TLE 401

RF/MICROWAVE SYSTEM DESIGN

microwave circuits
FALL, 2023
Theman Jirnadu I
Passive Microwave Devices
- Impedance transformation and matching
- Resonant and filter circuits
 Microwave Circuits
Microwave circuits consists of several microwave devices
connected in a certain way to achieve the desired transmission
or reception of microwave signal. The circuits are a combination
of passive and active components, where the passive portion
makes up approximately 75% or more of the circuit
composition. Without passive components (e.g., filters, matching
circuits, circulators, isolators resistors, etc.), and active
components (e.g., transistors, tubes) the system cannot be
operational.
Active and passive microwave devices and components are the
essential building blocks of microwave circuits and systems that
operate in the frequency range from 300 MHz to 300 GHz
(corresponding to wavelengths of 1 m to 1 mm in free space).
 Impedance Matching
Impedance matching is the process of designing a system where
the source and load have equal impedances to minimize signal
reflection or maximize power transfer. In DC circuits, the source
and load impedance should be equal, while in AC circuits, the
source should either equal the load or the complex conjugate of
the load, depending on the goal.
 Impedance Matching Cont’d
Impedance (Z) is a measure of the opposition to electrical
flow, which is a complex value with the real part being
defined as the resistance (R), and the imaginary part is called
the reactance (X). The equation for impedance is then given
by the definition Z=R+jX, where j is the imaginary unit. In
DC systems, the reactance is zero, so the impedance (Z) is
the same as the resistance (R).
Let’s assume that the load impedance ZL is fixed. All we need
to do is include a source impedance (Zs) equal to ZL and then
design the transmission line so that its characteristic
impedance (Z0) is also equal to ZL.
 Impedance Matching Cont’d
But let’s consider for a moment the difficulty of implementing
this scheme throughout a complex microwave circuit consisting
of numerous passive components and integrated circuits. The
microwave design process would be seriously unwieldy if
engineers had to modify every component and specify the
dimensions of every microstrip according to the one
impedance chosen as the basis for all the others.
The solution is simple: choose a standardized impedance that
can be used in numerous RF systems, and ensure that
components and transmission lines are designed accordingly.
This impedance has been chosen; the unit is ohms, and the
number is 50.
 Impedance Matching Cont’d
A key factor of power transfer theorem is that when the load
matches the source, the amount of power delivered to the load is
the same as the power dissipated in the source. Therefore, transfer
of maximum power is only 50% efficient.
Transmission Line Matching
The transmitter output is usually connected to the antenna via a
transmission line, which is typically coax cable. In other
applications, the transmission line may be a twisted pair or some
other medium.
A cable becomes a transmission line when it has a length greater
than λ/8 at the operating frequency where:
λ = 300/fMHz
 Transmission Line Matching
For example, the wavelength of a 433MHz frequency is:
λ = 300/fMHz = 300/433 = 0.7 meters or 27.5 inches
A connecting cable is a transmission line if it’s longer than 0.7/8
= 0.0875 meters or 3.44 inches. All transmission lines have a
characteristic impedance (ZO) that’s a function of the line’s
inductance and
capacitance:
ZO = √(L/C)
 Transmission Line Matching Cont,d
To achieve maximum power transfer over a transmission line, the
line impedance must also match the source and load impedances.
If the impedances aren’t matched, maximum power will not be
delivered. In addition, standing waves will develop along the line.
This means the load doesn’t absorb all of the power sent down
the line.
 Transmission Line Matching Cont,d
Consequently, some of that power is reflected back toward
the source and is effectively lost. The reflected power could
even damage the source. Standing waves are the distributed
patterns of voltage and current along the line. Voltage and
current are constant for a matched line, but vary
considerably if impedances do not match.
The amount of power lost due to reflection is a function of
the reflection coefficient (Γ) and the standing wave is the
amount of mismatch between the source and load
impedances.
 Transmission Line Matching Cont,d
The SWR is a function of the load (ZL) and line (ZO) impedances:
SWR = ZL/ZO (for ZL > ZO)
SWR = ZO/ZL (for ZO > ZL)
For a perfect match, SWR = 1. Assume ZL = 75 Ω and ZO = 50 Ω:
SWR = ZL/ZO = 75/50 = 1.5
The reflection coefficient is another measure of the proper match:
Γ = (ZL – ZO)/(ZL + ZO)
For a perfect match, Γ will be 0. You can also compute Γ from the
SWR value:
Γ = (SWR – 1)/(SWR + 1)
Calculating the above example:
Γ = (SWR – 1)/(SWR + 1) = (1.5 – 1)/(1.5 + 1) = 0.5/2.5 = 0.2
 Transmission Line Matching Cont,d
Looking at the amount of power reflected for given values of
SWR, it should be noted that an SWR of 2 or less is adequate for
many applications. An SWR of 2 means that reflected power is
10%. Therefore, 90% of the power will reach the load.
Keep in mind that all transmission li
nes like coax cable do introduce a lo
ss of decibels per foot. That loss
must be factored into any calculatio
n of power reaching the load. Coax
datasheets provide those values for
various frequencies.
 Transmission Line Matching Cont,d
Another important point to remember is that if the line
impedance and load are matched, line length doesn’t matter.
However, if the line impedance and load don’t match, the
generator will see a complex impedance that’s a function of the
line length.
Reflected power is commonly expressed as return loss (RL). It’s
calculated with the expression:
RL (in dB) = 10log (PIN/PREF)
PIN represents the input power to the line and PREF is the
reflected power. The greater the dB value, the smaller the
reflected power and the greater the amount of power delivered to
the load.
 Standing waves
In communications and other RF systems, all transmission lines, feeders
and loads have some characteristic impedance. For RF applications, 50Ω is
a common impedance value. To ensure the maximum power transfer from
the source or signal generator to the transmission line or the transmission
line to the load, their impedance levels must match. For a 50Ω system, the
source impedance, the impedance of the transmission line and the
impedance of the load must all be 50Ω.
However, such matches don't always happen. In fact, impedance
mismatches between the line and load can and do happen. In such
situations, all the power that is transferred into the line and traveling
toward the load does not get transferred to the load. Since this power must
go somewhere (it cannot disappear), it travels back down the line toward
the source. When this happens, the voltages and currents of the forward
and reflected waves add or subtract at different points, resulting in
standing waves and transmission efficiency loss.
 Standing waves Cont’d
The reflected power and forward power together set up a pattern
of voltage and current maxima (loops) and minima (nodes) on the
line. These patterns are known as standing waves.

Standing waves
 Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
Standing wave ratio (SWR) is the ratio of the maximum
magnitude or amplitude of a standing wave to its minimum
magnitude. It indicates whether there is an impedance
mismatch between the load and the internal impedance on a
radio frequency (RF) transmission line, or waveguide. Such
mismatches indicate that there are standing waves along the
line that can reduce its power transmission efficiency.
 Effect Of Standing Wave Ratio On Real-world
Applications
Standing waves affect the power transmission efficiency in any
system that uses RF and matched impedances. Simply put, there is
a significant loss in the transmitted power. Since standing waves
result in increased levels of voltage and current at some points
along a line, they can damage the transmitter's output transistors.
These high levels can also damage the feeder with excessive local
heating or arcing.
Impedance mismatches can cause a signal to reflect back toward
the source and the antenna. This can cause transmission delays as
well as inter-signal interference. In analog applications, such as
legacy analog TVs, the interference can result in a "ghost" image
being reflected on the screen.
 Impedance Matching Networks
The common problem of mismatched load and source
impedances can be corrected by connecting an Impedance -
matching device between source and load. The impedance (Z)
matching device may be a component, circuit, or piece of
equipment.
 Impedance Matching Networks Cont’d
Matching networks are constructed using lossless elements
such as lumped capacitors, lumped inductors and
transmission lines (the λ/4 matching section), which have,
ideally, no loss and introduce no additional noise.
Although, the length of a transmission line segment (λ/4) is
however considered too large to fit in consumer wireless
products operating below a few gigahertz.
Another dimension of solutions is obtained using a
transformer, which makes one impedance look like another
by using the turns ratio: N = Ns/Np = turns ratio.
 Impedance Matching Networks Cont’d
An impedance matching network may consist of:
(a) Lumped elements only: These are the smallest networks,
but have the most stringent limit on the maximum
frequency of operation. The relatively high resistive loss
of an inductor is the main limiting factor limiting
performance. The self resonant frequency of an inductor
limits operation to low microwave frequencies.
(b) Distributed elements (microstrip or other transmission
line circuits) only. These have excellent performance, but
their size restricts their use in systems to above a few
gigahertz.
 Impedance Matching Networks Cont’d
(c) A hybrid design combining lumped and distributed elements,
primarily small sections of lines with capacitors. These lines
are shorter than in a design with distributed elements only, but
the hybrid design has higher performance than a lumped-
element-only design
Transformers and reactive elements considered in this section can
be used to losslessly transform impedance levels. The ideal
transformer can be used to match a load to a source if the source
and load impedances are resistances.
The matching problem with purely resistive load and source
impedances is solved by choosing the appropriate winding ratio, n.
However, resistive-only problems are rare at RF, and so other
matching circuits must be used.
 Matching Networks: Transformer
N is the turns ratio, Ns is the number of turns on the transformer’s
secondary winding, and Np is the number of turns on the transformer’s
primary winding. N is often written as the turns ratio Np:Ns.
The relationship to the impedances can be calculated as:
Zs/Zp = (Ns/Np)2
or:
Ns/Np = √(Zs/Zp)
 Matching Networks: Transformer Cont’d
Zp represents the primary impedance, which is the output impedance
of the driving source (Zg). Zs represents the secondary, or load,
impedance (ZL).
For example, a driving source’s 300-Ω output impedance is transformed
into 75 Ω by a transformer to match the 75-Ω load with a turns ratio of
2:1:
Ns/Np = √(Zs/Zp) = √(300/75) = √4 = 2
The highly efficient transformer essentially features a wide bandwidth,
and with modern ferrite cores, this method is useful up to about several
hundred megahertz.
 Impedance Matching Networks Cont’d
An autotransformer with only a single winding and a tap can also be
used for impedance matching. Depending on the connections,
impedances can be either stepped down (Fig. a) or up (Fig. b).
The same formula used for
standard transformers apply. The
transformer winding is an
inductor and may even be part
of a resonant circuit with a
capacitor.

A transmission-line impedance-matching solution uses a λ/4 section of

transmission line (called a Q-section) of a specific impedance to match
a load to source: ZQ = √(ZOZL)
 Matching Networks: line segment (λ/4)
where ZQ = the
characteristic impedance of
the Q-section line; ZO = the
characteristic impedance of
the input transmission line
from the driving source; and
ZL = the load impedance.
Here, the 36-Ω impedance of a λ/4 vertical ground-plane antenna is
matched to a 75-Ω transmitter output impedance with a 52-Ω coax
cable. It’s calculated as:
ZQ = √(75)(36) = √2700 = 52 Ω
 Matching Networks: line segment (λ/4) Cont’d
Assuming an operating frequency of 50 MHz, one wavelength is:
λ = 300/fMHz = 300/50 = 6 meters or about 20 feet
λ/4 = 20/4 = 5 feet
Assuming the use of 52-Ω RG-8/U coax transmission line with a
velocity factor of 0.66:
λ/4 = 5 feet (0.66) = 3.3 feet
 Limitations to Transformer based Impedance
Network
Several important limitations should be considered when using this
approach:
1. A cable must be available with the desired characteristic
impedance. This isn’t always the case, though, because most
cable comes in just a few basic impedances (50, 75, 93,125 Ω).
2. The cable length must factor in the operating frequency to
compute wavelength and velocity factor.
In particular, these limitations affect this technique when used at
lower frequencies. However, the technique can be more easily
applied at UHF and microwave frequencies when using microstrip
or stripline on a printed-circuit board (PCB). In this case, almost
any desired characteristic impedance may be employed.
 Matching Networks: L network
As we previously discusses the use of a transformer as a
basic way to match impedance. We will now discuss the L
network, which is a simple inductor capacitor (LC) circuit
that can be used to match a wide range of impedances in RF
circuits.
Matching using lumped elements is based on the impedance
and admittance transforming properties of series and shunt
reactive elements. Even a single reactive element can achieve
limited impedance matching. Consider the series reactive
element features shown below.
 Matching Networks: L network Cont’d
1. We use a series (shunt) reactive element to transform a smaller
(larger) resistance up (down) to a larger (smaller) value with a
real part equal to the desired resistance value.
2. We wse a shunt (series) reactive element to resonate with (or
cancel) the imaginary part of the impedance that results from
Step 1.
L matching networks consisting of one shunt reactive element
and one series reactive element. (RS is matched to RL) XC is the
reactance of the capacitor C, and XL is the reactance of the
inductor L. Note that with a two element matching network the Q
and thus bandwidth of the match is fixed
 Matching Networks: L network Cont’d
Consider the below matching network topology:
Matching Networks: L network Cont’d
 Matching Networks: L network Cont’d
Two-element matching network
topology for RS < RL. XS is the series
reactance and XP is the parallel
reactance and the matching objective is
Zin = RS − jXS so that
 Matching Networks: L network Cont’d

The L matching network principle is that XP and XS will be

either capacitive or inductive and they will have the opposite sign
(i.e., the L matching network comprises one inductor and one
capacitor). Also, once RS and RL are given, the Q of the
network and thus bandwidth is defined; with the L network, the
designer does not have a choice of circuit Q.
 Course Drill: Impedance Matching
Eg: 1 Design a circuit to match a 100 Ω source to a 1700 Ω
load at 900 MHz. Assume that a DC voltage must also be
transferred from the source to the load.
Solution:
Here RS < RL, and so the topology can be used and there
are two versions, one with a series inductor and one with a
series capacitor. The series inductor version (see Figure on L
networks) is chosen as this enables DC bias to be applied.
From those Equations, the design equations are:
Course Drill: Impedance Matching

discussed in L networks
 Course Drill: Impedance Matching
The final matching network design is shown in the Figure below:
Passive Microwave Devices
- Impedance transformation and matching
- Resonant and filter circuits
 Microwave Resonators
Resonators in microwaves and optics can be used for designing
filters, energy trapping devices, and antennas. As filters, they are
used like LC resonators in circuit theory. A concatenation of them
can be used to narrow or broaden the bandwidth of a filter. As an
energy trapping device, a resonator can build up a strong field
inside the cavity if it is excited with energy close to its resonance
frequency. They can be used in klystrons and magnetrons as
microwave sources, a laser cavity for optical sources, or as a
wavemeter to measure the frequency of the electromagnetic field
at microwave frequencies. The use of a resonator can help in
resonance tunneling to enhance the radiation efficiency of an
antenna.
 Microwave Resonators: Series Resonant
Circuit Cont’d
Because the operation of microwave resonators is very similar to
that of lumped-element resonators of circuit theory, we will begin
by reviewing the basic characteristics of series and parallel RLC
resonant circuits.
A microwave resonator can usually be modeled by either a series
or parallel RLC lumped-element equivalent circuit
Series Resonant Circuit
Note: Currents flowing through
R, L and C will be different
because they only consider their
currents.
A series RLC resonant circuit
 Microwave Resonators: Series Resonant
Circuit Cont’d
The input impedance is:

The complex power delivered to the resonator is:

5
 Microwave Resonators: Series Resonant
Circuit Cont’d
The series RLC circuit above has a single loop with the instantaneous
current flowing through the loop being the same for each circuit
element. Since the inductive and capacitive reactance’s XL and XC are a
function of the supply frequency, the sinusoidal response of a series
RLC circuit will therefore vary with frequency, ƒ. Then the individual
voltage drops across each circuit element of R, L and C element will be
“out-of-phase” with each other
 Microwave Resonators: Series Resonant
Circuit Cont’d
The power dissipated by the resistor (R) is:

The average magnetic energy stored in the inductor (L) is:

The average electric energy stored in conductor (C) is:

Where Vc is the voltage across the capacitor:

 Microwave Resonators: Series Resonant
Circuit Cont’d
The complex power can be rewritten
as:

and the input impedance can be rewritten as:

Resonance occurs when the average stored magnetic and

electric energies are equal, or

7
 Microwave Resonators: Series Resonant
Circuit Cont’d
The input impedance at resonance is:

Purely Real

The resonant frequency (0 ) must be defined as:

Another important parameter of resonant circuit is its (Q), or quality

factor, which is defined as:

* Q is a measure of the loss of a resonant circuit (low loss  higher Q) 8

Microwave Resonators: Series Resonant
Circuit Cont’d

At resonance,

* Q increase as R decrease
The half-power fractional bandwidth of the resonator

9
 Microwave Resonators: Parallel Resonant
Circuits
The input impedance is

Note: The voltage of R, L

and C will be different
because it only considers the
electric current.

A Parallel RLC resonant Circuit

 Microwave Resonators: Parallel Resonant
Circuits Cont’d
The complex power delivered to the resonator is:

The power dissipated by the resistor (R) is:

Microwave Resonators: Parallel Resonant
Circuits Cont’d
The average electric energy stored in the capacitor (C) is

The average magnetic energy stored in the inductor (L) is

where IL is the current through the inductor.

Microwave Resonators: Parallel Resonant
Circuits Cont’d
The complex power can be rewritten as

The input impedance can be expressed as

Resonance occurs when

Microwave Resonators: Parallel Resonant
Circuits Cont’d
The resonant frequency (0 ) is

The Q of the parallel resonant circuit can be expressed as

The bandwidth is Q increase as R increase

Engineering__Dr.Rattapong Suw alak

 Types of Microwave Resonators
1. Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits
• Loaded Q
• Unloaded Q
2. Transmission Line Resonators
• Short-Circuited /2 Line
• Short-Circuited /4 Line
• Open-Circuited /2 Line
3. Waveguide Resonators
• Rectangular Waveguide Cavities
• Circular Waveguide Cavities
4. Dielectric Resonators
 Resonators

Magnetic wall boundary condition

approximation and distribution of Hz
versus z for  =0 of the first mode of
cylindrical dielectric resonator
Resonators
Coupling Techniques to Resonators
 Resonators

A rectangular waveguide aperture coupled to a rectangular

cavity
 Filters
Filters are used extensively in communications
applications to either select a particular frequency of
interest or to ignore (reject) frequencies that may be
interfering with the equipment. As antennas transmit
through unguided medium, there exist many
opportunities for interference to occur during the
transmission and reception of signals, and this is where
the filter comes in.
 Some Types of Filters
• Some Types:
• Passive filters are those filters composed of series or
parallel combinations of R, L, and C elements.
• Low-Pass
• High-Pass
• Band-Pass
• Band-Stop
• Active filters are filters that employ active devices such as
transistors and operational amplifiers in combination with
R, L, and C elements.
• Some terms:
• Stop Band – are the frequencies that are rejected.
• Pass Band – are the frequencies which are accepted into
the system.
 Filters Cont’d
• Any frequency in the pass band will ‘pass’ through to the next
stage of the circuit with at least 70.7% of the maximum output
voltage.
• Recall the use of the 0.707 level to define the bandwidth of a
series or parallel resonant circuit (both with the general shape of
the pass-band filter).

Stop Band Pass Band

 Low-Pass Filter
• Again, as the name would indicate, a low-pass filter (LPF) will
allow signals of some lower desired frequency to ‘pass’ into the
circuit, but at the same time it rejects frequencies above the cutoff
frequency.
• The cutoff frequency is that point at which higher frequencies are
rejected.

Av is the normalized value of the ratio of Vo / Vi. The maximum

value of Av is 1 and the cutoff frequency is defined at the 0.707 level.
 Low-Pass Filter Cont’d
• At very high frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very small (and
thus acts like a short) and can be it can be shown that Vo = 0V in this case.
1
X C f  HighH z   0
2 fC

• At very low frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very large (thus
acts like an open) and it can be shown that Vo = Vi in this case.
1
X C f 0 H z   
2 fC

• To summarize, the magnitude of the ratio of Vo to Vi can be found by:

 High-Pass Filter
• A high-pass filter (HPF) allows signals of some higher desired
frequency to ‘pass’ into the circuit, but at the same time it rejects
frequencies below the cutoff frequency.
• The cutoff frequency is that point at which lower frequencies are
rejected.

RC High-Pass Filter

Av is the normalized value of the ratio of Vo / Vi. The maximum

value of Av is 1 and the cutoff frequency is defined at the 0.707 level.
 High-Pass Filter Cont’d
• At very high frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very small (and
thus acts like a short) and can be it can be shown that Vo = Vi in this case.
1
X C f  HighH z   0
2 fC

• At very low frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very large (thus
acts like an open) and it can be shown that Vo = 0 in this case.
1
X C f 0 H z   
2 fC

• To summarize, the magnitude of the ratio of Vo to Vi can be found by:

 Basic Low and High Pass Filter Design
• For both a low pass and high pass filter response we can find
the inflection point called the cutoff frequency which is simply:
1
fc 
2 *
• Where τ is the time constant we discussed in RC and RL
circuits:
  R *C
• Therefore, to find the cutoff frequency:

1
fc 
2 * RC
 Band-Pass Filter
• As the name would indicate, a band-pass filter (BPF) will allow
signals of a desired frequency to ‘pass’ into the circuit, but at the
same time it rejects all other unwanted frequencies.
• The last lesson showed us that a series resonant circuit has a
frequency response characteristic similar to the one appearing in
the figure below.
 Band-Stop Filter
• The band-stop filter will reject signals of some specified
bandwidth (i.e. frequency range) from entering the circuit.
• ALL other frequencies (not within the specified bandwidth) are
accepted.
• Also known as a notch filter because it ‘notches out’ (rejects) a
specific frequency.
 Course Drill: Low-Pass Filter
Design an RC Low Pass Filter for the HF band (3-30MHz) using a
resistor value of 5Ω. Draw the circuit and label the frequency
response curve.
From the problem statement we know that our cutoff frequency (fc)
is 30MHz and the R=5 Ω.
1
fc  ,   R *C
2 *
1
fc 
2 * R * C
1 1
C   1.06nF
2 * R * f c 2 *5 *30 MHz

R  5
C  1.06nF

30MHz
Active Microwave Devices
• Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
• RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA)
• Semiconductor devices for microwave generation
 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
Antennas are almost always connected to amplifiers. In transmit
mode, the antenna will be connected to a power amplifier (PA),
whereas in receive mode the antenna will be connected to low-
noise amplifier (LNA). It is therefore crucial, for the future
antenna engineer to have a good understanding of amplifiers.
Microwave amplifiers can be realized in several semiconductor
technologies, such as silicon-based technologies (CMOS and
BiCMOS), and III-V technologies, such as gallium arsenide
(GaAs) or gallium nitride (GaN). Discrete transistors can be
used to realize an amplifier, but most commonly the amplifiers
will be integrated in a more complex RF integrated circuit (RF-
IC).
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA): Types of Noise
1. Thermal or Johnson - Nyquist Noise
2. Shot Noise
3. 1/f Noise (Also called Flicker or Pink noise)
4. White Noise
5. Burst Noise
 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) Cont’d

Antenna

BPF1 LNA BPF2 Mixer BPF3 IF Amp

Demodulator

RF front end LO
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) Cont’d
 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) Cont’d
A low-noise amplifier (LNA) is commonly found in all
receivers. Its role is to boost the received signal to a sufficient
level above the noise floor so that it can be used for additional
processing (i.e it is employed when the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) is high and needs to be reduced by roughly 50% while
power is increased.). The noise figure of the LNA therefore
directly limits the sensitivity of the receiver. Minimum noise
performance, Fmin, occurs with a source termination with
reflection coefficient Γopt. The noise figure of a two-port
amplifier is given as:
 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) Cont’d
Note that rn is the equivalent normalized noise resistance of
the two-port, rn ¼ Rn=Z0 . Moreover, rn, Fmin, and Gopt
are known as noise parameters and given by the transistor
manufacturer. They can also be determined experimentally.
Design of an LNA typically consists of trade-off between
noise figure and gain while designing at the required stability.
This can often be a difficult task. One technique to make a
potentially unstable transistor an unconditionally stable
transistor is to use resistive loading or feedback at the
expense of reduced power gain and degraded noise figure
 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) Cont’d
Low noise amplifiers are the building blocks of
communication systems and instruments. The most
important LNA specifications or attributes are:
• Gain
• Noise figure
• Linearity
• Maximum RF input
• Impedance Matching
 LNA: Gain
The gain of an LNA is its ability to amplify or increase the input
signal level to a level that can suitably be processed by the
receiver. The gain is specified in dB and the typical gain values of
LNA range from 10 to 30 dB.
Generally, normal amplifiers amplify signals but they introduce
additional noise to the system. LNA is however used to reduce
the noise in the system while amplifying the inputted signal.
The gain of a LNA is therefore referred as the ratio of the
output- to its input signal and is often referred to in terms of
decibels.
 LNA: Gain Cont’d
Power gain is generally defined as the ratio of the power actually
delivered to the load to the power actually delivered by the source.
However, as simple as that may seem, this definition is not entirely
relevant and is difficult to quantify since the source impedance in
turn is difficult to specify. For that reason, a number of specific
and therefore more useful definitions have evolved. Most notable
are perhaps Transducer Gain- the ratio of average power
delivered to the load to maximum available average power from
the source, Available Power Gain- the ratio of maximum available
average power at the load to maximum available average power
from the source. As previously discussed, maximum power is only
obtained when an amplifier is has complex conjugate
terminations.
 LNA: Noise Figure
The noise figure (NF) of a network/system is referred as the
ratio of the signal-to-noise power ratio at the input to the
signal-to-noise power ratio at the output. Thus, the noise figure
of a network is the decrease or degradation in the signal-to-
noise ratio as the signal goes through the network.
There are two basic figures to observe:
NOISE FACTOR (F): The noise factor (f) can be derived
simply by taking the SNR at the input and dividing it by the
SNR at the output. As the SNR at the output will always be
worse, (i.e. lower). This means that the noise factor is always
greater than one. The noise factor is rarely seen in
specifications.
 LNA: Noise Figure Cont’d
NOISE FIGURE: Noise figure (NF) is the parameter that is seen
widely in specifications and in use when defining radio receivers and the
elements within the receiver systems. The noise figure uses a
logarithmic scale and is simply the noise factor expressed in decibels.
LNAs are therefore designed to have a low noise figure, which means
they can amplify weak signals with minimal noise. This makes them
ideal for applications where signal-to-noise ratio is important.
Generally, the low noise amplifier amplifies both the signal & noise
available at its input. So a good LNA contributes extremely small noise
that is <1.5dB.
Note: The noise figure simply signifies the quality of amplifiers, which
also specifies the noise performance of an RF system. When the noise
figure value is low, then the RF system performance will be better.
 LNA: Noise Figure Cont’d
The noise figure is a measure of the degradation of signal-to-
noise-ratio as the signal passes through the receiver. It measures
how much noise is added by the receiver and can be expressed
by: SNR S N
NF  in
 in in
SNRout Sout N out
• As a function of device
N device  G  N source
NF 
G  N source
G: Power gain of the device
 LNA: Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages

Sin/Nin Sout/Nout

G1, N1, G i , Ni , GK, NK,

NF1 NFi NFK

If there are N amplifiers in cascade, the equivalent noise figure is

given by:

NF2  1 NF3  1 NFK  1

NF  1  NF1  1    ... 
G1 G1G2 G1G2 ...GK 1
 LNA: Linearity
Linearity in an RF/microwave component or system is fairly easy to
understand in concept: It refers to the ability of a component or
system to provide an output signal that is directly proportional to an
input signal.
The linearity of a low noise amplifier can be referred to as a measure
of amplifier capacity to amplify the signal without distortion. Once
this amplifier is operating linearly, then the output power in dB is the
amount of the input signal & the gain.
Third-order intercept (IP3) and 1-dB compression point (P1dB) are
two measures of linearity. IP3 shows at what power level the third-
order intermodulation product is equal to the power of the first-
order output. IIP3 and OIP3 are the input power and output power
respectively, that corresponds to IP3.
 LNA: Linearity Cont’d
P1dB shows at what power level the output power drops 1 dB, as
a consequence of non-linearities, relative the theoretical linear
power gain, Figure 3.1. By knowing either IP3 or P1dB the other
can be estimated with the following rule-of-thumb formula:
IP 3 = P1dB + 10dB.
Both measurements indicate an upper distortion limit for the
tolerable input power, whereas the noise figure sets a lower limit.
The ratio of the two determines the dynamic range of the
amplifier.
Another similar measurement is the Spurious-Free Dynamic
Range (SFDR), which in the LNA context usually relates to the
greatest possible differential be- tween the output signal power
and the power of the third-order intermodulation product.
 LNA: Linearity Cont’d

1st-order output (solid), 3rd-order IM product (dotted). 1dB (A),

IIP3 (B) and SFDR (C).
 LNA: Maximum RF Input Level
The signal voltage level delivered to the input of an LNA from the
antenna may vary in a very wide interval, from very weak signals
comparable to the noise level, to high amplitude signals resulting in
severe nonlinear (harmonic and intermodulation) distortion.
The maximum RF input level is the maximum signal level the LNA
can tolerate. At this input signal level, the low noise amplifier
operation is non-linear. This quantity is most frequently specified in
dBm. The maximum RF input level of LNA typically ranges from 18
to 20 dBm
Most LNAs can handle only 10 dBm pulsed on their input, but some
can now survive 20 dBm continuously and 23-25 dBm pulsed. Such
protection levels can in many cases eliminate the limiter.
 LNA: Impedance Matching
The circuit topology affects input and output impedance. In
general, the source impedance is matched to the input impedance
because that will maximize the power transfer from the source to
the device. If the source impedance is low, then a common base
or common gate circuit topology may be appropriate. For a
medium source impedance, a common emitter or common source
topology may be used. With a high source resistance, a common
collector or common drain topology may be appropriate. An
input impedance match may not produce the lowest noise figure.
 Applications of LNA
The various applications of low noise amplifiers include the
following:
1.These amplifiers are mainly designed to reduce the additional
noise. Designers can reduce additional noise by selecting
operating points, circuit topologies & low-noise components.
Reducing extra noise should balance with the goals of other
designs like impedance matching & power gain.
2.These are mainly used in communications receivers like GPS
receivers, cellular telephones, satellite communications & WiFi.
3.Generally, an LNA is used in all receivers and the main function
of this amplifier is to boost the received signal to a sufficient
level so that it can be utilized for additional processing.
 Applications of LNA Cont’d
4. LNA is a significant component that is usually located near the
different detectors like GPS, Mobile phones, Radio, etc.
5. These amplifiers amplify very weak signals & provide voltage
levels appropriate for ADC.
6. They are used in low amplitude sources like antennae &
transducers.
7. This amplifier can be used as an intermediate-frequency or a
high-frequency preamplifier for different kinds of amplifying
circuits & radio receivers for high-sensitivity electronic
detection apparatus
Active Microwave Devices
• Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
• RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA)
• Semiconductor devices for microwave generation
 RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA)
+Vdc

Pdc

Matching
Pout
Load
Network
Pin
Matching
Driver
Network

Gain : Gp
 RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA) Cont’d
Amplification is one of the primary functions in an active
microwave circuit. Design of microwave transistor amplifiers
takes two specific paths: small signal amplifiers, such as the
low noise amplifiers (LNA), use small signal S-parameters for
an adequate design, whereas large signal amplifiers, such as
power amplifiers, rely on more advanced techniques including
load-pull and nonlinear modeling for an adequate design.
Although the primary concern in an LNA is noise figure,
power amplifiers (PA) have linearity and often efficiency
requirements. Among other places, power amplifiers are
found in all transmitters and are a significant user of dc
power.
 RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA) Cont’d
Typically, power amplifiers are operated in the
nonlinear regime, producing significant
harmonics. These undesired harmonics must
be either ‘‘tuned’’ or filtered at the output. In
the case of harmonic tuning, a resonant circuit
at harmonic frequencies is formed at the
output from either transmission line stubs or
chip capacitors, where the capacitors possess a self resonance near the
harmonic frequencies. In practice, it is difficult to tune more than the
first two or three harmonics. Additional filtering will often be required
at the output.
Another concern in a microwave power amplifier is inter-modulation
distortion, which occurs when more than one input signal is injected
into the amplifier.
 RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA) Cont’d
In particular, if two sinusoidal signals are simultaneously
injected, the output will contain additional frequency
components known as inter-modulation products at dc, f1,
f2, 2f1, 2f2, 3f1, 3f2, f1  f2, 2f1  f2, and f1  2f2.
Higher products may also be observable, depending on the
amplifier. The frequencies f1  f2 are known as second-order
intermodulation products, and 2f1  f2 and f1  2f2 are
third-order intermodulation products. The frequency of the
third-order intermodulation products may be quite close to
the input signal f1 and f2 and, therefore, fall into the
bandwidth of the amplifier, causing distortion at the output.
 RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA) Cont’d
Because power amplifiers are often operated with a limited power
supply, such as in portable handsets or satellite communications,
efficiency can be an extremely important figure of merit. Due to
limited gain in high-power microwave devices, power-added
efficiency (PAE) is the most important type of efficiency and is
given by:
 RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA): Gain
Power
Amplifier
(PA)

Pin Gain (G) Pout

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐺 𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃𝑖𝑛
 RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA): Gain Cont’d
Gain written as a voltage
𝐺 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑉𝑖𝑛 2
𝑅𝑖𝑛
Let R1 = R2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐺 𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑉𝑖𝑛 2
𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑉𝑖𝑛 2 𝑉𝑖𝑛
RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA): Gain Cont’d
Gain written as a current
𝐺 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
= 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 2
Let R1 = R2
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
𝐺 𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 2
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 == 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛
RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA): Gain Cont’d

Expression
Power [dB] 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Voltage [dB] 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑉𝑖𝑛
Current [dB] 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝐼𝑖𝑛
 RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA): Gain Cont’d
Power
Amplifier
(PA)
Gain (G)
= 25 [dB]
Pin= 1 mW Pout= ?

𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑚𝑊
𝑑𝐵𝑚 Pout[dBm] = Pin [dBm] + Gain [dB]
𝑚𝑊 = 10 10

Power [mW] Power [dBm]

= 0 [dBm] + 25 [dB]
1 mW 0dBm=10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1) = 25 [dBm]
10 mW 10dBm=10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (10) = 10 ^ (25/10) = 316.22 [mW]
100 mW 20dBm=10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (100)
1W 30dBm=10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1000)
10W 40dBm=10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (10000)
 RF signal levels: Decibels (dB)
RF signal levels are usually expressed in terms of the power
of a signal. While power can be expressed in absolute terms
such as watts (W) or milliwatts (mW), it is much more useful
to use a logarithmic scale. The ratio of two power levels P
and PREF in bels^3 (B) is shown below, where PREF is a
reference power. Here log x is the same as log10 x.
 RF signal levels: Decibels (dB) Cont’d

Common power designations: (a) reference power, PREF; (b) power

ratio in decibels (dB); and (c) power in dBm and watts
 Decibels: dBm and dB
dB (decibel): It is a logarithmic unit used express the ratio
between two physical quantities mostly signal/sound level.
It is widely used in electronics, signals and communication
systems to avoid very large or small numbers/ratio. It
compares between either gain or loss in the system.
dBm (decibel milliwatts): it is a unit that defines a signal
level by comparing it to a reference level (The reference
level of 0dBm is defined as 1mW) . Unlike dB which is a
relative unit of measurement, dBm refers to the absolute
amount of power that an antenna or amplifier is able to
produce, or how much signal is present at a site.
 Decibels Conversion: dB, dBm & dBi
Converting dB to dBm
1. Simply add 30 (+30) to any given number in dB to obtain a
dBm.
2. Simply subtract 30 (-30) from any given number in dBm to
obtain dB.
Eg. 10dB to dBm = 10 + 30 = 40dBm
50dBm to dB = 50 – 30 = 20dB
i.e Gain in dB = gain in dBm – 30dB
Gain in dBm = gain in dB + 30dB
Converting dB to dBi
dBi is the the gain with respect to isotropic antenna whose gain is
0dB. (i.e dB = dBi)
 Decibels Conversion: dBd and dBi
Converting dBd to dBi
Compares the gain an antenna to the gain of reference dipole
antenna ( defined as 2.15 dBi )
Eg. Gain in dBd = gain in dBi – 2.15dB
Gain in dBi = gain in dBd + 2.15dB
 RFPA: Classes of Amplifier
(Class A, AB, B, and C Amplifiers)
Transistor amplifiers use several different biasing
strategies. The strategies are identified as classes of
amplifiers ranging from Class A to Class G. Class A, AB,
B, and C amplifiers have the basic topologies in Figure
below, where input and output matching networks have
been omitted. Class A–C amplifiers have the same
impedance presented to the output of the amplifier at the
operating frequency and at harmonics.
 RFPA: Classes of Amplifier
(Class A, AB, B, and C Amplifiers)

Class A single-ended resistively biased amplifiers: (a) BJT

transistor with B for base terminal, C for collector terminal,
and E for emitter terminal; (b) MOSFET transistor with G
for gate terminal, D for drain terminal, and S for source
terminal; and (c) Class B or Class C push-pull amplifier.
 Course Drill: RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA)
Eg.1 An amplifier has a power gain of 1200. What is the power
gain in decibels? If the input power is 5 dBm, what is the output
power in dBm?
Solution:
Power gain in decibels, GdB = 10 log 1200 = 30.79 dB.
The output power is Pout|dBm = PdB + Pin|dBm = 30.79 + 5
= 35.79 dBm.
 Course Drill: RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA)
Eg.2 A signal with a power of 2 mW is applied to the input of an
amplifier that increases the power of the signal by a factor of 20.
(a) What is the input power in dBm?
2𝑚𝑊
Pin = 2 mW = 10·log = 10·log(2) = 3.010 dBm ≈ 3.0 dBm.
1𝑚𝑊
(b) What is the gain, G, of the amplifier in dB?
The amplifier gain (by default this is power gain) is
G = 20 = 10 · log(20) dB = 10 · 1.301 dB = 13.0 dB.
 Course Drill: RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA)
(c) What is the output power of the amplifier?
G = Pout/Pin, and in decibels G|dB = Pout|dBm − Pin|dBm
Thus the output power in dBm is
Pout|dBm = G|dB + Pin|dBm = 13.0 dB + 3.0 dBm = 16.0 dBm.
Note that dB and dBm are dimensionless but they do have meaning;
dB indicates a power ratio but dBm refers to a power. Quantities in dB
and one quantity in dBm can be added or subtracted to yield dBm,
and the difference of two quantities in dBm yields a power ratio in dB.
Active Microwave Devices
• Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
• RF Power Amplifiers (RFPA)
• Semiconductor devices for microwave generation
 Semiconductor Devices for Microwave
Generation Cont’d
Semiconductor microwave devices are electronic devices
(Diodes, Transistors or I.C’s) used in high frequency
applications. Most Semiconductors are fabricated using
silicon (Si) or compound semiconductors such as gallium-
arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), or gallium-nitride
(GaN).
Also, most microwave devices are fabricated on a GaAs
substrate because of its high mobility. A silicon substrate,
on the other hand, has the advantages of low cost and high
yield. The following table summarizes the various
microwave solid-state devices and their applications.
 Semiconductor Devices for Microwave
Generation Cont’d
Frequency Substrate
Device Major Applications
Limitation Material
IMPATT < 300 GHz Si, GaAs, InP Transmitters, Amplifiers
Local oscillators, Amplifiers,
Gunn < 140 GHz GaAs, InP
Transmitters
Amplifiers , Oscillators, Switches,
FET&HEMT < 100 GHz GaAs, InP
Mixers, and Phase shifters
Switches, Limiters, Phase shifters,
p-i-n < 100 GHz Si, GaAs
Modulators, and Attenuators
Multipliers, Tuning, Phase shifters,
Varactor < 300 GHz GaAs
and Modulators
 Semiconductor Devices for Microwave
Generation Cont’d
• Diodes : • Transistors
o PIN Diode • ICs
o Gunn Diode
o Impatt Diode
o Schottky Diode
o Varacter Diode
o Backward Diode
 Microwave Diodes
A microwave diode is much more than just a two-element
device which has limited capabilities. It is a complex device
which form an integral part of many sophisticated
microwave systems. Many devices have been developed
using the non-linear I-V and C-V characteristics of the p-n
or Schottky-barrier junction. Various applications are
summarized below
 Microwave Diodes Cont’d
Non-linear I-V Characteristics Non-linear C-V Characteristics

Frequency mixing Frequency multiplication

Harmonic generation Voltage Controlled Oscillator

Switching Voltage tuned filter

Modulation Frequency conversion

Limiting Harmonic generation

Detection Parametric amplification

 Microwave Diodes Cont’d
PIN Diode
• Operating Frequency up to 700 GHz
Applications: RF and microwave switches,
attenuators, Limiters
Gunn Diode
• Gunn diodes are a form of semiconductor
component able to operate at frequencies from
a few Gigahertz up to frequencies in the THz
region. As such they are used in a wide variety
of units requiring low power RF signals.
Applications : Oscillators, Sensors, measuring
instruments, Radio amateur
 Microwave Diodes Cont’d
IMPATT Diode
• IMPATT diodes are semiconductor devices that generate
relatively high-power microwave signals at frequencies
between about 3 GHz and 100 GHz or more. IMPATT is
an abbreviation for impact avalanche transit time diode.
Applications: Alarms, Radar, Detectors using RF
technology.
Schottky Diode
• It is a four-layer semiconductor diode, which was one of
the first semiconductor devices invented. It is equivalent
to a thyristor with a disconnected gate.Frequency range
is from 3 MHz to 10 GHz
Applications: Voltage clamping, Reverse current and
discharge protection, Power supply.
TUNNEL Diode
Microwave Diodes Cont’d
• A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of diode that
has effectively "negative resistance" due to the
quantum mechanical effect called tunneling. It is a
heavily doped p-n junction diode in which the electric
current decreases as the voltage increases. Frequency
of operation is up to 100 GHz
Applications: Low power amplifiers
VARACTOR Diode
• Varactor diode (a varicap diode, variable capacitance
diode, variable reactance diode) is a diode which
behave as a variable capacitor. It's capacitance at the p-
n junction changes with the change in voltage.
Frequency of operation is up to 105 GHz
Application : Voltage controlled capacitors and oscillators, RF filters
 Microwave Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices with three (and
sometimes more) terminals. The third terminal enables
output current to be controlled by a relatively small and
low-power input signal. In amplifiers, transistors are used
to achieve current gain, voltage gain, or power gain. Most
often power gain is the objective in RF and microwave
design.
Most transistors are fabricated using silicon (Si) or
compound semiconductors such as gallium-arsenide
(GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), or gallium-nitride (GaN).
 Microwave Transistors Cont’d
Transistor schematics: (a) pnp bipolar transistor with B for
the base terminal, C for the collector terminal, and E for the
emitter terminal; (b) n-type MOSFET (nMOS); and (c) n-
type JFET (nJFET) with G for the gate terminal, D for the
drain terminal, and S for the source terminal.
The schematic symbol for
a BJT is used for HBTs;
and the schematic symbol
for a JFET is used for
MESFETs, HEMTS, and
pHEMTs.
 Microwave Transistors Cont’d
Germanium is used as a dopant in silicon and then silicon is
referred to as silicon germanium but usually germanium is in
a very small proportion to silicon so SiGe as described here is
silicon with a dopant. With comparable concentrations of
silicon and germanium SiGe is a compound semiconductor
and this is used as a compound semiconductor at times.
There are three fundamental types of microwave transistors
[5, 6]: bipolar junction transistors, (BJTs); junction field effect
transistors, (JFETs); and insulated gate FETs, (IGFETs), with
the metal-oxide-semiconductor FETs, (MOSFETs), being the
most common type of IGFET.
 Microwave Integrated Circuit (MIC)
Microwave integrated circuits (MICs) are devices that
operate at frequencies above 1 GHz and combine multiple
components such as transistors, resistors, capacitors, and
inductors on a single substrate. They are widely used in
wireless communication systems such as radar, satellite,
cellular, and Wi-Fi, as they offer advantages such as high
performance, low cost, compact size, and low power
consumption.
RF and MICs can be divided into three categories: hybrid
MICs (HMICs), monolithic MICs (MMICs), and a
combination of HMICs with MMICs (HMMICs).
 Microwave Integrated Circuit Cont’d
There are three types of circuit elements that either are
used in chip form or are fabricated in MIC. They are:
a. Distributed transmission lines (microstrip, strip, etc.)
b. Lumped elements (R, L. and C)
c. Solid state devices (FETs, BJTs, diodes, etc.)
 Types of Microwave Integrated Circuits
1. Hybrid Microwave Integrated Circuits (HMICs):
Here, the discrete components such as diodes, transistors,
capacitors, resonators, circulators are fabricated separately
using most appropriate materials and then mounted into
the microstrip circuit and connected with bond wires
 Types of Microwave Integrated Circuits Cont’d
a. Standard Hybrid MIC’s: Standard hybrid MIC’s use a single-
level metallization for conductors & transmission lines with
discrete circuit elements (such as transistors, inductors, capacitors,
etc.) bonded to the substrate. This type of MIC use a very mature
single-layer metallization technique to form RF components. A
typical standard hybrid MIC is shown in the figure.
 Types of Microwave Integrated Circuits Cont’d
b. Miniature Hybrid MIC’s: use multi-level processes in which
passive elements (inductors, capacitors, resistors, transmission lines,
etc.) are batch deposited on the substrate whereas the semiconductor
devices (transistors, diodes, etc.) are bonded on the substrate surface.
• These circuits are smaller than hybrid MIC’s but are larger
than MMIC’s; therefore miniature hybrid circuit technology can be
also called quasi-monolithic.
• The advantages of miniature hybrid compared to standard hybrid
circuits are: (i) Smaller size, (ii) Lighter weight, (iii) Lower loss.
• But as frequency is increased thinner substrates are required,
resulting in smaller sized circuits; for example, 1-20 GHz require
substrate thickness of 0.635-0.254 mm.
 Types of Microwave Integrated Circuits Cont’d
2. Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMICs): It is a
type of circuit in which all active and passive elements as well as
transmission lines are formed into the bulk or onto the surface
of a substance by some deposition scheme as epitaxy, ion
implantation, sputtering, evaporation, diffusion.
 Types of Microwave Integrated Circuits Cont’d
RF/MW MMIC circuits are important as :
• The trend in advanced microwave electronic systems is
toward increasing integration, reliability, and volume of
production with lower costs.
• The new millimeter-wave circuit applications demand the
effects of bond-wire parasitics to be minimized and use
of discrete elements to be avoided.
• New developments in military, commercial and consumer
markets demand a new approach for mass production
and for multi-octave bandwidth response in circuits.
 Advantages of HMIC or Hybrid MIC
Following are the advantages of HMIC or Hybrid MIC:
1. Each components are designed with appropriate materials to
achieve optimal performance.
2. Microwave components are constructed with lower loss by
choosing optimal microstrip substrate.
3. HMIC can handle higher power due to use of heat-sink for
high power generating elements.
4. Standard diodes and transistors function differently due to use
of different circuit designs for them in Hybrid MIC.
5. The trimming adjustments are possible.
6. The Hybrid MIC construction is economical when small
quantities (e.g. several hundreds) are fabricated together.
 Disadvantages of HMIC or Hybrid MIC
Following are the disadvantages of HMIC or Hybrid MIC:
1. Wire bonds are used for interfacing outside circuit
elements with microstrip assembly. This wire bonds
cause reliability problems.
2. As circuit size is limited to few dozen compartments, the
number of mounting devices are limited due to
restriction on size and requirement of wire bonds for
attachment.
 Advantages of MMIC
Following are the advantages of MMIC:
1. Due to its construction, component density is higher.
Hence thousands of devices can easily be fabricated in a
single MMIC simultaneously during fabrication.
2. Due to higher component density during fabrication,
cost of fabrication is lower. Hence overall MMIC cost is
less.
3. There are minimal mismatches in the MMIC between
components.
4. The signal delay is minimum due to shorter distances
between the components on a MMIC.
5. MMICs do not have any wire bond reliability issues.
 Disadvantages of MMIC
Following are the disadvantages of MMIC:
1. Overall performance of MMIC is compromised as optimal
materials can not be used during manufacturing for each
elements individually.
2. Power handling capacity is lower as proper heat transfer
materials are not used in the fabrication of MMIC.
3. The trimming adjustments are impossible or difficult to
implement. Hence troubleshooting or rework is impossible.
4. The device to chip area ratio is unfavorable in semiconductor
material used in MMIC fabrication.
5. The tools are prohibitively expensive for fabrication of small
quantities of MMICs.
 Monolithic vs. Hybrid Microwave
Integrated Circuits
Hybrid microwave integrated circuits (HMICs) and monolithic
microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) are the two types of
dominant integrated circuits used in microwave systems. Newer
components for microwave applications are often advertised as
being MMICs. The primary differences between MMICs and
HMICs lie in how they are constructed:
• MMICs are built up from a single semiconductor die. All
circuits and components are fabricated directly on the
semiconductor die from a single base material. This is done
with standard planar processes, although future MMICs will be
designed as 3D circuits using heterogeneous integration.
 Monolithic vs. Hybrid Microwave
Integrated Circuits
• HMICs are built from multiple discretes, semiconductors, and
integrated circuit blocks on a high-quality substrate. Devices are
then connected to each other with metalized wires and contacts,
giving a completely modular integrated circuit.
Both types of integrated circuits are then placed into packages with
an epoxy or other material, and these packages can have standard
IPC form factor (QFN, SOT, etc.). As these components operate at
microwave frequencies, they are generally not through-hole
components, as through-hole leads create high frequency signal
integrity problems normally seen on via stubs. Unless an MMIC or
HMIC comes in a customized package, they may be indistinguishable
from a standard Si integrated circuit until you read a datasheet.
Module 3