ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 1 – Introduction

Session 1
Introduction

Contents
1.1 What is communication?
1.2 Elements of a communication system
1.3 Formation of Electric and magnetic fields
1.4 Types of communication systems
1.4.1 Line communication systems
1.4.2 Radio communication systems
1.5 Types of signals
1.5.1 Analog and Digital
1.5.2 Bandwidth
1.5.3 Filters
1.6 Noise

Aim
Aim of this session is to learn about the formation of a communication system and
some communication fundamentals.

Objectives
At the end of this Session, you will be able to,
describe what communication is and how people communicate
messages in the past

describe the main building blocks of a basic communication system

and their functions

describe different types of communication systems

demonstrate the characteristics of analog and digital signals

analyse the effect of bandwidth & noise on signals

Introduction

This session gives you an introduction on communication systems. We will discuss

the meaning of communication, the main elements of a communication system,
different types of communication systems and some important parameters related
to communication.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 1 – Introduction

1.1 What is communication?

Communication comprises of the transmission of information from one place to
another through use of speech, written messages or coded signals etc. This is the
process involved when you talk to someone face to face or on the phone, when you
listen to music on your iPod, when you watch your favourite TV program, when
you use the internet.
In the past, people used some primitive methods of communication such as smoke
signals, sounding bells, sending messages through birds etc. With the advancement
of civilisation these methods proved to be unsatisfactory and time consuming, as it
did not match with the needs of the society. Hence these techniques were improved
to suite the modern society. Now, we use a variety of methods for communication.
That includes two way communication methods such as telephony and one way
communication methods such as broadcast systems.

Activity 1.1

Write 10 ways of communicating at a distance in old days. Also write 10

technologies that we use today for communicating at a distance.
When we talk about telecommunication, we can define it as the technology
concerned with communicating at a distance. We can hold a wider interpretation as
telecommunication encompasses the electrical communication at a distance of
voice, data, and image information (e.g., TV and facsimile).

1.2 Elements of a communication system

Any communication system in general consists of a Transmitter, Communication
Medium and the Receiver.

For an example consider that two people standing and talking on the street. Here
the type of the information signal is voice and it is a communication system where
you are the transmitter and your friend is the receiver. The speech signal travels
through air as the communication medium. What will happen when you all keep
moving away from each other? After a certain time, you are unable to hear each
other. In technical terms, the amplitude of their speech signals dies out as they get
mixed with noise from the environment. Here, we are just dealing with the speech
signal which is an electro-magnetic wave (You will learn in section 1.3 ), but not
really what you would call an electrical signal.
Now consider that we use a wire for the communication of the above example.
Then, the signal travels through the wire is electric in nature and the two people

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 1 – Introduction

might be able to communicate for a longer distance with better clarity. But still the
signal (now an electric signal) eventually dies out with the distance.
According to this example we can conclude two things:
1. Since the signal that travels through the wire is in electric form we need
some device to convert speech signal into an electrical signal at the
sender’s end and another device to convert the electrical signal back to a
speech signal at the receiver’s end. We call this type of devices
transducers. Microphone, speaker, ….etc. are some examples for such
transducers.
2. The signal dies out after traversing a certain distance. In the past, since the
people get tired to travel in long distances, they used some kind of carriers
like birds, horses etc. to send messages. Similarly we send our signals "on"
a high frequency carrier wave. (not exactly "superimposed on" but
"modulated on"). We call this process as modulation. We then need to
demodulate the signal (get the guy down from the horse to deliver the
message) at the receiving end. You will learn this process in detail in
session 3.
Considering above, now we can form the block diagram of a communication
system as given in the figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2
Basic block diagram of a communication system

As explained earlier, input transducer converts the original information signal into
an electrical signal.
Can you name different forms of electrical signals?
An electrical signal may be any one or more of the following types which are time
variant signals. (i.e. varies with time).
(a) current in an electric circuit.
(b) voltage across a resistive component of a circuit.
(c) magnetic or electric field at a defined point.
Transmitter is a device which is capable of generating electrical signals in the form
of varying current, voltage or electromagnetic field. Such devices are identified as
voltage sources, current source, depending on the type of signal generated. The
modulation process takes place in the transmitter. In addition, processes like
amplification, filtering and coupling to the channel are also done by the transmitter

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 1 – Introduction

Receiver is a device which is capable of receiving these signals and reproducing

them in the original form. Here again we need to use an output transducer to
reconvert the received electrical signal into the original form.
Between the transmitter and the receiver lies the communication medium, we call it
the channel, which is most susceptible to any noise signals or interferences. You
will find that all communication system block diagrams are a mirror image about
the channel. The channel may be wired or wireless/broadcast. Every channel has a
limited capacity called the information capacity. The noise is unwanted energy
that interferes with the message signal in the form of amplitude variations. Noise
may be external (created outside the receiver) or internal (created inside the
receiver).

1.3 Formation of electric and magnetic fields

d
90°

I (AMPERES)

Figure 1.3
Current carrying conductor
When an electric current flows along a conductor (placed as shown in open space)
it produces an electric and magnetic field around the conductor. The formation of
electric and magnetic fields are shown in the figure 1.3. Generally electric and
magnetic fields are denoted by E and H respectively.
Electric field = E volts/unit length
Magnetic field = H Ampere turns/unit length
For an infinitely long conductor carrying a current I, the H field is circular in shape
and lies in a plane normal to this wire and E field is perpendicular to H field at any
point. At a given point located at a radial distance d,
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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 1 – Introduction

1
E and E I
d
1
H and E I
d

I I
From these equations it follows that E and H
d d
As mentioned earlier the values of H and E decreases inversely with the distance
from the conductor. The variations in E and H may be measured by moving a field
strength meter in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the wire. For example you
may find that if the radial distance is doubled the intensities are halved.
These lines of force are made up of an electric field (E) and a magnetic field (H),
which together makes up the electromagnetic field in space. The electric and
magnetic fields radiated from an antenna form the electromagnetic field. This field
is responsible for the transmission and reception of electromagnetic energy through
free space.

1.4 Types of communication systems

Depends on the transmission line we use, communication systems can be mainly
categorised into two types.

1.4.1 Line communication systems

In a line communication system, the electronic signal is passed to the destination
by a wire or a cable link. Coaxial cables, twisted pair cables and fibre optic cables
are few types of transmission media used in line communication systems.

1.4.2 Radio communication systems

For a radio system, transmitter sends the signal in the free space over a radio link,
with the energy travelling at the speed of light. When a radio-frequency current
flows into a transmitting antenna, power is radiated in a number of directions and
we call it an electro-magnetic wave. This is a complex signal with the same general
characteristics as light but of a lower frequency.
The principle of operation of these systems will be discussed in detail in the next
chapter.

1.5 Types of signals

We can define a signal as a physical quantity that varies with respect to time, space
and contain information from source to destination. Examples in the practical
world include audio, video, speech, image, communication, sonar, radar, medical
and musical signals.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 1 – Introduction

1.5.1 Analog and Digital

Signals can be categorised in various ways. But in general we can divide them into
two main types as analog and digital.
Analog signals can be described as a signal that has a continuous nature. When we
consider electrical signals, continuously varying voltages, frequencies, or phases,
may be used as analog signals.
A digital signal is a physical signal that is a representation of a sequence of discrete
values e.g. a bit stream. This signal can have only one of two values at any given
time, 1 or 0. A digital system would be more like flipping a light switch on and off.

1.5.2 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is an important parameter related to communication signals. We can
define bandwidth in two ways, signal bandwidth and channel bandwidth.
Signal bandwidth is the range of frequencies that makes up a signal. Say, the
frequency range for commercial speech is 300 Hz – 3400 Hz. Therefore the
bandwidth of commercial speech signal is 3100 Hz.
Typically commonly encountered frequency ranges are,
Human voice (fundamental) 100 Hz – 10 000 Hz
Human hearing 20 Hz – 15 000 Hz
Commercial speech 300 Hz – 3400 Hz
Mains electricity 50 Hz – 60 Hz

When you transmit these signals in a particular communication channel, then we

can define the channel bandwidth as its information-carrying capacity. The channel
may be analog or digital. Analog transmissions such as telephone calls, AM and
FM radio, television etc. are measured in cycles per second (hertz or Hz). Digital
transmissions are measured in bits per second.

1.5.3 Filters
How do you separate the frequency range of a particular information signal from
the other frequencies?
The simplest method is to use a filter. There are 4 basic types of filters:
1. Low pass filter – attenuates all signals at a greater frequency than the cut
off value
2. High pass filter – passes all signals at frequencies higher than the cut off
value and attenuates lower frequency signals
3. Band pass filter - passes all signals at frequencies within a specified band
and attenuates signals at frequencies above and below the band
4. Band stop filter – attenuates signals at frequencies within a specified band
and passes signals at frequencies above and below the band

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1.6 Noise
Noise refers to unwanted waves that disturb communications. Any receiver has to
compete with noise as noise deteriorates the quality of the received signal, e.g. the
appearance of “snow” on the TV screen, or “static” sounds during an audio
transmission.
We can categorise noise as external noise and internal noise. External noise refers
to the interference from nearby channels, human-made noise, natural noise etc.
Internal noise includes thermal noise, random emission in electronic devices.

In digital communication systems, noise degrades the throughput (throughput

refers to how much data can be transferred from one location to another in a given
amount of time) because it requires retransmission of data packets or extra coding
to recover the data in the presence of errors.

Summary
In this chapter we discussed what is meant by telecommunication is and the main
components of a communication system and their functions. Different types of
communication systems and information signals were also discussed. We also
studied about some important terms connected to signals like bandwidth, filters and
noise. In the next session we are going to discuss how line communication systems
and radio communication systems work.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

Session 2
Radio and Line Communication

Contents
2.1 Cable or Line communication system
2.1.1 Simple line communication system
2.1.2 Simple one way telephone circuit
2.1.3 Modified both way telephone circuit
2.2 Radio communication systems
2.2.1 Electro-magnetic waves
2.2.2 Typical radio communication system
2.2.3 Modes of radio wave propagation in air
2.2.4 Radio Frequency Spectrum
2.2.5 Different types of radio communication systems

Aim
This lesson will introduce and explain basic principles of radio and line
communication systems.

Objectives
At the end of this session you will be able to,
- explain the functions of basic building blocks of a line communication
system
- identify simple line communication systems
- identify different components of radio communication systems
- demonstrate how frequency allocates according to the frequency
spectrum
- explain the propagation of a radio wave
- identify different types of radio communication systems

Introduction

As explained in the previous session communication systems can be wired or

wireless. In this lesson we will study the details of these two types of
communication systems. We will study how these systems are formed and their
respective principles of operation.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

2.1 Cable or Line communication system

As the name implies a pair of conductors are used as the medium of transmission.
The arrangement of conductor pairs can be different from system to system and
also according to the requirement. Eg: a pair of copper wires. (Such media are
sometimes referred to as GUIDED media.). In line communication systems the
signals consist of varying voltage or current propagating along the line.
We can give various examples for line communication such as telephone networks,
cable television and fiber-optic communication etc. Common wired media used
today are twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, shielded twisted pair cables, optical
fiber cables etc.

2.1.1 Simple line communication system

Figure 2.1 shows a simple line communication system. The transmitter is
connected to the receiver using a pair of conductors. The currents and the voltages
at the transmitter end and receiving end are I T , VT , IR and VR respectively.

Simple line communication system

Let’s remind ourselves the functions of the two main blocks of a communication
system, transmitter and receiver. Transmitter is a device which is capable of
generating electrical signals in the form of varying current, voltage or
electromagnetic field. Receiver is a device which is capable of receiving these
signals and reproducing them in the same form.
Consider the simple transmission system shown in Figure 2.1 to illustrate the
application of current and voltage signals.
The voltage source "V" is the transmitter and the load “R” is the receiver of this
simple circuit. AB and CD is a pair of wires which connects source "V" to the load
"R" and it is called the medium of transmission for the electrical signals.
What is the current of this circuit?

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

Knowing the source voltage and the resistance of the load we can calculate the
source current I of this transmitter.
If the receiving current IR = 1A, what is the voltage across the load?

V R IR 5 1 5 volts.

In this particular case the load voltage "5 volts" is equal to the source voltage if the
loss of the connecting medium is negligible and internal impedance of the source is
negligible.
Can you explain the reason for the above case?
That is because the resistance of the wires AB, and CD and also the internal
resistance of the voltage source are zero.
Can you calculate the Transmitter (source) current "I" and the load voltage if the
internal resistance of the source is 0.02 and the resistance per cm of the wire is
0.01 ohms/cm? These data are not sufficient. Assume the source e.m.f . is 5 volts.
What more do you need to work out this problem?
We need the distance between source and the load (transmitter and the receiver).
Assuming the distance as 100 cm, the signal current,

5 5
I Amps
5 (2 100 0.01) 0.02 7.02
5 25
V I R 5 volts
7.02 7.02
When you compare these results with the previous values we find that the values
are reduced.

Case I IR 1 amps V 5 volts

5 25
Case II IR amps 0.712amps, V volts 3.56 volts
7.02 7.02

Can you give two reasons for these reductions?

a) Ohmic drop in the transmission media, ie. the connecting circuit.
b) . Internal resistance of the source.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

2.1.2 Simple one way telephone circuit

Simple telephone circuit (one way operation)

Figure 2.2 illustrates a simple telephone circuit used to communicate between two
persons X and Y. The microphone generates an electrical signal similar in shape to
the sound/voice signal incidence on the microphone. This electrical signal travels
from A to B through the medium AB. At the receiving end "BB" this electrical
signal is reconverted to sound by the earphone and the ear will receive the same
sensation as that the speaker had been conversing with the listener face to face.
This process of conversion of acoustic signal to an electrical signal and vice versa
is called transduction.
Why this circuit is called one way telephone circuit?
Because only X's speech can be heard at Y but Y to X communication is not
possible.
To permit both way communication we can employ two of these similar circuits,
one microphone and one earphone for X and another set for Y. connected as shown
in Figure 2.3.

2.1.3 Modified both way telephone circuit

Figure 2.3

Simple telephone circuit (both way)

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

When X speaks the signal is sent via T1 transformer received at the earphone of Y.
Similarly Y can speak to X. In this configuration only one medium is used for
signals both ways.
What are the functions of microphone and earphone?
Microphone converts or transduces the sound signal into an electrical signal.
Earphone reconverts or transduces this electrical signal to sound.

2.2 Radio communication systems

In radio communication the medium is open space (air). Hence the wave is
unguided as opposed to the technique in line transmission. There is no physical
connection between the transmitter and the receiver. Transmitter radiates signals in
the form of electric and magnetic fields and the receiver receives electric and
magnetic fields.

2.2.1 Electro-magnetic waves

Electromagnetic radiation comprises of both electric and magnetic fields. You may
remember that we studied about the formation of electric and magnetic fields of a
current carrying conductor in section 1.3. Similarly, when an alternating voltage is
applied to a long straight wire antenna, the oscillating current creates oscillating
electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields which in turn generate more electric and
magnetic fields. Thus an outward propagating electromagnetic wave is created. The
electric field is oriented along the axis of the antenna and the magnetic field is
perpendicular to both the electric field and the direction of propagation making a
transverse (go across) wave. We call this transverse wave as electromagnetic wave.
This is shown in the figure 2.4. For clarity, the waves are shown only along one
direction, but they propagate out in other directions too. The speed of propagation
of the electromagnetic waves is equal to the velocity of light.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

Figure 2.4

Propagation of an electro-magnetic wave

2.2.2 Typical radio communication system

HT HR

ET ER AERIAL
AERIAL

RADIO RADIO
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER

TRANSMITTING SYSTEM RECEIVING SYSTEM

Figure 2.5

Components of a typical radio communication system

The Radio transmitter radiates electric and magnetic fields (electro-magnetic

waves) through the antenna into free space and the receiver picks up the electric
and magnetic fields at the other end through the receiving antenna.
The electric and magnetic fields at transmitting end are ET and HT respectively
Electric and Magnetic fields at receiving end are ER and HR respectively.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

We can show basic building blocks of a radio communication system as in the

figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6

Basic components of radio communication system

As a summary, in a radio communication system, a transmitter is required at the

source to send the signal over the radio link, with the energy travelling at the speed
of light. A receiver is needed at the destination to receive the signal before
applying to the transducer. When a radio frequency current flows into a
transmitting antenna, power is radiated in a number of directions and we call it the
electro-magnetic wave (EM wave). This is a complex signal with the same general
characteristics as light but at a lower frequency. Electro-magnetic waves travel at
the same speed as light and can be reflected and refracted just as light can be.

2.2.3 Modes of radio wave propagation in air

Now let’s see how these radio waves travel in the air. Radio waves can exhibit 3
fundamental propagation behaviours in air depending on their frequency as given
below:
1. Ground wave propagation (< 2MHz)
2. Sky wave propagation (2 – 30MHz)
3. Space wave (direct wave) propagation (>30 MHz)

We can divide the atmosphere around the earth into several distinct layers.
Troposphere and Ionosphere are the two important layers regarding the radio wave
propagation. (Refer the figure 2.7).
Closest to Earth is the troposphere. Most of the clouds you see in the sky are found
in the troposphere, and this is the layer of the atmosphere we associate with
weather. Extending up to 10 miles above Earth's surface, the troposphere contains a
variety of gases: water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and others.
These gases help retain heat, a portion of which is then radiated back to warm the
surface of Earth.

The ionosphere is the region above the troposphere (where the air is), from about
400 kilometres above the earth. It is a collection of ions, which are atoms that have
some of their electrons stripped off leaving two or more electrically charged ions.
The sun's rays cause the ions to form which slowly recombine. The propagation of

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radio waves in the presence of ions is drastically different than in air, which is why
the ionosphere plays an important role in most modes of propagation.

Ground wave
The ground wave is supported at the lowest edge by the surface of the earth and is
able to follow the curvature of the earth as it travels. Ground waves travel between
two limits, the earth and the ionosphere, which acts like a duct. Since the duct
curves with the earth, the ground wave will follow. Therefore very long range
propagation is possible using ground waves.

Radio waves in the VLF (Very Low Frequency) band propagate in a ground, or
surface wave.
Since ground waves are actually in contact with the ground, they are greatly
affected by the ground’s properties. Because ground is not a perfect electrical
conductor, ground waves are attenuated as they follow the earth’s surface. This
effect is more pronounced at higher frequencies, limiting the usefulness of ground
wave propagation to frequencies below 2 MHz. Ground waves will propagate long
distances over sea water, due to its high conductivity.

Ground waves are used primarily for local AM broadcasting and communications
with submarines. Submarine communications takes place at frequencies well below
10 kHz, which can penetrate sea water and which are propagated globally by
ground waves.

Sky Wave
Radio waves in the low frequency (LF) and MF (medium frequency) ranges may
also propagate as ground waves, but suffer significant losses, or are attenuated,
particularly at higher frequencies. But as the ground wave mode fades out, a new
mode develops, i.e. the sky wave. Sky waves are reflections from the ionosphere.
While the wave is in the ionosphere, it is strongly bent, or refracted, ultimately
back to the ground. From a long distance away this appears as a reflection. Long
ranges are possible in this mode also, up to hundreds of kilometres. Sky waves in
this frequency band are usually only possible at night, when the concentration of
ions is not too great since the ionosphere also tends to attenuate the signal.
However, at night, there are just enough ions to reflect the wave but not reduce its
power too much. Many international broadcasts and amateur radio use these waves.

Space Wave
Space Waves, also known as direct waves, are radio waves that travel directly from
the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. In order for this to occur, the two
antennas must be able to “see” each other; that is there must be a line of sight path
between them.
The space wave generally has two components, one of which travels in a very
nearly straight line between the transmitting and receiving locations and the other
travels by means of a single reflection from the earth.
An interesting example of direct communications is satellite communications. If a
satellite is placed in an orbit 35000 kilometres above the equator, it appears to
stand still in the sky, as viewed from the ground. A high gain antenna can be
pointed at the satellite to transmit signals to it. The satellite is used as a relay
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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

station, from which approximately ¼ of the earth’s surface is visible. The satellite
receives signals from the ground at one frequency, known as the uplink frequency.
It translates this frequency to a different frequency, known as the downlink
frequency, and retransmits the signal. Because two frequencies are used, the
reception and transmission can happen simultaneously. Other examples that use
space waves are mobile phone systems, cordless telephone systems etc.

Figure 2.7
Basic modes of propagation of radio waves

Upto now we discussed the physical properties and various transmission

characteristics of radio waves. Thereby we can determine how far and where radio
signals can travel, and make different radio frequencies better suited to certain
kinds of communications services. Section 2.2.4 gives a brief description of the
various radio bands with some of their uses.

Radio spectrum refers to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding

to radio frequencies – that is, frequencies lower than around 300 GHz (or,
equivalently, wavelengths longer than about 1 mm). Different parts of the radio
spectrum are used for different radio transmission technologies and applications
(Table 2.1). Radio spectrum is typically government regulated and, in some cases,
is sold or licensed to operators of private radio transmission systems (for example,
cellular telephone operators or broadcast television stations).

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

Table 2.1 : Radio frequency spectrum

Frequency band / Classification Abbreviation Applications

Wavelength
Below 300 Hz Extremely low ELF Communication with
submarines
Above 1000km
300Hz – 3kHz Ultra Low ULF Submarine communication,
Communication within mines
1000km – 100km
3kHz – 30 kHz Very low VLF Navigation, time signals,
submarine communication,
100km – 10km
wireless heart rate monitors,
geophysics
30kHz – 300kHz Low LF Navigation, time signals, AM
longwave broadcasting
10km – 1km
(Europe and parts of Asia),
RFID, amateur radio
300kHz – 3MHz Medium MF AM (medium-wave)
broadcasts, amateur radio
1km – 100m
3MHz – 30MHz High HF Long distance radio telephony,
sound broadcasting
100m - 10m
30MHz– 300MHz Very high VHF FM, television broadcasts and
line-of-sight ground-to-aircraft
10m – 1m
and aircraft-to-aircraft
communications. Land Mobile
and Maritime Mobile
communications, amateur
radio, weather radio
300MHz – 3GHz Ultra high UHF Television broadcasts,
microwave ovens, microwave
1m – 100mm
devices/communications, radio
astronomy, mobile phones,
wireless LAN, Bluetooth,
ZigBee, GPS and two-way
radios such as Land Mobile,
FRS and GMRS radios,
amateur radio
3GHz – 30GHz Super high SHF radio astronomy, microwave
devices/communications,
100mm – 10mm
wireless LAN, most modern
radars, communication
satellites, satellite television
broadcasting, DBS, amateur
radio

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

30GHz– 300GHz Extremely high EHF radio astronomy, high-

frequency microwave radio
10mm – 1mm
relay, microwave remote
sensing
300Hz – 3000GHz Tremendously THF Terahertz imaging, ultrafast
high molecular dynamics, terahertz
1mm - 100µm
computing/ communications,
remote sensing

S.A.Q 2.1

Is it possible to have a communication system with one section consisting of a line

communication system and the next section using radio system to link up two
points?

Answer
Yes, any combination consisting of Radio and Line system could be used. The
following figure illustrates a basic configuration of a mixed system.

Figure 2.8
Mixed system with radio and line communication

2.2.5 Different types of radio communication systems

Radio communication systems can be basically categorized into following types:
1. Radio broadcast systems
2. Cellular radio
3. Microwave systems

1. Radio Broadcast systems

In radio broadcasting service we can broadcast audio signals through the air as
radio waves. As you can see in the figure 2.9 we use a transmitter to transmit
radio waves to receiving antennas. Radio waves have different frequency
segments, and you will be able to pick up an audio signal by tuning the
receiver into a specific frequency segment. Radio broadcast systems can
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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

transmit signals over long distances at a data rate up to 2 Megabits per second
(AM/FM radio)

Figure 2.9
Broadcast radio system

2. Cellular radio systems

This is a form of broadcast radio used for mobile communication. High frequency
radio waves are used to transmit voice or data. An area is divided into smaller areas
called cells and a specific frequency is assigned for each cell. A frequency
corresponds to a specific cell can be reused after a certain distance. Each cell
consists of an antenna which is called as a Base Station (BS) and all base stations
communicate with the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC). MSC has a connection
with the Public Switching Telephone Network (PSTN) to connect calls outside the
mobile network. You may clearly understand this cellular structure using the
figure 2.10.

3. Microwave communication systems

Microwave transmission involves the transfer of voice and data through the
atmosphere as super high-frequency radio waves called microwaves. They are
point-to-point communication systems. Microwave transmission is mainly used to
transmit messages between ground-based stations and satellite communications
systems.

Microwave transmission mainly uses radio waves whose wavelengths are

conveniently measured in small units such as centimetres. Microwaves belong to
the radio spectrum ranges of roughly 1.0 gigahertz (GHz) to 30 GHz.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

Figure 2.10
Basic cellular structure

Antennas used in microwave transmissions are of convenient sizes and shapes.

Microwave transmission depends on line-of-sight in order to work properly. For
two way communications to take place, two frequencies are used. However, this
does not require two antennas because the frequencies can be dealt with one
antenna at each end.

The distance covered by microwave signals depends on the height of the antenna.
Each antenna is built with a fitted repeater to regenerate the signal before passing it
on to the next antenna in line. The main drawback of microwave signals is that they
can be affected by bad weather, especially rain.

Summary
In this session we studied about the basic principles and different types of radio and
line communication systems. We also learned about the propagation of radio waves
and about the frequency spectrum by which we can determine different radio
frequencies better suited to certain kinds of communications services.

References
Integrated Publishing Inc.(2003), viewed January 10 2013,
http://www.tpub.com/neets/book10/40k.htm

The Bigger.com, viewed January 12 2013,

http://www.thebigger.com/physics/principles-of-communication/how-
electromagnetic-waves-propagate-in-atmosphere/

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 2 –Radio and Line Communication

Dr. Abhijit Mitra, Lecture Notes on Mobile Communication (2009), viewed

January 10 2013,
http://rf.harris.com/media/Radio%20Comms%20in%20the%20Digital%20Age%20
-%201_tcm26-12947.pdf

Harris Corporation, RF Communications (2005), viewed January 12 2013,

Divisionhttp://www.iitg.ernet.in/scifac/qip/public_html/cd_cell/EC632.pdf

22
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

Session 3
Modulation techniques

Contents
3.1 What is modulation?
3.1.1 Why modulation is important?
3.1.2 Types of modulation
3.2 Amplitude Modulation
3.3 Frequency Modulation
3.4 Frequency components of a modulated signal.
3.4.1 Frequency components of a periodic signal
3.4.2 Frequency Components of an amplitude modulated waveform
3.4.3 Frequency Components of a frequency modulated waveform

Aims
To introduce the principles of basic modulation techniques

Objectives
After reading this lesson you should be able to explain
what modulation is
why modulation is important in telecommunication
what amplitude modulation is
what frequency modulation is
define modulation index for both AM and FM
how modulation index affects the modulation in each case.

Introduction
This session explains to you about one of the main principles behind a
communication system, named as modulation. We will discuss what is meant by
modulation and two main types of modulation, amplitude modulation and
frequency modulation.

3.1 What is modulation?

The transmission of information is similar to transportation of 100 'rice sacks'. The
sacks are first loaded to a lorry. Then the lorry 'carries' the sacks to the required
destination. In other words the rice sacks are carried by the lorry.

23
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

In the transmission of information the information is first 'loaded’ or ‘embedded' to

a high frequency, high energy signal known as the carrier signal. This process is
known as modulation. The information signal is referred to as modulating signal.
The carrier signal carries the information to the required destination. At the
destination the information signal is separated from the carrier signal - this process
is known as demodulation.

3.1.1 Why modulation is important?

As explained earlier the primary requirement of modulation is to make the
information signal into a form which is suitable for transmission. Apart from this
primary requirement, there are few other reasons for the importance of modulation
as given below:
1. Ease of radiation and overcome hardware limitations
We translate signals to high frequencies using modulation. As a result, it
becomes relatively easier to design amplifier circuits as well as antenna
systems at these higher frequencies.
2. Increases the range of communication
Low frequency baseband signals suffer from attenuation and hence cannot be
transmitted over long distances. So translation to a higher frequency band
results in long distance transmission
3. Facilitates multiple access
By translating the baseband spectrum of signals from various users to different
frequency bands, multiple users can be accommodated within a band of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

3.1.2 Types of modulation

In analog communication systems, sinusoidal signals are used as the carrier. A
sinusoidal signal can be described using amplitude and angle (frequency and
phase). Therefore in modulation, these parameters of the high frequency carrier are
varied for the purpose of transmitting information. Accordingly analog modulation
may be divided into Amplitude Modulation an Angle Modulation. Angle
modulation can be again divided into frequency and phase modulation.
In digital communication systems we use digital modulation techniques such as
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift
Keying (PSK) etc. But we do not discuss them in detail in this course.

3.2 Amplitude Modulation

In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied according to
the information signal (modulating signal). You can see this clearly in the figure
3.1.

24
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

Figure 3.1
Amplitude modulation

Now let’s see the theory behind this technique.

Consider the carrier signal, e c (t) E c Cos c t and

the modulating signal (information signal), e m (t) E m Cos m t

Here, c 2 f c and m 2 f m where fm and fc are modulating frequency and

the carrier frequency respectively.

Then, the amplitude modulated signal, e(t) can be expressed as,

e(t) Ec e m (t) Cos c t

------------------------ equation ( 3.1)
Ec E m Cos m t Cos c t

25
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

Then, the amplitude of the AM signal is,

E Ec E m Cos m t
Ec m a E c Cos m t ------------------------ equation ( 3.2)
E c (1 m a Cos m t)

Em
Where m a = depth of modulation
Ec

Here, Em and Ec are the modulating signal amplitude and the carrier amplitude
respectively.

This is also known as modulation index, percent modulation or modulation factor.

Multiplying the modulation index by 100 gives the percentage of modulation.

From the equation (3.2), you may understand that the carrier amplitude is varied by
±ma and this variation of the amplitude takes place at a frequency fm.

Now the AM signal can be written as

e(t ) E c 1 m a Cos m t Cos c t

E c Cos c t m a E c Cos m t Cos c t

ma E c ma E C
e(t) E cCos c t Cos c m )t Cos c m )t
2 2

------ equation (3.3)

How would an amplitude modulated waveform look like if

(i) ma < 1 (ii) ma = 1 and (iii) ma >1 ?

The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1. Depending on the

value of the modulation index following behaviours can occur. Refer figure 3.2 to
understand better.

26
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

Under modulation (ma < 1)

When ma<1, we call as under modulation. Here, amplitude of the

modulating signal is less than the carrier amplitude. Message signal can be
comfortably retrieved from the envelope waveform.

Ideal Modulation (when ma = 1)

When ma = 1, the modulation is called as ideal modulation. This is the best
modulation and the original transmitted message can be easily retrieved at
the receiver.
Since ma = 1
Em = E c

Over modulation (when ma > 1)

Em>Ec
If the amplitude of the modulating voltage is higher than the carrier voltage, ma
will be greater than 1, causing distortion of the modulated waveform.
You can see the effect of this on the AM wave in the figure 3.2.
Broadcast stations in particular take measures to ensure that the carries of their
transmissions never become over modulated. Distortion caused by overmodulation
also produces adjacent channel interference. The transmitters incorporate limiters
to prevent more than 100% modulation. However they also normally incorporate
automatic audio gain controls to keep the audio levels such that near 100%
modulation levels are achieved for most of the time.

27
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

Fig. 3.2
Effect of the variation of modulation index on the AM wave

28
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

S.A.Q. 3.1

Suppose that on an AM signal, the Vmax(p-p) value read on the oscilloscope screen is
5.9 divisions and Vmin(p-p) is 1.2 divisions. What is the modulation index?

Answer
Let’s draw the amplitude modulated waveform first.

Figure 3.3

We can derive an important equation from this activity.

Em
We know modulation index, m a
Ec
When the AM signal is displayed on an oscilloscope, the modulation index
can be computed from Vmax and Vmin , as shown in Fig. 3.3. The peak value of the
modulating signal Em is one-half the difference of the peak and rough values:

Vmax - Vmin
Em
2
The peak value of the carrier signal Ec is the average value of Vmax and Vmin.
Vmax Vmin
Ec
2
Now we can write the modulation index as

Vmax Vmin
ma ------------------------- equation (3.4)
Vmax Vmin

In the given problem,

Vmax - Vmin 5.9 1.2

ma 0.662
Vmax Vmin 5.9 1.2

29
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

Activity 3.1

The output signal from an AM modulator is

e(t)= 5cos(1800 t) + 20cos(2000 t) + 5cos(2200 t)
Determine
1. the modulating signal, em(t)
2. the carrier signal ec(t)
3. the modulation index.
Answers:
1. the modulating signal, em(t) = cos(2 100t)
2. the carrier signal ec(t)=20cos(2 1000t)
3. the modulation index = 1/2

3.3 Frequency Modulation

In frequency modulation the frequency of the carrier signal is varied according to
the modulating frequency while the amplitude of the modulated signal is kept
constant. Then the carrier frequency will be changed by ± f . This is called as the
frequency deviation of the frequency modulated signal. The carrier’s instantaneous
frequency deviation from its unmodulated value varies in proportion to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal

Figure 3.3
FM modulation
30
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

We can write the equation of a sine wave in generalised form as

e(t) = E sin
where e(t) is instantaneous amplitude, E is peak amplitude and
is the total angular displacement at time t.
A frequency modulated wave with sinusoidal modulation has its
frequency varied according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. If f is
the maximum deviation of frequency from average, then instantaneous frequency
can be written as,
f = fc + f Cos mt

or, = c +2 f Cos mt

d
Now
dt
Integrating both sides,
.dt
2 f
c t Sin m t
m

2 f
e(t ) Ec sin( ct sin m t)
m

For a sinusoidal carrier and a sinusoidal modulating signal a frequency modulated

signal can be given as

f
e(t ) Ec sin( ct sin mt) - - - - - - - - - - - - equation(3.5)
fm

f
Let, mf
fm
e(t ) Ec sin c t m f sin m t - - - - - - - - - - - equation (3.6)

where mf is the modulation index of the FM wave.

For a given frequency deviation, modulation index varies inversely as the

modulating frequency. The ability of the modulating signal to shift the carrier
frequency can be understood if the modulation index is known.
It is clear from the above equation that the carrier frequency is sinusoidally varied
between fc- f and fc+ f when the modulating signal is varied sinusoidally.
When no modulation applied, the carrier is at its nominal frequency, i.e. the carrier
frequency. The modulating signal causes the carrier frequency to deviate, i.e. to
move above and below the nominal value. With the maximum possible deviations,
the carrier frequency is moved up and down by the amount of the frequency
deviation, thus the bandwidth is about twice the frequency deviation. However, this
would take up a very large amount of frequency spectrum.

31
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

S.A.Q. 3.2

The equation of a frequency modulated signal is given as

Vfm(t) = 1000Sin [109t + 4 sin(104t)]
Find, the carrier frequency, modulating frequency, modulation index and frequency
deviation.

Answer
The frequency modulated wave can be represented by,

e E c sin c t m f sin m t

c 10 9
Carrier frequency, fc = = = 159.15 MHz
2 2

m 10 4
Modulating frequency, fm = = = 1.59kHz
2 2
Modulation index mf = 4 (by inspection)

f
mf f m f fm
fm

Frequency deviation = 4 ×1.59kHz = 6.36 kHz

Frequency modulation is used in a wide variety of radio communications

applications from broadcasting to two way radio communications links as well as
mobile radio communications. It possesses many advantages over amplitude
modulation and this is the reason for its widespread use. Some of these advantages
are resilient to noise, resilient to signal strength variations, greater efficiency etc.

Activity 3.2

When a Sinusoidal carrier signal is frequency modulated using square wave what
would be the shape of the resulting waveform? Sketch the waveform.

32
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

3.4 Frequency components of a modulated signal

3.4.1 Frequency components of a periodic signal

It can be proved that any periodic waveform can be represented by a summation of
sinusoidal frequencies (you will do a detailed study of this phenomenon at higher
levels). i.e. if f(t) is a non sinusoidal periodic signal with period T0, then in general
we can say that

f (t ) A0 A1 sin( 0 t ) A2 sin( 2 0 t ) A3 sin( 3 0t ) ........ An sin( n 0 t)

B1 cos( 0t ) B2 cos(2 0 t ) B3 cos(3 0t ) ......... Bm cos( m 0 t)
Where 0 2 (1 / T0 ) ; n and m tend to infinity in general.

If the waveform is symmetrical about the y-axis then the coefficients A1 , ….An will
become equal to zero. Similarly if there is odd symmetry in the waveform then
B1, …. Bn will disappear. Similarly certain terms of the above series will disappear
depending on the properties of the original waveform.
Here we discuss about an important parameter named as bandwidth which is
used in communication. Bandwidth is the name given for the frequency
range that a signal requires for transmission without distortion, and is also a
name for the frequency capacity of a particular transmission medium.

From the above equation, we can see that most periodic signals are
composed of an infinite sum of sinusoids and therefore require an infinite
bandwidth to be transmitted without distortion. Unfortunately, no available
communication medium (wire, fiber optic, wireless) have an infinite
bandwidth available. This means that certain harmonics will pass through
the medium, while other harmonics of the signal will be attenuated.

3.4.2 Frequency Components of an amplitude modulated waveform

It can be shown that an amplitude modulated waveform can be written as a
summation of three sinusoidal waveforms (with frequencies fl , f2 and f3).

Activity 3.3

Rewrite the equation (3.1) and find the values of fl, f2 and f3· Also find the
corresponding amplitudes A1 , A2 and A3.
According to the above analysis, the frequency spectrum of AM wave has 3
components.
1. Carrier component at fc
2. An upper sideband (USB) whose highest frequency component is fc + fm
3. A lower side band (LSB) whose highest frequency is at fc – fm.
Each side band is equally spaced from the carrier frequency and has a magnitude
equals to 0.5m times the carrier frequency. Another important feature is that the
bandwidth of this AM wave is twice the information (message) signal bandwidth.

33
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

Observing an AM signal on an oscilloscope, you can see the amplitude variations

of the carrier with respect to time. This time-domain display gives no obvious or
outward indication of the existence of the sidebands, although the modulation
process does indeed produce them, as explained above. When you observe the
spectrum of an AM wave, you can see these side bands as shown in the figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4
Frequency components of an AM signal

3.4.3 Frequency Components of a frequency modulated waveform

It can be shown that the number of sinusoidal frequency components present in a
frequency modulated signal is infinite.
The frequency components actually contained in the FM wave can be determined
by expanding RHS of equation (3.5) using Bessel functions.
e Ec J 0 (m f ) sin ct

Ec J1 (m f ) [sin( c m )t sin( c m )t ]

Ec J 2 ( m f ) [sin( c 2 m )t sin( c 2 m )t ]
Ec J 3 (m f ) [sin( c 3 m )t sin( c 3 m )t ] ---------- (3.7)
Ec J 4 ( m f ) [sin( c 4 m )t sin( c 4 m )t ]
...................
...................

Where J n (mf ) is the Bessel function of first kind and nth order with
argument m f . The values of the Bessel-functions can be obtained from tabulated
values and graphs for different values of the modulation-index m f .

From the equation (3.7), we observe that the FM wave comprises of a modulated
carrier component of frequency c and an infinite number of side-frequency
components which may be grouped into, respectively, a pair of 1st-order side-
frequency components called 1st-order side-bands, having frequencies c m and
c m, a pair of 2nd-order side-frequency components called 2nd-order sidebands
having frequencies c+2 m and c-2 m, and so on and so forth. The amplitude of
each side-frequency component is proportional to the Bessel-function of the
corresponding order. This shows an FM wave has in addition to the side bands
present in an AM wave, higher order sidebands as well.

34
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

Fig. 3.5
Spectra of FM signal for different values of mf
As we showed earlier, in theory, the FM wave contains an infinite number of
sidebands, thus suggesting an infinite bandwidth requirement for transmission or
reception. In practice, the bandwidth of the FM depends on the modulation index.
Figure 3.5 shows how the frequency spectrum changes for few values of
modulation index, mf. You can see that the higher the modulation index, the
greater the required system bandwidth.

Amplitudes of different frequency components depend upon mf , the modulation

index. Consider when the modulation index is less than 0.5 that is when the
frequency deviation is less than half the modulation frequency. In that case, the
second and higher order components are relatively small and the frequency band
required to accommodate the essential part of the signal is the same as in amplitude
modulation. This is called Narrowband FM and is used for speech communication.

When mf is larger than one (frequency deviation is greater than modulating

frequency) there are important higher order sideband components contained in the
wave and it is called wide band FM.

S.A.Q. 3.3

A 1.4 MHz carrier is modulated by a music signal that has

frequency components from 100 Hz to 15 kHz. Determine the
range of frequencies generated in the lower and upper side bands.

35
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 3 –Modulation techniques

Answer
Here the carrier frequency, fc = 1.4MHz
Modulating frequency has a frequency range of fm1 – fm2 = 100 Hz – 15kHz
Frequency range of the lower sideband = (fc – fm1) - (fc – fm2)
= (1.4MHz – 100Hz) - (1.4MHz –15kHz)

Frequency range of the lower sideband = (fc + fm1) - (fc + fm2)

= (1.4MHz + 100Hz) - (1.4MHz +15kHz)

Summary
In this session we discussed about the concept of modulation and how it is useful
in communication systems. We also studied two main types of analog modulation
techniques AM and FM.

References

Study Material for ECE , viewed December 15 2012,

http://www.teachurselfece.com/2012/03/amplitude-modulation.html

Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals, viewed December 12 2012,

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0073107042/462278/Chapter03.pdf

Scribd Lecture Notes (2009), viewed December 12 2012

http://www.scribd.com/doc/32162008/Frequency-Modulation-Lecture-Notes

Scribd Lecture Notes (2009), viewed December 12 2012

http://www.scribd.com/doc/42179426/04-Frequency-Modulation

36
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

Session 4
Measurement of power in
communication circuits

Contents
4.1 Power gain expressed in decibels
4.1.1 Power gain expressed in Nepers
4.2 dbm and dbw
4.3 Repeaters

Aim
To study the use of logarithmic units for expressing power in communication
systems.

Objectives
At the end of this lesson you will be able to,
define the unit decibel
express a voltage or power ratio in decibels
determine overall gain or loss of a system using decibels
express the decibel as a ratio
define the unit neper
express absolute power levels in dBm and dBw
identify functions of a repeater
carry out simple calculations in decibles

Introduction
Line and Radio communication is transmission of (AC) signal power from one
point to another. As the signal propagates from the source to the destination the
signal either gains or looses power depending on the design of the system.
Very often it is necessary to know the exact power available at a particular point in
the communication system. The use of Logarithmic units for expressing power
level facilitates speedy calculation of the signal level.
In this lesson we will study how to express a power ratio in decibels. We refer to
power ratios when we use amplifiers and attenuators. We also will study different
types of logarithmic units used and how corrections are made to measurements of
level of power of speech channels to allow for the response of the human ear.

37
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

4.1 Power gain expressed in decibels

Decibel is defined as ten times the logarithm of the ratio of output power to input
power to the base 10.
Consider the network given below.

Figure 4.1

The power gain "G" is given by the expression

Pout
G 10 log 10 ------------------------------ equation ( 4.1)
Pin

If the input resistance is Rin and the output resistance is Rout

2
Vout Vin2
Pout and Pin
R out R in

Where Vin and Vout are the input and output voltages respectively.
2
Vout Vin2
G 10 log dB
Rout Rin
2
Vout Rin
10 log 2
dB
Vin Rout
2
Vout Rin
10 log 2
10 log dB
Vin Rout

If Rin = Rout.

38
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

Rin
10 log 10 log 1 0
Rout
2
Vout
G 10 log dB
Vin2

Vout
G 20 log dB ------------------------------- equation (4.2)
Vin

if G > 0 , then, Vout > Vi n

4.1.1 Power gain expressed in Nepers:

The logarithm of output voltage to input voltage to the base 'e' is defined as the
Neper. The number 'e' is an important mathematical constant, approximately equal
to 2.71828, that is the base of the natural logarithm. The natural logarithm is
generally written as ln x or loge x.
Therefore the value in nepers is given by Np = ln (x1 / x2 ), where x1 and x2 are the
values of interest, and ln is the natural logarithm, i.e., logarithm to the base e.
i.e. 1 Np 20 / ln(10) = 8.685889638 dB
1 dB ln(10) / 20 Np = 0.115129255 Np

Now consider the network supplying a load current Iout when excited by an input
current. Assume that Rin = Rout.

Figure 4.2
Express the gain in decibels and in Nepers.

Gain expressed in decibels

Pout I out
G 10 log 20 log dB
Pin I in

Gain expressed in Nepers

I out I out
G expressed in nepers log e ln
Iin I in

39
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

Now we can convert a decibel value into Nepers or vice versa as follows:
Neper value dB value × ln (10 ) / 20 = dB value × 0.115129255
dB value Np value × 20 / ln (10) = Np value × 8.685889638

So far we have considered the power gain of a given system. We will now consider
a lossy system.
In the equation 4.2, what will be the effect if G < 0 when Vout < Vin? Then we say
that the signal has been attenuated, i.e, the signal has dissipated a part of its energy
while traversing through the medium.

1
Then we express the attenuation =
G

Pin
As 10 log dB (if RL Rin )
Pout

Vin
20 log dB
Vout

or

I in
20 log dB
I out

Pout I out Vout

Power ratio in decibels = 10 log 20 log 20 log
Pin I in Vin

provided Rout = Rin.

In communication systems we always "match' circuits to ensure maximum power

transfer. That is the source impedance is made equal to the load impedance.
(Source impedance is similar to the internal resistance of a battery.) A

40
 ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

communication system consists of several components such as amplifiers and

attenuators. If the gain or loss of each such component is known we can easily
calculate the power at the output when the input power is known.

Example 4.1

Pin P1 P2 P3 P4
AMPLIFIER ATTENUATOR ATTENUATOR AMPLIFIER

Gain=3dB Loss=1dB Loss=5dB Gain=10dB

Figure 4.4

P4 P1 P2 P3 P4
Total Gain
Pin Pin P1 P2 P3

What is the overall gain or loss ?

P4 P1 P2 P3 P4
G 10 log 10 log 10 log 10 log 10 log
Pin Pin P1 P2 P3
3 1 5 10 7 dB above the input power
As the answer is positive there is a net gain.

Note: If we used the numerical power ratio we would have to multiply the ratios to
get this answer. By using the decibel value of the power ratio we are able to add the
values and hence compute the value speedily.

If the input power is 1 milliwatts (10-3 watt), what will be the output power?
+7 dB can be converted to a ratio,
10 log x = 7

Pout
x anti log 0.7
Pin
Pout 5 1 5 mW

We can also say that the output is 7 dB above 1 mW.

If Pout is less than Pin, log (Pout /Pin) will be negative indicating that the signal has
undergone a loss during transmission from the input to the output.
Let us consider our earlier example.
M1 = 0.5, 10 log(0.5) = -3.013 dB
M2 = 2, 10 log(2) = +3.013 dB
M3 = 0.1, 10 log(0.1) = -10 dB
M4 = 5, 10 log(5) = +6.9897 dB
(M1, M2…………..M4 are the ratios of Pout to Pin)

41
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

Pout
in decibels 3.0103 3.0103 10 6.9897
Pin
3.0103

The answer is negative. What does this indicate? A Power loss

We can see that there is an overall loss.

In the above example we considered the power ratio M1, M2, etc. which can be
multiplied to obtain the overall power gain.
For example: To obtain the overall power gain, typical values of power ratios of a
transmission system are quoted below.
M1 = 0.463
M2 = 2.56
M3 = 0.096
M4 = 5.136
As stated earlier determination of overall power ratio using such values involves a
tedious multiplication. Further we could have a very much more complex system
having several networks in series.
How can we simplify this calculation?
The process of addition is much simpler than multiplication. Let us see whether
power ratios can be converted to a form suitable for addition. We know from
mathematics that
log( M 1 M 2 M 3 M 4 ) log M 1 log M 2 log M 3 log M 4
Therefore if we express the ratio M in logarithmic form we can add individual
values. Now you will understand the reason for expressing the overall power gain
in terms of the power gains of individual units in the above example.
In practice we convert each value of M into DECIBELS which is the logarithmic
value of the ratio M.

Let us now consider several networks connected in series.

This can be represented by

Figure 4.5

42
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

What is the output to input power ratio?

P5
P1

Now try to recall what we did in the previous example. If you recalled correctly
then you will write the expression as,

P5 P2 P3 P4 P5
P1 P1 P2 P3 P4

Thus you are expressing the overall power ratios in terms of the individual output
to input power ratios of each network (represented by M1, M2, M3 and M4 ).

P5
M1 M 2 M3 M4
P1

Example 4.2
Let us consider another example.

Figure 4.6
If Pin = 1 watt, how much is Pour?

Pout
M1 M 2 M3 M4
Pin
0.5 2 0.1 5
0.5
Pout 0.5 1 watt
1
watt
2
Let us consider a simple circuit where a signal generator is connected to a load
through an electrical network.
We can represent this by,

43
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

We need not know what the electrical network consists of. It has an input and an
output.
We will now connect a power meter across the input of the network and another
power meter across the output.
What will the meters read?

Meter A will read the power entering the electrical network.

Meter B will read the power going out of the network into the load.
If A reads P1 watts and B reads P2 watts then the ratio of output power to input
power is P2/P1.
If P2 is greater than P1 then we know that the network has caused a power gain. On
the other hand if P2 is less than P1, then the network has caused a power loss.

I in E in 1 P
Attenuation in Nepers log e log e log e in
I out E out 2 Pout

If the resistances at the input and output are equal then attenuation can be readily
converted from one notation to the other.

I in
dB 20 log10
I out
I in
attenuation in dB 20 log e log10 e
I out
8.686 attenuetion in nepers

Therefore attenuation in decibels = 8.686 x attenuation in nepers (provided R1= R2)

When do we use the unit Neper and when do we use decibel?
The decibel is defined in terms of logarithm to the base 10 and therefore is very
convenient to use in practice.

44
ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

On the other hand the Neper is defined in terms of the exponential 'e' and therefore
is convenient for theoretical work.

S.A.Q. 4.1

Figure 4.9

Calculate the power at the output in mw.

Answer
Total gain = 10 + 6.8 – 3.5
= 13.3 dB
To determine the actual output power we must know the gain ratio - that is we must
convert dB into a ratio.

P2
10 log 13.3
P1

P2 13.3
anti log 21.3796
P1 10

Output power = 1mw x 21.3796 = 21.4mw

4.2 dbm and dbw

In the earlier section we learned how to express a power ratio in decibels. We refer
to power ratios when we use amplifiers and attenuators. We may need to know the
actual power at a point.
Can we use logarithmic units to express actual power?
The decibel is fundamentally a unit of power ratio. However we can express power
available at a point by comparing it with a standard reference value say 1 milliwatt
or 1 watt and stating that it is so many times greater than 1 milliwatt or 1 watt. In
other words we can express the power ratio relative to 1 milliwatt or 1 watt.
The logarithm of this ratio to the base ten gives a measure of the power level in
decibels.

Example 4.3
The power at X is 100 milliwatts. Express this power in decibels with reference to
1 mw.
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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

Figure 4.10

100 mw
Ratio 100
1 mw

In decibels,
10 log 100=20 dB
The power at X is 20 decibels more than 1 mw.
We are now expressing the actual power in decibels. Instead of stating that the
power at X is 20 decibels above 1mw we simply denote writing the decibel value
as 20 dBm.
The suffix m denotes that the level of reference power is 1 mw.

Example 4.4
If the power at a point in a system is 40 dBm, what is the actual power in milliwatts?
We know by definition that,

P
10 log 40
1mw P

P anti log 4 10 4
Power 10,000mw

Example 4.5
(To illustrate the application of dBw)
What do we mean by - the power at a point is 30 dBw?
The suffix w refers to 1 watt. Therefore power at that point is 30 dB above 1 watt.

P
10 log 30
1watt
Power 1000watts

Example 4.6
Calculate the power in dBm at the output of the system shown. in Figure.4.11.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

Figure 4.11

Overall gain (or loss?)

= 10 - 3 - 2 + 6 = 11 dB.
As the answer is positive we know that it is a gain. Input level is 0 dBm.
Output power level = 0 dBm + 11 dB = 11 dBm (ie 11 dB above 1 mw.)
If the input level was 5 dBm instead of 0dBm. The output level would have been
5 dBm + 11 dB = 16 dBm

Example 4.7
How can we add dBm and dB together?
11 dB gain means - whatever the input level, the output level is 11 dB greater than
the input. The input in the above example (second) is 5 dBm - which is the absolute
value of the power expressed in logarithmic units. Therefore output is 11 dB higher
than 5 dBm.

Example 4.8
What is the actual power of 0 dBm?

P
10 log 0
1mw
P = 1 mw.
Note that 0dBm is not 0 mw.

4.3 Repeaters
When electrical signal travels along the medium it is subjected to attenuation. This
attenuation is a characteristic of medium and also depends on the distance between
the transmitter and the receiver. Suppose the strength of the electrical signal
received at the receiver is very low, so that the receiver is not be able to reproduce
what has been transmitted. The minimum signal strength required by the receiver
for satisfactory reproduction is called the receiver THRESHOLD level.
Suppose the distance between the transmitter and the receiver is very high and the
signal level required is below the given threshold what improvements would you
suggest to maintain communication?
a) to reduce the distance between the two ends until the signal level
received is well above receiver threshold. OR

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

b) to increase the signal level at the sending end. OR

c) to employ some method to raise the level at any intermediate point
between the send and receive points.

If you adopt the first method, the distance between send and receive points should
be decreased (limiting the distance). This is not practicable. But by adopting (b)
and (c) we can satisfactorily overcome the restriction imposed by distance in (a)
and can raise the level of signal strength sufficiently to match with the threshold
level of the receiver.
How can you increase the signal levels? This is done by employing an amplifier.

Figure 4.12
Symbol of an amplifier

If the signal level at the amplifier input is X and at the output is Y, the Y/X ratio is
defined as the gain of the amplifier.

Y
G Gain of the amplifier
X
ie. Y>X always.
If the gain G is greater than 10 we refer to the amplifier as a high gain amplifier
and G is low it is called a low gain amplifier. The design and construction of high
gain amplifier is very much more expensive than the design of low gain amplifier.
Is it possible to employ number of low gain amplifiers to make a high gain
amplifier? Yes then how?
Let me explain further...
Given three amplifiers each having a gain of"2" how would you connect to get an
overall amplification of 8 times.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

By connecting the three amplifiers as shown above an overall gain of 8 can be

obtained, between the points" 1" and "2" (in this case output of one amplifier is
directly connected to the input of the subsequent amplifier.) This method of
connection is known as cascaded connection. In other words we can say three of
"2" gain amplifiers are cascaded to make an overall amplification gain of 23 8.
Why you differentiate the two ends of an amplifier as input and output?
To differentiate the direction of signal flow, the signals to be amplified are fed to
the input and the amplified signals are taken out from the output terminal of the
amplifier.

Example 4.9
(a) 0.1 ampere current is fed the input of the amplifier gain" 10". What will be
current at the output?
By the definition,
Output = gain x input
= 10 x 0.1 = 1 Ampere
Amplifiers, which amplify only current, are called current amplifiers.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

Example 4.10
0.1 volt is fed to a voltage amplifier of gain 20 what is the voltage at the output?
Output = 20 x 0.1 = 2 Volts

Can you name the input as output and output as input of this amplifier?

Since the amplifiers that are realisable in practice can amplify signals only in one
direction, this cannot be done. (Amplifiers are unidirectional)
There are special types of amplifiers, which permit signal flow in both directions.
The treatment of such amplifiers is not within the scope of this course.

Figure 4.16(a) shows a simple communication system between A and B points.

Assume the threshold level of the receiver is "X". Suppose the same transmitter
and the receiver is used between C and D points (length is D > d1) without
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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

amplifiers. In that case, the signal level received at D will be less than "X". Hence
this system cannot be used between C and D points. By employing two amplifiers
one at d away from 'C' and another 2d1 away from C the signal strength received at
D can be increased up to the required level of the receiver.(figure 4.16 (b) shows
the configuration with two amplifiers.)
Is it possible to establish communication using only one amplifier? Yes depending
on the threshold level of the amplifier.

What is a repeater?
We can define the repeater as a device where the energy dissipated by the signal
when traversing through the transmission medium is restored without destroying
the shape of the signal.
A Repeater is primarily an amplifying station for signals but there are other
functions too. Such as,
(a) amplitude/frequency correction of the system.
(b) delay/frequency correction of the system.
(c) temperature correction in case of underground repeater etc.
The details of (a),(b) and (C) will not be explained in this course.

Example 4.11
A transmitter and a receiver are placed between two points A and B as shown in
Figure 4.17 and the following data are given;
distance between A and B = 10km
signal attenuation = 2 dB per km
transmitting voltage 1 volt
receiver threshold level 0.2 volts .
Calculate the gain of each amplifier. (Both amplifiers have equal gain).

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

Solution
Let us take power = V2
P = V2
10 log P = 20 log V
power = 20 log V dB
[according to the definition of dB]
Let the gain of both the amplifiers be G dB.
Total attenuation 2x10dB = 20dB
The signal level at transmitter point = 1V = 0 dB
The signal level at the receiver point = 0 - 20 + G dB
= -20 + 2G dB

But receiver threshold level = 0.2V

= 20 log 0.2
= -13.98 dBw
For satisfactory reproduction at the receiver,
Threshold level Actual receiver level

13.98 20 2G
G 3.01 dB
10 log G 3.01
G 2
Minimum gain 2

Note:
The positions of the repeaters are independent from the answer.
Thus the position of the repeater can be any where in between A & B. But for
uniformity they have placed in equal distances.
In this particular case the signals will flow in the T to R direction. But a
telecommunication system should be provided with both way communication
facility. This can be achieved by employing a second system for the opposite
direction. (Figure 4.18)

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

Here we have two independent systems, one for ‘Send’ direction and the second for
‘Receive’ direction. The repeaters R 1, and R2 have two amplifiers one amplifying
signals in the Send direction and the other is amplifying the Receive direction
signals.
Now let me explain a situation where only one path is provided for both directions.
At a repeating point of the medium of transmission the two signals Send and
Receive have to be separated for the purpose of amplification and after
amplification two signals have to be recombined and send in the common path.
How you can separate the signals ‘Send’ and ‘Receive’?
The device which is being used to separate the paths is called a hybrid. How could
you recombine the two paths after amplification?
Same hybrid can also be used for this purpose too.
Now we can explain the functions of a hybrid circuit as
(a). To separate the "send and Receive" signals into two individual paths and
(b). To recombine the separated paths into one path.
Figure(4.19) shows two circuit symbols for a hybrid circuit.

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ECX3233 – Unit 3 – Session 4 –Measurement of power in communication circuits

P
2

P
2

Summary
In this session we studied how to perform the power calculations of a
communications system. We learned different types of logarithmic units used to
represent power values. We also studied about the function of repeaters and their
operation in communication systems.

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