Thinking

A. How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?

Thinking, or cognition (from a Latin word meaning “to know”), can be defined as mental
activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information—organizing it,
understanding it, and communicating it to others. Thinking includes memory, but it is much
more. When people think, they are not only aware of the information in the brain but also are
making decisions about it, comparing it to other information, and using it to solve problems.

Thinking also includes more than just a kind of verbal “stream of consciousness.” When people
think, they often have images as well as words in their minds. Thinking (cognition) is mental
activity that occurs in the brain when information is being organized, stored, communicated, or
processed.

Mental images represent objects or events and have a picture-like quality. Concepts are ideas that
represent a class or category of events, objects, or activities. People use concepts to think about
objects or events without having to think about all the specific examples of the category. For
example, a person can think about “fruit” without thinking about every kind of fruit there is in
the world, which would take far more effort and time. This ability to think in terms of concepts
allows us to communicate with each other: If I mention a bird to you, you know what I am
referring to, even if we aren’t actually thinking of the same type of bird. Prototypes are examples
of a concept that more closely match the defining characteristics of that concept.

B. What are the methods people use to solve problems and make decisions?

Problem solving occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
Problems range from figuring out how to cut a recipe in half to understanding complex
mathematical proofs to deciding what to major in at college. Problem solving is one aspect of
decision making, or identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives. There are
several different ways in which people can think in order to solve problems.

One method is to use trial and error, also known as a mechanical solution. Trial and error
refers to trying one solution after another until finding one that works. For example, if Shelana
has
forgotten the PIN for her online banking Web site, she can try one combination after another
until she finds the one that works, if she has only a few such PINs that she normally uses.
Mechanical solutions can also involve solving by rote, or a learned set of rules. This is how word
problems were solved in grade school, for example.

Algorithms are a type of rote solution in which one follows step-by-step procedures for solving
certain types of problems. For example, if Shelana didn’t have a clue what those four numbers
might be, she might be able to figure out her forgotten PIN by trying all possible combinations of
four digits, 0 through 9. She would eventually find the right four-digit combination—but it might
take a very long while! Computers, however, can run searches like this one very quickly, so the
systematic search algorithm is a useful part of some computer programs.

A heuristic, or “rule of thumb,” is a simple rule that is intended to apply to many situations.
Whereas an algorithm is very specific and will always lead to a solution, a heuristic is an
educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a
problem. For example, if a student is typing a paper in a word-processing program and wants to
know how to format the page, he or she could try to read an entire manual on the word-
processing program. That would take a while. Instead, the student could use an Internet search
engine or type “format” into the help feature’s search program. Doing either action greatly
reduces the amount of information the student will have to look at to get an answer. Using the
help feature or clicking on the appropriate toolbar word will also work for similar problems.

Insight is the sudden perception of a solution to a problem. In humans, insight often takes the
form of an “aha!” moment—the solution seems to come in a flash. A person may realize that this
problem is similar to another one that he or she already knows how to solve or might see that an
object can be used for a different purpose than its original one, like using a dime as a
screwdriver.

C. Why does problem solving sometimes fail, and what is meant by creative thinking?

Functional fixedness is the tendency to perceive objects as having only the use for which they
were originally intended and, therefore, failing to see them as possible tools for solving other
problems.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for evidence that confirms one’s beliefs, ignoring
any evidence to the contrary.

Divergent thinking involves coming up with as many different answers as possible

This is a kind of creativity (combining ideas or behavior in new ways). Creative people are
usually good at mental imagery and have knowledge on a wide range of topics, are unafraid to be
different, value their independence, and are often unconventional in their work but not in other
areas.

D. How do psychologists define intelligence, and how do various theories of intelligence

differ?

Is intelligence merely a score on some test, or is it practical knowledge of how to get along in the
world? Is it making good grades or being a financial success or a social success? Ask a dozen
people and you will probably get a dozen different answers. Psychologists have come up with a
workable definition that combines many of the ideas just mentioned: They define intelligence as
the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in
adapting to new situations or solving problems (Sternberg & Kaufman, 1998; Wechsler, 1975).
These are the characteristics that individuals need in order to survive in their culture.
Spearman proposed general intelligence, or g factor, as the ability to reason and solve problems,
whereas specific intelligence, or s factor, includes task-specific abilities in certain areas such as
music, business, or art.

Gardner proposed nine different types of intelligence, ranging from verbal, linguistic, and
mathematical to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence.

Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.

E. How is intelligence measured, how are intelligence tests constructed, and what role do
these tests play in neuropsychology?

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that was once determined by dividing the
mental age of the person by the chronological age and multiplying that quotient by 100 but now
involves comparing a person’s score to a standardized norm.

The Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield four index scores derived from both verbal and nonverbal
subtests and an overall score of intelligence.

Standardization, validity, and reliability are all important factors in the construction of an
intelligence test.

Deviation IQs are based on the normal curve, defining differ- ent levels of intelligence based on
the deviation of scores from a common mean.

IQ tests are often criticized for being culturally biased.

Neuropsychologists play an important role in the care of individuals with traumatic brain injury
and other conditions where brain functioning has been negatively impacted.

Concussion, or mild traumatic brain injury, affects the lives of many athletes and military
personnel.

F. What is intellectual disability and what are its causes?

Intellectual disability is a neurodevelopmental condition in which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive

behavior across conceptual, social, and practical domains of life is severely deficient for a per-
son of a particular chronological age. Symptoms must also first be present during the
developmental period.
The four levels of intellectual disability are mild, moderate, severe, and profound. These are
determined by the level of adaptive functioning and level of supports the individual needs in
their daily life.

Causes of intellectual disability include deprived environments as well as chromosome and

genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies.

G. What defines giftedness, and how are giftedness and emotional intelligence related to success
in life?

Gifted persons are defined as those having IQ scores at the up- per end of the normal curve (130
or above).

Emotional intelligence involves being able to reach goals and engage in productive thinking
through accurate awareness and effective management of our own emotions. It also involves our
ability to understand what others feel.

Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be
successful adults for the most part.

Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity because Terman became too involved
in the lives of several of his participants, even to the point of intervening on their behalf.

H. What is the influence of heredity and environment on the development of intelligence?

Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases. Heritability
of IQ is estimated at .50.

In 1994, Herrnstein and Murray published The Bell Curve, in which they made widely criticized
claims about the heritability of intelligence.

I. How is language defined, and what are its different elements and structure?

Language is a system for combining symbols so that an infinite number of meaningful statements
can be created and communicated to others.

Grammar is the system of rules by which language is governed and includes the rules for using
phonemes, morphemes, and syntax. Pragmatics refers to practical aspects of language.

QUIZ

1. The following are four levels of intellectual disability in order.

- MILD, MODERATE, SEVERE, AND PROFOUND

2. Language is a system for combining ______ so that an infinite number of meaningful

statements can be created and communicated to others.
- SYMBOLS

3. It is the “aha!” moment when a person may realize that this problem is similar to another one
that he or she already knows how to solve it.
- INSIGHT

4. Refers to trying one solution after another until finding one that works.
- TRIAL AND ERROR

5. _________ play an important role in the care of individuals with traumatic brain injury and
other conditions where brain functioning has been negatively impacted.
- NEUROPSYCHOLOGISTS

6. The following are said to be the causes of intellectual disability except

- PHYSICAL FEATURES

7. Alfred Binet designed the first ______ test.

- INTELLIGENCE

8. Gifted persons are defined as those having IQ scores at the up- per end of the normal
curve.
- 130 ABOVE

9. All are signs of having emotional intelligence except:

- BEING ABLE TO REACH GOALS

10. IQ tests are often criticized for

- BEING CULTURALLY BIASED

11. Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence and these are:

- ANALYTICAL, CREATIVE, AND PRACTICAL

12. Intellectual disability is a neurodevelopmental condition in which IQ falls below

- 70

13. Divergent thinking is a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by
exploring many ______
- ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS
14. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that was once determined by dividing
the mental age of the person by the ________ and multiplying that quotient by 100 but now
involves comparing a person’s score to a standardized norm.
- CHRONOLOGICAL AGE

15. Mental image or mental picture is also referred as

- PERCEIVING THE SAME OBJECT, EVENT, OR SCENE AND HAVE A PICTURE-LIKE QUALITY

16. He proposed general intelligence as the ability to reason and solve problems. He also
conceptualized general intelligence as g factor.
- SPEARMAN

17. A heuristic is an educated guess based on ______ that helps narrow down the possible
solutions for a problem
- PRIOR EXPERIENCES

18. Heritability of IQ is estimated at

- .50

19. It can be defined as mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing
information—organizing it, understanding it, and communicating it to others.
- THINKING

20. The Wechsler Intelligence Tests yields how many index scores which derived from both
verbal and nonverbal subtests and an overall score of intelligence?
- FOUR

21. He conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be
successful adults for the most part.
- TERMAN

22. People use_______ to think about objects or events without having to think about all the
specific examples of the category.
- CONCEPTS

23. _______ are a type of rote solution in which one follows step-by-step procedures for solving
certain types of problems.
- ALGORITHMS

24. One aspect of decision-making wherein it occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking
and behaving in certain ways.
- PROBLEM SOLVING

25. The term Terman’s Termites refers to __________.

- A SAMPLE OF GIFTED CHILDREN WHO WERE STUDIED AND FOLLOWED INTO
ADULTHOOD