EEE 316

ELECTRICAL MACHINES
GENERATORS
FALL, 2023
Theman Jirnadu I
 Generators
Electricity is produced by generators at power stations and
then distributed by a vast network of transmission lines
(called the National Grid system) to industry and for
domestic use. It is easier and cheaper to generate
alternating current (ac) than direct current (dc), and ac is
more conveniently distributed than dc since its voltage can
be readily altered using transformers. Whenever dc is
needed in preference to ac, devices called rectifiers are used
for conversion.
A generator is therefore a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Types of Generators
There are basically two types of generators:
• AC Generators

• DC Generators

− Motors and generators perform exactly the opposite

function.
− However, motors and generator are essentially the
same device.
 AC Machines

Synchronous Machines Asynchronous Machines

(Induction Machine)

Synchronous Synchronous Induction Induction

Generator Motor Generator Motor
A primary Used as motors as Due to lack of Most widely
source of well as power a separate field used electrical
electrical factor excitation, these motors in both
energy compensators machines are domestic and
(synchronous rarely used as industrial
condensers) generators. applications
Dynamic Electrical Machines:
GENERATORS:
• AC Generators
• DC Generators
 AC Generators Cont’d
Alternating voltages may be generated in the following two ways:
1. By rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field, as shown in
Fig. a
2. By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as shown
in Fig. b.
 AC Generators Cont’d
The value of the voltage generated in each case depends
upon the following factors :
i. (The number of turns in the coils;
ii. The strength of the field;
iii. The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
Out of the above two methods the rotating-field method is
mostly used in practice.
 AC Generators Cont’d
Given that a single turn coil be free to rotate at
constant angular velocity symmetrically between
the poles of a magnet system as shown in Fig.
An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from Faraday’s laws) which varies
in magnitude and reverses its direction at regular intervals. The
reason for this is shown in Fig. below. In positions (a), (e) and (i) the
conductors of the loop are effectively moving along the magnetic
field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f. is induced. In position (c)
maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is induced. In
position (g), maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is again
induced. However, using Fleming’s right-hand rule, the induced
e.m.f. is in the opposite direction to that in position (c) and is thus
shown as −E.
 AC Generators Cont’d
In positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some flux is cut and hence some
e.m.f. is induced. If all such positions of the coil are considered,
in one revolution of the coil, one cycle of alternating e.m.f. is
produced as shown. This is the principle of operation of the a.c.
generator (i.e. the alternator).
 Basic working principle of AC Generators
A simple generator has two basic parts – field and winding. The
field is the magnetic field and the winding is the conductor
formed into a coil.
Fie ld
S N Winding

The field is connected to a shaft that may be turned. These are

two elements necessary for electromagnetism. When the turning
field is placed near the winding, all of the elements are present
for electromagnetism. (In fact, the field could be fixed and the
windings turned to produce the same effect in a generator.
However, this arrangement is normally used for small
generators, where the current produced in the winding is small.)
Basic working principle of AC Generators Cont’d
• As the field turns past the fixed winding, the amount of current
produced in the winding depends upon the strength of the magnetic
field moving past the winding. As the North Pole of the field
moves past the winding, a large current flows through the winding.
Fie ld
S N Winding

As the field continues to turn and the North

Pole starts to move away from the winding,
the current decreases as the strength of the
S

Winding
field “cutting” the winding decreases. When Fie ld

neither pole is nearest the winding, the current N

through the winding is zero.

Basic working principle of AC Generators Cont’d
As the field continues to turn, the South Pole moves
toward the winding as the North Pole moves away.
Current starts to flow in the winding, but in the opposite Fie ld
Winding
direction, because of the opposite pole moving closer
N S

to the winding. When the South Pole is opposite the

winding, the current is again strong, but in the opposite
direction.
As the South Pole moves away, the current in the winding decreases, returning
to zero again when neither pole is close to the winding.
While this simple generator produces AC (alternating current), the current
produced is not very large since the strength of the magnetic field is not very
large. The principle of electromagnetism may be used to produce a magnetic
field of much greater strength. If a conductor is wound around a piece of
metal, such as iron or steel, and current is passed through that conductor, a
magnetic field is produced around this assembly. It is called an electromagnet.
Basic working principle of AC Generators Cont’d
The strength of the magnetic field produced is N

determined by the amount of current passing

through the conductor. When a stronger magnetic
field passes a winding, more current is produced in
the winding. In a generator, the amount of current S

produced in the winding can thus be controlled by

controlling the amount of current passing through
the conductor ca using the magnetic field.
The three-phase generator is basically three separate generators in one
casing. It has three completely separate windings in which current is
produced, but a single rotating magnetic field. Within the generator,
there is no electrical connection between the windings. The rotating
magnetic field is the rotor and the wi ndings in which current is
produced are in the fixed stator.
 Alternating Voltages and Currents
Modern alternators produce an e.m.f. which is for all
practical purposes sinusoidal (i.e., a sine curve), the equation
between the e.m.f. and time being
e = Emax sin ωt ...(1)
where, e = Instantaneous voltage ; Emax = Maximum
voltage ;
ωt = Angle through which the armature has turned
from neutral.
Taking the frequency as f hertz (cycles per second), the
value of ω will be 2πf, so that the equation reads
e = Emax sin (2πf)t.
The graph of the voltage will be as shown in Fig. below.
 Alternating Voltages and Currents Cont’d
1. Cycle. One complete set of positive and
negative values of an alternating quantity
is known as a cycle. A cycle may also
sometimes be specified in terms of
angular measure.
In that case, one complete cycle is said to spread over 360°or 2π
radians.
2. Amplitude. The maximum value, positive or negative, of an
alternating quantity, is known as its amplitude.
3. Frequency (f). The number of cycles/second is called the
frequency of the alternating quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz).
4. Time Period (T). The time taken by an alternating quantity to
complete the cycle is called its time period. For example, a 50 hertz
(Hz) alternating current has a time period of 1/50 second.
 Alternating Voltages and Currents Cont’d
Time period is reciprocal of frequency,
1 1
T  (or f  )
f T
5. Root mean square (R.M.S.) value. The r.m.s. (or effective) value of
an alternating current is given by that steady (D.C.) current which
when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the
same heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing
through the same circuit for the same time. R.M.S. value is the value
which is taken for power purposes of any description. This value is
obtained by finding the square root of the mean value of the squared
ordinates for a cycle or half cycle (Fig. above). This is the value which
is used for all power, lighting and heating purposes, as in these cases
the power is proportional to the square of the voltage.
Equations of Alternating Voltages and Currents
Cont’d
shows a rectangular coil of N turns rotating clockwise with an angular
velocity ω radians per second in a uniform magnetic field.
Since by Faraday’s law, the voltage is proportional to the rate at which
the conductor its across the magnetic field or to the rate of change of
flux linkages, the shape of the wave of voltage applied to the external
circuit will be determined by the flux distribution in the air gap.
For a uniform field between the poles it is
evident that maximum flux will link with the
coil when its plane is in vertical position i.e.,
perpendicular to the direction of flux
between the poles. Also it is obvious that
when the plane of coil is horizontal no flux
will link with the coil.
Equations of Alternating Voltages and Currents
Cont’d
If the position of the coil with reference to the vertical axis be
denoted by θ the flux linking with the coil at any instant, as the coil
rotates may be determined from the relation,
 =  max cos θ
=  max cos ωt ...( i ) (∵ θ = ωt)
where, φmax = Maximum flux which can link with the coil, and
t = Time taken by the coil to move through an angle θ from vertical
position.
Using Faraday’s law to eqn. (i), in order to determine the voltage
equation,
d where e is the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f.)
e-N
dt
Equations of Alternating Voltages and Currents
Cont’d
d
-N (φ max cos ωt) = ωN φ max sin ωt
dt
or e  ωN φ max sin θ ...(ii)
As the value of e will be maximum when sin θ = 1,
∴ Emax = ωNφmax
The eqn. (ii) can be written in simpler form as
e = Emax sin θ ...(iii)
Similarly the equation of induced alternating current (instantaneous
value) is
i = Imax sin θ (if the load is resistive) ...(iv)
 Basic Construction
A.C. generators or alternators (as they are usually called)
operate on the same fundamental principles of
electromagnetic induction as d.c. generators. They also consist
of an armature winding and a magnetic field. But there is one
important difference between the two. Whereas in d.c.
generators, the armature rotates and the field system is
stationary, the arrangement in alternators is just the reverse of
it. In their case, standard construction consists of armature
winding mounted on a stationary element called stator and
field windings on a rotating element called rotor. The details
of construction are shown in Fig. below
 Basic Construction Cont’d
In A.C. generators or an alternator there are two major
components; the stator and the rotor. The rotor has a coil
wound on it. By applying a current to that coil a magnetic field
is formed, and then spinning the rotor electricity is excited in
the stator. Because the rotor needs to spin while maintaining
electrical contact for the coil, slip rings are used.
 Basic Construction Cont’d
There are normally two rings made out of copper or some kind of
copper alloy. The rings are mounted on some type of plastic or
composite material to insulate them from the shaft of the rotor.
The wires that come off the slip rings to the coils are attached to
the rings on the underside. Then there are channels in the plastic to
route the wires keeping the wires away from moving parts.
To keep contact with the slip rings
there is a pair of carbon brushes.
The brushes are made out of
carbon so as to be both conductive
and not too abrasive for the rings.
The brushes are held is place tight
against the slip rings with springs.
 Generator Stator
• The stator is the stationary part of induction motor. A stator
winding is placed in the stator of induction motor and the
three phase supply is given to it.
• Stator is slotted with integer multiple of 6 slots.
• Three pairs of slots contain identical coils of wire, each with
NS turns.
• These windings are called the armature.
 Generator Rotor
• Rotor contains rotating electromagnet called the field
winding and is connected to the mechanical load
through a shaft.
• The electromagnet is powered by a DC current via slip
rings and brushes.

• Unlike in the DC motor

application, brushes are not
commutating and are not as
subject to wear (less friction).
 Types of Rotor
There are two types of rotors used in alternators
(i) Salient-pole type and
(ii) Smooth-cylindrical type.
 Types of Rotor Cont’d
(i) Salient (or projecting) Pole Type: It is used in low-
and medium-speed (engine driven) alternators. It has a
large number of projecting (salient) poles, having their
cores bolted or dovetailed onto a heavy magnetic wheel
of cast-iron, or steel of good magnetic quality. Such
generators are characterised by their large diameters and
short axial lengths. The poles and pole-shoes (which
cover 2/3 of pole-pitch) are laminated to minimize
heating due to eddy currents. In large machines, field
windings consist of rectangular copper strip wound on
edge
 Types of Rotor Cont’d
(ii) Smooth Cylindrical Type: It is used for steam
turbine-driven alternators i.e. turbo alternators, which
run at very high speeds. The rotor consists of a smooth
solid forged steel cylinder, having a number of slots
milled out at intervals along the outer periphery (and
parallel to the shaft) for accommodating field coils.
Such rotors are designed mostly for 2-pole (or 4-pole)
turbo-generators running at 3600 r.p.m. (or 1800
r.p.m.). Two (or four) regions corresponding to the
central polar areas are left unslotted.
 Generator Output
• The amplitude of voltage output is a function of the
current supplied to the field windings.
• The stronger the current, the larger the magnetic field, the
larger the output voltage.
 Speed and Frequency
In an alternator, there exists a definite relationship between the
rotational speed (N) of the rotor, the frequency (f) of the generated
e.m.f. and the number of poles P. Consider the armature conductor
marked X in Fig. below situated at the centre of a N-pole rotating in
clockwise direction. The conductor being situated at the place of
maximum flux density will have maximum e.m.f. induced in it.
Obviously, one cycle of e.m.f. is
induced in a conductor when one pair
of poles passes over it.
In other words, the e.m.f. in an
armature conductor goes through one
cycle in angular distance equal to twice
the pole-pitch
 Speed and Frequency Cont’d
Let P = total number of magnetic poles
N = rotative speed of the rotor in r.p.m.
f = frequency of generated e.m.f. in Hz
Since one cycle of e.m.f. is produced when a pair of poles passes past a
conductor, the number of cycles of e.m.f. produced in one revolution
of the rotor is equal to the number of pair of poles.
∴ No. of cycles/revolution = P/2 and No. of revolutions/sec = N/60
P N PN
 frequency  x  Hz
2 60 120
PN
or f  Hz
120
N is known as the synchronous speed, because it is the speed at which
an alternator must run, in order to generate an e.m.f. of the required
frequency.
 Speed and Frequency Cont’d
In fact, for a given frequency and given number of poles, the speed is
fixed. For producing a frequency of 60 Hz, the alternator will have to
run at the following speeds:
No of poles
2 4 6 8 10 12 24 36
(P)
Speed N
3600 1800 1200 900 720 600 300 200
(RPM)

Referring to the above equation, we get P = 120f/N It is clear from

the above that because of slow rotative speeds of engine-driven
alternators, their number of poles is much greater as compared to that
of the turbo-generators which run at very high speeds.
The frequency f (in Hz) of the AC voltage is a function of speed of
the rotor N (in RPM) for a single pole: N = 60 f [RPM]
 Three-Phase AC Generator
A single-phase alternator as previously discussed have one
armature winding only. But if the number of armature
windings is increased, then it becomes polyphase alternator
and it produces as many independent voltage waves as the
number of windings or phases.
 Three-Phase AC Generator
These windings are displaced from one another by equal angles,
the values of these angles being determined by the number of
phases or windings. In fact, the word ‘polyphase’ means poly (i.e.
many or numerous) and phases (i.e. winding or circuit).
In a two-phase alternator, the armature windings are displaced
90 electrical degrees apart. A 3-phase alternator, as the name
shows, has three independent armature windings which are 120
electrical degrees apart. Hence, the voltages induced in the three
windings are 120° apart in timephase. With the exception of
two-phase windings, it can be stated that, in general, the electrical
displacement between different phases is 360/n where n is the
number of phases or windings.
 Three-Phase AC Generator
All modern generators are practically three-phase. For
transmitting large amounts of power, three-phase is
invariably used. The reasons for the immense popularity of
three-phase apparatus are that
(i) It is more efficient.
(ii) It uses less material for a given capacity, and
(iii) It costs less than single-phase apparatus etc
 Three-Phase AC Generator
• Let us consider an elementary 3-phase 2-pole generator as
shown in Fig. below. On the armature are three coils, ll′, mm′,
and nn′ whose axes are displaced 120° in space from each
other.
 Three-Phase AC Generator
As the three circuits are exactly similar but are 120 electrical degrees
apart, the e.m.f. waves generated in them (when the field rotates) are
displaced from each other by 120°.
Assuming these waves to be sinusoidal and counting the time from
the instant when the e.m.f. in phase ‘a’ is zero, the instantaneous
values of the three e.m.fs. will be given by curves of Fig’s below
Their equations are :

eAA  Vm sin t
eBB  Vm sin(t  120 )
eCC   Vm sin(t  120 )
 Three-Phase AC Generator

Phasor representation of the three-phase generator:

Vm
E AA  0
2
Vm
E BB    120
2
Vm
ECC     120
2
 Phase Sequence
The phase sequence is the time order in which the
voltages pass through their respective maximum
values.
Phase sequence is important because it determines
the direction of rotation of a connected motor.
 Positive Phase Sequence (ABC)
The ABC sequence or positive sequence, is produced
when the generator rotates counter-clockwise.

Vm
E AA  0
eAA  Vm sin t
2
Vm
E BB '    120
eBB  Vm sin(t  120 ) 2
Vm
eCC   Vm sin(t  120 ) ECC '    120
2
 Negative Phase Sequence (ACB)
The ACB or negative sequence, is produced when the generator
rotates clockwise.
NOTE: If we make winding 1 our “reference” voltage source for
phase angle (0°), then winding 2 will have a phase angle of -120° (120°
lagging, or 240° leading) and winding 3 an angle of -240° (or 120°
leading).

Vm
E AA  0
2
eAA  Vm sin t Vm
ECC     120
eCC   Vm sin(t  120 ) 2
Vm
E BB    120
eBB  Vm sin(t  120 ) 2
 Course Drill
a) For a 4 pole, 60 HZ generator, what is the speed in rpm of the
rotor? b) What would be the frequency of a 6 pole machine
spinning at the same rpm? 90 Hz
120 f
a) N P  (RPM)
Poles
120(60Hz )
NP  =1800 RPM
4
120 f
b) N P  (RPM)
Poles
N ( Poles) (1800RPM)(6)
f  P = =90 Hz
120 120
 Parallel Operation of Two Alternators
The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another
alternator or with common bus-bars is known as synchronizing.
Generally, alternators are used in a power system where they are in
parallel with many other alternators. It means that the alternator is
connected to a live system of constant voltage and constant
frequency. Often the electrical system to which the alternator is
connected, has already so many alternators and loads connected to
it that no matter what power is delivered by the incoming
alternator, the voltage and frequency of the system remain the
same. In that case, the alternator is said to be connected to infinite
bus-bars. It is never advisable to connect a stationary alternator to
live bus-bars, because, stator induced e.m.f. being zero, a short-
circuit will result.
 Parallel Operation of Two Alternators
For proper synchronization of alternators, the following three
conditions must be satisfied :
1. The terminal voltage (effective) of the incoming alternator
must be the same as bus-bar voltage.
2. The speed of the incoming machine must be such that its
frequency (= PN/120) equals bus-bar frequency.
3. The phase of the alternator voltage must be identical with
the phase of the bus-bar voltage. It means that the switch
must be closed at (or very near) the instant, the two
voltages have correct phase relationship.
Condition (1) is indicated by a voltmeter, conditions (2) and (3)
are indicated by synchronizing lamps or a synchronoscope.
 Synchronizing of Alternators: Single Phase
Suppose machine 2 is to be synchronized with or ‘put on’ the
bus-bars to which machine 1 is already connected. This is done
with the help of two lamps L1 and L2 (known as synchronizing
lamps) connected as shown in Fig. below.
It should be noted that E1 and E2 are in-phase relative to the
external circuit but are in direct phase opposition in the local
circuit (shown dotted).
If the speed of the incoming machine 2 is not brought up to
that of machine 1, then its frequency will also be different,
hence there will be a phase-difference between their voltages
(even when they are equal in magnitude, which is determined by
field excitation).
 Synchronizing of Alternators: Single Phase
This phase-difference will be continuously changing with the
changes in their frequencies. The result is that their resultant
voltage will undergo changes similar to the frequency changes
of beats produced, when two sound sources of nearly equal
frequency are sounded together, as shown in Fig. below.
 Synchronizing of Alternators: Three Phase
Suppose machine 2 is to be synchronized with or ‘put on’ the
bus-bars to which machine 1 is already connected. This is done
with the help of two lamps L1 and L2 (known as synchronizing
lamps) connected as shown in Fig. below.
It should be noted that E1 and E2 are in-phase relative to the
external circuit but are in direct phase opposition in the local
circuit (shown dotted).
If the speed of the incoming machine 2 is not brought up to
that of machine 1, then its frequency will also be different,
hence there will be a phase-difference between their voltages
(even when they are equal in magnitude, which is determined by
field excitation).
 Synchronizing of Alternators: Three Phase
In 3-φ alternators, it is necessary to synchronize one phase only, the
other two phases will then be synchronized automatically. However,
first it is necessary that the incoming alternator is correctly ‘phased
out’ i.e. the phases are connected in the proper order of R, Y, B and
not R, B, Y etc.
 Synchronizing of Alternators: Three Phase
In this case, three lamps are used. But they are deliberately
connected asymmetrically, as shown in Fig.’s above. This
transposition of two lamps, suggested by Siemens and
Halske, helps to indicate whether the incoming machine is
running too slow. If lamps were connected symmetrically,
they would dark out or glow up simultaneously (if the
phase rotation is the same as that of the bus-bars).
Lamp L1 is connected between R and R′, L2 between Y
and B′ (not Y and Y′) and L3 between B and Y′ (and not B
and B′).
Dynamic Electrical Machines:
GENERATORS:
• AC Generators
• DC Generators
 DC Generators
A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main
function is to convert mechanical energy (or power) into
electricity or electrical energy (or power) with a
unidirectional voltage and current output. A DC
generator can also be used as a DC motor without
changing its construction. Therefore, a DC motor,
otherwise a DC generator, can be generally called a DC
machine.
 Parts of DC Generators
Below we have mentioned the essential parts of a DC
Generator. Stator, rotor, pole, yoke, Armature Windings,
Brushes, Commutator.
 Commutator
The function of the commutator is to facilitate collection of
current from the armature conductors. It rectifies /converts the
alternating current induced in the armature conductors into
unidirectional current in the external load circuit. It is of
cylindrical structure and is built up of wedge-shaped segments
of high-conductivity hard-drawn or drop forged copper. It is
located on the shaft of the machine.
 Principle of operation of DC Generators
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we
know that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
varying magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor.
According to Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the
induced current changes whenever the direction of motion of the
conductor changes. Consider an armature rotating clockwise and
a conductor at the left moving upwards. When the armature
completes a half rotation, the direction of the motion of the
conductor will be reversed downward. Hence, the direction of
the current in every armature will be alternating. But with a split
ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors get
reversed when a current reversal occurs. Therefore, we get a
unidirectional current at the terminals.
 DC Generators Winding
The armature winding is the most important part of the
rotating machine. It is the place where energy conversion takes
place, i.e., the mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy, and the electrical energy is converted into mechanical
energy. The armature winding is mainly classified into types, i.e.,
the lap winding and the wave winding.
 DC Generators: Lap Winding
In lap winding, the conductors are joined in such a way that
their parallel paths and poles are equal in number. The end of
each armature coil is connected to the adjacent segment on the
commutator. The number of brushes in the lap winding is
equal to the number of parallel paths, and these brushes are
equally divided into negative and positive polarity.
 Types of Lap Winding
The lap winding is mainly used in low voltage, high
current machine applications. They are three types
1. Simplex Lap Winding
2. Duplex Lap Winding
3. Triplex Lap Winding
 Types of Lap Winding Cont’d
1. Simplex Lap Winding: In simplex lap winding, the
terminating end of one coil is joined to the commutator
segment and the starting end of the next coil is placed
under the same pole. Also, the number of parallel paths is
similar to the number of poles of the windings.
 Types of Lap Winding Cont’d
2. Duplex Winding: In duplex winding the number of parallel
paths between the pole is twice the number of poles. The
duplex lap winding is mainly used for heavy current
applications. Such type of winding is obtained by placing
the two similar winding on the same armature and
connecting the even number commutator bars to one
winding and the odd number to the second winding.
 Types of Lap Winding
3. Triplex Lap Winding: In triplex lap winding the windings are
connected to the one-third of the commutator bars.
The lap winding has many paths and hence it is used for the
larger current applications. The only disadvantage of the lap
winding is that it requires many conductors which increase the
cost of the winding.
 Forms of Lap Winding
If after passing one round, the
armature winding falls into a slot to
the left of its initial point, then the
winding is said to be retrogressive.

And if the armature windings fall

on one slot to the right then it is
called progressive winding.
 DC Generators: Wave Winding
In wave winding, only two parallel paths are provided between
the positive and negative brushes. The finishing end of the one
armature coil is connected to the starting end of the other
armature coil commutator segment at some distance apart.
In this winding, the conductors are connected to two parallel
paths irrespective of the number of poles of the machine. The
number of brushes is equal to the number of parallel paths.
The wave winding is mainly used in high voltage, low current
machines.
?