if it is
broadcast i) In the 88 – 108MHz band 4mrks

ii) As a portion of a TV broadcast 4mrks

Explain any 4 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation 4mrks

1) Noisy Reception: In an AM wave, the signal is in the amplitude variation of the carrier. Practically, all the
natural and man-made noises consist of electrical amplitude disturbances. As a radio receiver cannot
distinguish between amplitude variation that represent noise and those that contain the desire signal,
reception is generally noise.
2) Low efficiency: In AM wave, useful power is in the side bands as they contain the signal. An AM wave has
a low side band power. For example if modulation is 100%, the sideband power is only one third of the
total power of AM wave. Hence, the efficiency of this type of modulation is low.
3) Small operating range: Due to low efficiency of AM; transmitters employing this method have a small
operating range i.e. messages cannot be transmitted over longer distances.
 4) Lack of audio quality: this is a distinct disadvantage of amplitude modulation. In other to attain high
fidelity reception, all audio frequencies up to 15 kHz must be reproduced. This necessitates bandwidth of
30 kHz since both sidebands must be reproduced. This necessitates bandwidth of 30 kHz since both
sidebands must be reproduced.

Briefly describe the basic principle of operation of a typical sound transducer in telecommunication
4mrks

A sound transducer uses an input transducer first, eg microphone to take speech or sound and convert the sound
from its mechanical form to electrical energy, after which the electrical energy is sent to the transmitter through
a medium. In the transmitter, modulation occurs here ie the electrical energy is conveyed with the aid of the
carrier signal to the receiver, whereby the receiver separates the carrier signal from the electrical signal and then
send the electrical energy to the output transducer which connect the electrical energy back to its mechanical
from to be heard from the output transducer e.g loudspeaker.

DESCRIBE TRUNKING IN TELEPHONE SYSTEM 4mrks

A trunk is a single transmission channel between two points, each point being either the switching center

of the node.

Trunking refers to the connection of switches and circuits within a telephone exchange. It is closely related to the

concept of grading. Trunking allows a group of inlet switches at the same time. Thus the service provider can

provide a lesser number of circuit that might otherwise be required, allowing many users to share a smaller

number of connections and to achieve capacity savings.

In modern communication, trunking is a concept by which a communication system can provide network access to

many clients by sharing a set of lines or frequencies instead of providing them individually. This is analogous to the

structure of a tree with one trunk and many branches. Example includes telephone systems are the VHF radios

commonly used by the police agencies.

Telephone network could be divided into local lines, junctions and trunks. Local lines consist of pairs of wires that
connect the individual telephone subscribers to their local telephone exchange. Junctions are two circuit, that may
or may not be amplified and connect nearly all telephone exchange together. And trunks are amplified four-wire
circuits that connect distant exchanges together. Long-distance telephone lines are extremely expensive and it is
not economically possible to directly connect every exchange in the network to every other exchange, direct
trunks are only provided between two-exchanges when justified by the traffic carrier. The remainder of the trunk
traffic is, as would be expected, between exchanges which are not physically located near to one another and this
traffic is routed via trunk switching exchange known as Group Switching Centres (GSC).

It has been estimated that about 85% of trunk traffic is routed over the auxiliary network.

LE
LE

TO OTHER TO OTHER
GSC GSC
GSC
LE

LE

LE

An Fm transmission has a frequency deviation of 18.75Khz. Calculate the modulation index if it is broadcast
i) In the 88 – 108MHz band 4mrks

ii) As a portion of a Tv broadcast 4mrks

SOLUTION

For this tramission band,

F = 75kHz
Therefore m = 18.75/75

= 1/4;

When F = 25KHz

Therefore m = 18.75 / 25

= ¾;

QUESTION 5

A. What is Heterodyne? 2mrks

B. Describe the mixer stage of a superhet 4mrks

C. Briefly discuss the following five sections to a superhetroclyne Receiver 10mrks

D. Briefly explain the following:

Magneto Circuit In Telephone 2mrks

Central Battery Signalling (CBS) 2mrks

What is Heterodyne? 2mrks

Heterodyne means combining or mixing RF and Losc F to produce an Intermediate Frequency (IF) in radio
receiving. It is the centre frequency that all RF converts to in radio receivers, given by │RF ± LoscF│

Where the lowered frequency is always considered (I.e │RF - LoscF│)

The difference is always 450 or 455 kHz.

Describe the mixer stage of a superhet 4mrks

MIXER STAGE OF A SUPERHET

In a superheterodyne receiver, the frequency fc and the frequency of the local oscillation fo are fed to a device
called the mixer,at the output of which a voltage of │fo -fc│is obtained. This frequency difference is known as the
Intermediate Frequency (IF).

Fc = 1.4 Mhz

Fo –fc = 1.85 – 1.4 = 0.45 = 450khz

Fo + fc =1.85 + 1.4 = 2.25Mhz

As the IF is set at the Lower Frequency ie fo –fc, hence IF = 450khz.

The fo+fc = 2.25Mhz is the Image Freq/band.

The Local OSc is tunned such that it generates that which will always convert the output of the mixer for the IF.

Due to fo –fc, the IF is by standard set at │fo -fc│ie the difference and lower frequency such that any frequency
higher than the pass band is rejected. I.e. rejecting fo + fc and signals lower than the pass band are also rejected.

There are five sections to a superhetroclyne Receiver

1. RF section
2. The mixer/converter section
3. IF section
4. The Audio Detector section.
5. The Audio Amplifier section.

RF Section: The R7 section generally consists of a pre-selector and an amplifier. The primary purpose of
the pre-selector is to provide enough initial bands limiting to prevent a specific unwanted radio
frequency called the image frequency. It also reduces the noise bandwidth of the receiver and provides
the initial step toward reducing the overall receivers bandwidth to the minimum bandwidth required to
pass the information signal. The R7 amplifiers determine the sensitivity and noise figure to the receiver.

Advantages of RF Amplifier in Receivers.

 1. Greater gain, thus better sensitivity
2. Improved image frequency rejection.
3. Better signal to noise Ratio
4. Better selectivity

Mixer/ Converter Section:

It includes a radio frequency oscillator stage and mixer / converter stage. The local oscillators
can be any of the oscillator circuits depending on the stability and accuracy. The IF frequencies. The most
common intermediate frequency used in AM broadcast and Receiver 455 KHZ.

IF Section:

It consists of a series of IF Amplifiers and band pass filters and is of the called IF strip. Most of the
Receivers gain and selectivity is achieved in the IF section. The center frequency and bandwidth are
constant for all stations. The IF is always lower than R7 because this easier and loss expensive to construct
high gain amplifier.

Detector Section:

The purpose of the detector section is convert the IF signals back to the original source
information. The detecting is generally called an audio detector are the second detector in a broadcast
bund Receiver. It can be as simple as a single diode or as complex as a phase locked loop or balanced
demodulator.

Audio Section:

The audio section comprises several cascade audio amplifiers and one r more speakers. The
number of amplifiers used depends on the audio signal.

Receiver operation:
 The received signals undergo two or more frequency translations.

1. R7 is converted to 17.
2. 17 is converted to source information. For eg:R7 for the commercial AM broadcast band are
frequencies between 535 k 42 and 1605 KHZ . IF signals are frequencies between 450 KHZ and
460 KHZ.

Frequency Conversion:

The frequencies are down converted rather than up converted. The output of the mixer consists
of an infinite number of harmonic and cross product frequencies, which include the sum and differences
frequencies, which include the sum and differences frequencies between the R& carrier and local isolation
frequencies . the frequency of Oscillation is always above or below the desired R7 carrier by an amount
equal to the IF center frequency Gang tuning means that the two adjustments are mechanically tied
together so that a single adjustment will change the center frequency of the preselected at the same time
charge the local oscillator frequency. When the local oscillation frequency is tied above R7 it is called high
side injection when the local oscillator is turned below R7 it is called low side injection.

MAGNETO CIRCUIT IN TELEPHONE 4mrks

A Telephone Magneto is a hand-cranked electrical generator that uses permanent magnets to produce
alternating current from the rotating armature.

In early telegraphs, magnets were used to power instruments, while in telephony they were used to
generate electrical current to drive electromechanical ringers in telephone sets and on operator consoles.

Telegraph pre-dated telephony and magnetos were used to drive some of the early printing telegraph
instruments. Manual telegraph with keys and reception by either needle instrument or a siphon recorder could be
powered by batteries.
 The later automatic and printing instruments such as wheatstone ABC telegraph required greater currents
that could be delivered by a hand-cranked magneto. A hand-crank was used to rotate a belt drive that increases
the rotational speed of an armature with a pair of coils between the poles of a stationary horse shoe magnet.

CENTRAL BATTERY SIGNALLING (CBS) 4mrks

CBS is short for Central Battery Signaling which superseded the Magneto System. CBS systems, of which
there are three types, were defined by the Post Office and CBS No’s 2 and 3 were standard for all exchange that
were not large enough to justify the provision of Central Battery Equipment or were a Rural Automatic exchange
would not meet the requirement.

The CBS system provide automatic signaling similar to that of the Central Battery , the difference being
that microphone and the central battery in the exchange supplied power for signaling purposes.

CBS No 1

This system uses telephone with a 250 ohm ringer connected to earth

CBS No 2

This system used telephones with 1000 ohm ringer connected in series with a capacitor across the line.

CBS No 3

This was similar to CBS No 2 but had small switchboard with an ultimate capacity 2or 5 junctions and 20 subscriber
circuits.

QUESTION6

LOCAL EXCHANGE 2mrks

Local Exchange or central office to which the subscribers are connected using local lines.

The local exchange may be connected to other local exchanges and to trunk exchanges.

A telephone exchange is a telecommunication system used in the public switched telephone network or

in large enterprises. An exchange consist of electronic components and in older systems also human operator that

interconnect (switch) telephone subscriber lines or virtual circuit of digital system to establish telephone calls

between subscribers

In the public telecommunication network, a telephone exchange is located in a central office (co) typically

a building used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges, each serving a

central geographical area.

Difference between Morse Code and ASCII Code. 2mrks

MORSE CODE

Morse Code is a method of transmitting text information as a series of on-off toes, lights or clicks that can directly

understood by a skilled listener of observer without special equipment.

The international Morse Code encodes the ISO basic Latin alphabet, some extra Latin letters, the Arabic numerals

and a small set of punctuation and procedural signals as standardized sequence of short and long signals called

“dots” and “dashes” or “dits” and “dahs” because many non-English natural languages uses more than 26 Roman

letters, extensions to the Morse alphabet exist for those languages.

ASCII CODE

ASCII abbreviated from American standard code for information interchange is a character encoding scheme

originally based on the English alphabet, it encodes 128 specified characters into 7-bit binary integers. The
characters encoded are numbers 0 to 9, low case letter a to z, upper case letter A to Z, basic punctuation symbols

control codes that originated with Teletype machines and a space.

For example lower case j would become 1101010 and decimal 106.

The ASCII code for the following; 8mrks

1. HELLO SIR

H E L L O {space}
01001000 01000101 01001100 01001100 01001111 00010000

S I R
01010011 01001001 01010010

2. Hello sir

H e l l o {space}

01001000 0110010101101100 01101100 01101111 00010000

s i r

01110011 01101001 01110010

3. Thank you

T h a n k {space}

01010100 01101000 01100001 01101110 01101011 00010000

y o u

01111001 01101111 01110101

 4. THANK YOU

T H A N K {space}

01010100 01001000 01000001 01001110 01001011 00010000

Y O U

01011001 01001111 01010101

The Morse code for the following; 8mrks

1. HELLO SIR
…..._..._.._ _ _ …..._.

2. Hello sir
…..._..._.._ _ _ …..._.

3. THANK YOU
_…..__._ . _ _._ __ _ _.._

4. Thank you
_….._ _._ . _ _._ _ _ _ _ .._

QUESTION 7

Telecommunication Media 4mrks

Telecommunication media are the path through which telecommunication signals are being transported.It is
ususally termed transmission media,they are;

i. Wire-pair;

ii. Coaxial cable;

iii. Fiber optics;

iv. Radio.

Wire-Pair : A wire pair consists of two wires.The wires commonly use a copper conductor or aluminium
conductors.Wire-pair transmission suffers loss and other impairments such as crosstalk which appears as another
"foreign" conversation having nothing to do with our phone call.The main cause of crosstalk is from other wire
pairs sharing the same cable as our line.To mitigate this impairment,physical twists are placed on each wire pair in
the cable.Generally there are from 2 to 12 twists per foot of wire pair;which brings about the term "twisted pair."

Coaxial Cable Transmission : Here,the conducting pair consists of a cylindrical tube with a single wire conductor
going down its center.The center conductor is held in place accurately by a surrounding insulating material which
may take the form of a solid core,discs, or beads strung along the axis of the wire or a spirally wrapped string.

Fiber-Optics Cable : The fiber optics transmission system consists of a light source providing the conversion of an
electrical signal into a light signal which passes through the fiber.At the receiving end,a detector which will convert
the light signal back into an electrical signal is required. Fiber optics is the transmission medium mostly used for
very wideband terrestial links,including undersea applications.It is also used for cable television "super trunks."The
bandwidth of a fiber optic strand can be measured in terahertz(THz).The whole usable radio frequency spectrum
can be accommodated on just one such strand.It can carry one serial bit stream at 10Gbps(gigabits per second)
transmission rate,or by wave division multiplexing

Radio Transmission : This is based on radiated emission.The essentials of any radio system are:

-The transmitter used for generating and modulating a high frequency carrier wave with an information baseband;

-A transmitting antenna that will radiate the maximum amount of signal energy of the modulated carrier in the
desired direction;

-A receiving antenna that will intercept the maximum amount of the radiated energy after its transmission through
space;

-A receiver to select the desired carrier wave, amplify the signal, detect it, or separate the signal from the carrier.

Distinguish between the Troposphere and the Ionosphere 4mrks

TROPOSPHERE IONOSPHERE

1. It is the region of the earth’s atmosphere It refers to the upper region of the atmosphere where charged gas
between the surface of the earth and the molecules have been produced by the energy of the ion
lower edge of the ionosphere
2. The wave suffers little attenuation on The ionosphere attenuation falls and the E
earth reflection and so the received field and F layers provide refraction of the sky
strength is inversely proportioned to the wave.
distance travelled.

The following circuit shows a simple radio receiver

1
C

10mH 20pF-60pF 100pF

4 2 f o2 L
1


4   2  450  10 3 
2
 2.2  10 3
 5.685  10 11 F
 56.85 pF

(a) Calculate the minimum and maximum frequency that the tuned circuit of this radio can respond to.

(b) (i) Calculate the break frequency of the RF Filter. 4mrks

(ii) Comment on the suitability of the break frequency for this particular radio receiver.
4mrks

Question 3

1. A message signal v m (t )=2 sin(10000 πt ) volt is used to frequency modulate the carrier
v c (t )=10 sin(180 x 106 πt ) volt. Given the percent modulation is 70%. Determine:
The frequency sensitivity of the modulator circuit.
The frequency deviation of the modulated carrier.
Solution:
k1=m(fm) / vm
= 0.7(5000)/2 =1.75kHz/V

ii) ∆f = vmk1 =m(fm) = 0.7(5000) = 3500kHz

a) An AM signal is represented by the equation below and has a total output power
of 2 Watts.
v = (10 + 5Sin (2π * 2 * 103 t)) * Sin (2 π* 1 * 106t) volts
i. What are the values of the carrier and modulating frequencies?
ii. What are the amplitudes of the carrier and of the upper and lower side
frequencies?
iii. What is the modulation index?
iv. What is the bandwidth of this signal?
v. What is the output power if the carrier and one sideband are suppressed?

10marks

v = {Vc + Vm Sin ( 2πfm t )} * Sin (2πfc t ) fc = 100kHz

fm = 2kHz

(ii)Vc = 10V

Vm = 5V

(iii)m = Vm/Vc m = 5/10 m = 0.5

(iv)Bandwidth = 2 * fm

Bandwidth = 2 * 2kHz = 4kHz

(v)The total power in the signal is Pt = Pc ( 1 + m22 ) .

Therefore the fraction of the total power in the carrier is

1 / ( 1 + m22 ) = 1/(1 + 0.52/2) = 1/1.125 = .888 = 88.8%

Total power = 2 Watts

Pc = 2 * 0.88888 = 1.777Watts

Therefore the power in the side bands is

Pdsbsc = 2 – 1.777 = 0.2222 Watts

Therefore the power in one sideband is

Pssb = 0.2222 / 2 = 0.1111Watts

Question 4
1. Define deviation sensitivity for a frequency modulator and for a phase
modulator.
Deviation sensitivity is the output-versus-input transfer functions for the
modulators, which give relationship between what output parameter changes in
respect to specified changes in the input signal.
From the Bessel table, determine the number of sets of sidebands produced for
the following modulation indices: 0.5, 1,0,2.0.5.0, and 10.0. 5marks

Modulation index # of sideband sets

0.5 2
1.0 3
2.0 4
5.0 8
10.0 14
Input to an FM modulator with a modulation index m=1.5, is a modulating signal V m(t)=Vm sin
(2π1000t), and an unmodulated carrier Vc(t)=20 sin(2π500kt).Using the Bessel function table,
determine
I. number of sets of significant side frequencies
II. Their amplitudes
III. Draw the frequency spectrum showing their relative amplitudes
IV. The bandwidth
V. The bandwidth if the amplitude of the modulating signal increases by
a factor 2.65
VI. Assume load resistance RL =50Ω; determine the unmodulated carrier
power
VII. The total power in the angle modulated wave.
Solution:

From Bessel table/graph, m=1.5 yields a reduced carrier component and 4 sets of significant
side frequencies.
Relative amplitudes:
J0 = 20(0.51) = 10.2V

J1 = 20(0.56) =11.2 V

J2 = 20(0.23) = 4.6 V

J3 = 20(0.06) = 1.2 V

J4 = 20(0.01) = 0.2 V
iii) 11.2VVV 11.2VVV

10.2V
4.6V 4.6V

1.2V 1.2V
0.2V 0.2V

f(kHz)
496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504

Bandwidth = 2 (n x fm) = 2x4x1000 = 8000 Hz

Bandwidth will be different for the same deviation sensitivities, kf

k1 = m*fm/ Vm = 1500/Vm

m = k1Vm/fm = 1500/Vm*2.65Vm / 1kHz = 3.975 ~ 4

for m = 4, no of sidebands = 7

BW = 2*n*fm = 2*7*1kHz = 14 kHz

(Vc)2 (20)2
Pc = ------ = -------- = 4W

2R 2(50)

vii)
V 2c 2( V 1 )2 2( V 2 )2 2( V n )2
Pt =P0 + P1 + P2 + ..+ Pn = + + +. .+
2R 2R 2R 2R
(10 . 2)2 2(11.2 )2 2( 4 . 6)2 2(1. 2)2 2(0 . 2)2
Pt = + + + + =4 . 002W
2(50 ) 2(50 ) 2(50 ) 2(50 ) 2 (50 )
Question 5

Explain any 4 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation 4mrks

Noisy Reception: In an AM wave, the signal is in the amplitude variation of the carrier.
Practically, all the natural and man-made noises consist of electrical amplitude
disturbances. As a radio receiver cannot distinguish between amplitude variation that
represent noise and those that contain the desire signal, reception is generally noise.
1) Low efficiency: In AM wave, useful power is in the side bands as they contain the signal.
An AM wave has a low side band power. For example if modulation is 100%, the
sideband power is only one third of the total power of AM wave. Hence, the efficiency
of this type of modulation is low.
 2) Small operating range: Due to low efficiency of AM; transmitters employing this method
have a small operating range i.e. messages cannot be transmitted over longer distances.
3) Lack of audio quality: this is a distinct disadvantage of amplitude modulation. In other to
attain high fidelity reception, all audio frequencies up to 15 kHz must be reproduced.
This necessitates bandwidth of 30 kHz since both sidebands must be reproduced. This
necessitates bandwidth of 30 kHz since both sidebands must be reproduced.
4) To improve the quality of reception : The higher the carrier frequency, better is the
selection of signal in the receiver. The signal communication using modulation technique
such as Frequency modulation (FM), pulse code modulation (PCM) reduce the effect of
noise to a great extent.

Distinguish between the Troposphere and the Ionosphere 4mrks

TROPOSPHERE IONOSPHERE
1. It is the region of the earth’s atmosphere It refers to the upper region of the atmosphere
between the surface of the earth and the where charged gas molecules have been
lower edge of the ionosphere produced by the energy of the ion

2. The wave suffers little attenuation on earth The ionosphere attenuation falls and the E
reflection and so the received field strength and F layers provide refraction of the sky
is inversely proportioned to the distance wave.
travelled.

With the aid of diagram explain the principle of operation of a loudspeaker

Loudspeakers are also sound transducers that are classed as "sound actuators" and are the exact
opposite of microphones. Their job is to convert complex electrical analogue signals into sound
waves being as close to the original input signal as possible. Loudspeakers are available in all
shapes, sizes and frequency ranges with the more common types being moving coil,electrostatic,
isodynamic and piezo-electric. Moving coil type loudspeakers are by far the most commonly
used speaker in electronic circuits and kits, and it is this type of sound transducer we will
examine below.
The principle of operation of the Moving Coil Loudspeaker is the exact opposite to that of the
"Dynamic Microphone" we look at above. A coil of fine wire, called the "speech or voice coil",
is suspended within a very strong magnetic field, and is attached to a paper or Mylar cone, called
a "diaphragm" which itself is suspended at its edges to a metal frame or chassis. Then unlike the
microphone which is pressure sensitive, this type of sound transducer is a pressure generating
device.The figure 2.6 below shows the Moving Coil Loudspeaker.
 What is IF. Give the function of the 1st and 2nd IF in a double Superhet.

THE DOUBLE SUPERHETERODYNE RADIO RECEIVER 6mrks

To obtain good adjacent channel selectivity, the intermediate frequency of a super heterodyne
radio receiver should be as low as possible, but to maximize the image channel rejection the
intermediate frequency must be as high as possible. In the RF band it may prove difficult to
select a suitable frequency and for this reason many receivers use two, or more different
intermediate frequency.

The first IF is chosen to give a good image channel rejection ratio and the second frequency is
chosen for good adjacent channel selectivity.

The disadvantages of the double super heterodyne principles are the extra cost and complexity
involved and the generation of extra spurious frequencies because there are two stages of
mixing. The most important of these frequencies is the image channel frequency. The block
diagram of a double super heterodyne receiver is shown as below:

RECEIVING ANTENNA

RF STAGE FREQUENCY IF AMPLIFIER 1

CHANGER 1

AF
FREQUENCY IF AMPLIFER 2 DETECT AMPLIFIER
CHANGER 2 OR
 Double Super heterodyne Receiver

Question 6

a) Derive the formnular for total power and power of the side bands of a DSBAM 6m
b) Explain
the
output
of the
mixer
stage in
an

heterodyne radio receiver. 3marks

Again a new addition to the superhet radio, but is the critical addition, as it combines the
received modulated radio frequency carrier (fc) from the R.F.Amplifier, and the Local Oscillator
(fo). The output of the mixer produces at its output four different frequency signals containing the
following frequencies, fc, fo-fc, fo+fc, fo. Three of these frequencies fc, fo-fc, fo+fc are amplitude
modulated signals each containing all the information about the original audio signal. The only
one that does not contain the original signal is fo, the local oscillator frequency which is a pure
sine wave. The most important of these is fo-fc because irrespective of the carrier frequency that
is tuned in, this frequency will always be the same, since the output of the local oscillator tracks
the carrier frequency tuned in. This modulated frequency is called the intermediate frequency
(I.F.) and contains the audio signal from the original radio station no matter what station is tuned
in.

e.g.
a. If the carrier frequency fc = 1.4MHz and local oscillator frequency fo = 1.85MHz then the
frequencies produced at the output of the mixer will be

fc = 1.4 MHz.
fo-fc = 1.85 MHz – 1.4 MHz = 0.450 MHz = 450 kHz.
 fo+fc = 1.85 MHz + 1.4 MHz = 2.25 MHz.
fo = 1.85 MHz

c) The circuit bellow shows a simple radio receiver

i. C
1

10mH 20pF-60pF 100pF

4 2 f o2 L
1


4   2  450  10 3 
2
 2.2  10 3
 5.685  10 11 F
 56.85 pF

Calculate the minimum and maximum frequency that the tuned circuit of this radio can
respond to. 4marks
ii. Calculate the break frequency of the RF Filter. 4marks
iii. Comment on the suitability of the break frequency for this particular radio receiver.
3marks

Solution:

(a) To calculate the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit for minimum
and maximum values of the variable capacitor we must apply the

formula twice for the two extremes of capacitance value.

The minimum frequency will be obtained when C is at its maximum

value i.e. 60pF, so

The maximum frequency will be obtained when C is at its minimum

value i.e. 20pF, so
 The tuning range of this tuned circuit is therefore 205 kHz – 356 kHz

(b) i. The break frequency of the RF filter is given by the following

1
f b=
formula 2 π RC

ii. The audio frequency range broadcast on an AM transmission is

limited to approximately 5 kHz. The break frequency is higher
than the highest audio frequency so any audio signal that is
broadcast will pass through the RF filter.

In addition the break frequency is much lower than any RF

frequency that can be picked up by the receiver.

The RF filter is therefore suitable for this radio receiver.

Question 7
Question7
a) Explain the following?
i. Two basic classifications of antennas 2marks
ii. The three parts of a complete antenna system 3marks
iii. Three factors determine the type, size, and shape of an antenna 3marks

With the aid of diagram; radiation pattern describe the following types of antenna:
a. Yagi – Uda Antenna b. Rhombic Antenna c. A half-wave dipole 9mrks
a. Yagi-uda Antenna: is made up of a λ/2 dipole and a number of parasitic elements. It
is certainly the most popular form of directional antenna. The antenna is widely used
where a directional array is required; being almost the only type of antenna used for
UHF TV receptions. The basic antenna consists of a central boom with the elements
mounted to it at the right angle as shown in the figure below. It consist of the main
element to which the feeder is connected, and parasitic element either side. These
parasitic elements are not directly connected to the feeder but operate by picking up
and re-radiating power in such a way that the directional properties of the antenna are
altered. The polar diagram of a Yagi is generally as shown below

Director
Dipole

Reflector

Supporting Muolding
arms brackets

Supporting Coaxial feeder

mast
(i) Polar Yagi Antenna

(ii) Polar diagram

b. RHOMBIC ANTENNA: it comprises of two-vee antenna joined together in such a a

way as to form rhombic. It is a very efficient antenna widely used in radio
communication (both transmission and reception) where enough space for antenna
structure is available. It is normally designed so that the lobes of the radiation pattern
are addictive in the wanted direction and self canceling in the unwanted direction.
The angle of elevation of the main lobe is usually determined by the height at which
the four conductors are mounted above the earth.
Y
X ᶿ
Y 2β X ᶿ
600 Ω Terminating
Feeder impedance
Y X

X 2β Y
(i) The Rhombic aerial (ii) Radiation pattern
What is the advantage of adding parasitic elements to a Yagi array 3marks