-

REVISED

TC-1001006

111111 111111 1 11 11111111 1111 11111 111 1111 11111111 1111

 a)
C
---- ight Training Manual
edition

\n
a)
Printed and bound in Canada
Photographs courtesy Aviation Training Systems Ltd.

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Civil Aviation Communications Centre (AARC)
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© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, represented by the Minister of Transport 2004.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system.
or transmitted, in any fonn or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
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The infonnation in this publication is to be considered solely as a guide and should not be quoted
as or considered to be a legal authority. It may become obsolete in whole or in part at any time
without notice.

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Main entry under title:
Flight training manual
4th ed. (revised)
ISBN 0�660-19351-5
1. Airplanes - Piloting. I. Canada. Transport Canada.
TL712.F55 1992 629.132'52 C91-095123-3

TP1102E
(08/2004)

TC-1001006

Catalogue No. T52-I 4/2004E

5 GG03 02
Contents

Preface V

PART ONE 11 Slow Flight 73

12 Stalls 75
The Aircraft and Operational Considerations 1
1 Basic Principles of Flight 3 13 Spinning 81
14 Spiral 85
2 Weight and Balance 16 15 Slipping 86
3 Engine Handling 19 16 Take-off 88
4 Aircraft Documentation 23 17 The Circuit 99
5 Airport Operations 26 18
6 Weather Considerations 29
Approach and Landing 104
19 First Solo 116
PART TWO
20 Illusions Created by Drift 118
21 Precautionary Landing 121
Air Exercises 31 22 Forced Landing 127
1 Familiarization 33 23 Pilot Navigation 132
2 Aircraft Familiarization and 24 Instrument Flying 147
Preparation for Flight 34 25 Night Flying 178
3 Ancillary Controls 40 26 Floatplanes 182
4 Taxiing 45 27 Skiplanes 192
5 Attitudes and Movements 48 28 Type Conversion 197
6 Straight-and-Level Flight 52 29 Emergency Procedures 202
7 Climbing 54 30 Radio Communication 206
8 Descending 57
9 Tums 60
10 Flight for Range and Endurance 66 Epilogue 210
Preface

The aim of this manual is to provide basic, progressive namics and other subjects related to flight training
study material for student pilots preparing for licens­ courses. Thus, a working knowledge of the terms and
ing, pilots improving their qualifications, and for the the· material in this manual that are relevant to the
guidance of flight instructors. As such, it complements training being taken will enable the student to gain
the Transport Canada Flight Instructor Guide. maximum benefit from the training.
This manual provides information and direction in The contributions by many Canadian flight instruc­
the introduction and performance of flight training tors to the material presented here are gratefully
manoeuvres as well as basic information on aerody- acknowledged.

V
PART ONE

THE AIRCRAFT AND

OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER ONE

Basic Principles of Flight

The Third Law of Motion Density and Pressure

One property of air that i apt to mislead the novice

Heavier-than-air flight can be explained by variou student of flight i density. Ask the weight of the air
cientific laws and theorems. Of these, ewton's in an ordinary room and answers wi11 vary from
Third Law of Motion is possibly the fundamental one. "almost nothing," to ''about 10 pound . ' Yet the
"For every action there is an equal and opposite reac­ answer is close to 300 pounds and in a large hall may
tion." A propeller accelerate a mass of air backward be over a ton! Rai e that half a mile above the earth
and thereby receives an equal forward force. This for­ though, and the air in it will weigh far less. Its density
ward force, called thrust, pulls the aircraft ahead. - it mass per unit volume - has changed. These
As the aircraft is thrust forward by tbe propeller on changes in density are measured as air pressure.
take-off the wing meeting the oncomfog air begin to It is true, of cour e, that the density of air i low
generate lift (Fig. 1-1). As the forward peed of the compared with that of water, yet it is this property of
aircraft increases thi lift force increases proportion­ air that make flight possible. Air being the medium
ately. When the lift force is equal to the weight of the in which flight occurs, a its properties change the
aircraft, the aircraft begins to fly. characteristics of a particular flight will change.
The average pres ure at sea level due to the weight
of the atmosphere is 14.7 pounds per square inch a
pressure that causes th.e mercury in a barometer to rise
29.92 inches. In a standard situation the pressure
drop from 14.7 pounds per square inch at sea level
to 10.2 pounds per quare inch at 10 000feet.

Temperature Changes (Lapse Rate)

With an increase in height there is a decrease in air

temperature. The reason is that the sun's heat passes
Figure 1-1 Lift Is Generated by Air Travelling through the atmosphere without appreciably raising
Faster above the Aerofoil than below it the temperature. The earth, however, absorbs the
beat. The temperature of the earth i raised and the air
in contact with it absorbs some of the heat.
The Atmosphere
An aircraft operates in a world that is very near the
earth yet has vastly different properties. Thi world
The Four Forces
is tbe atmosphere composed of air which surrouuds
the earth. We must know something about this atmos­ An aircraft in flight is under the influence of four
phere to understand flight. main forces: lift, weight, thrust, and drag (Fig. 1-2).
3
4 Ba icPrinciplesofFlight
Resultant (centre or pressure)
Ult

Decreased

Thrusl Dra.g

Weight

Figure 1-2 The Four Forces

pressures

Thrust and Drag Forces

Figure 1-4 Pressure Distribution of an Aerofoil
In 1 vel flight two principal horizontal forces act on
an aircraft - thrust and drag. Thru t i provided by
Level flight
the engine acting through the pr pe!Jer and drag by
the r i tance of the air to th pa age through it of
Relative airflow
th aircraft and all i comp nent part .
�

Lift and Weight Forces

Th ertical forces acting on an aircraft are lift and
igbt. Weight i the total weight o the aircraft and
it ontent • ir i con idered to act through a sinole
p int termed the Centre of Gravity. Lift aces at 90
degree totherelativeairflow Fig. 1-3).Iti notne -
e arily perpenclicular to th h rizon; in flight it may
Climbing
act at a c n iderable angle to th horizon. For com­
pulati n purpo es, the total force f lift i con idered
to act through one point of the wing. Thi point i.
called the Centre ofPres ure ( ig. l-4).

Relative Airflow

airflow i alway parallel with and directly

t the aircraft flight path. It has nothing to

Descending
Lift

Figure 1--3 Lift Acts at 90 Degrees to the Relative

Airflow Figure 1-5 Relative Airflow
 Basic Principles ofFUght 5

Lift
Positive angle of incidence
Any flat object, such as a flat plate, inclined upward
to the relative airflow will provide lift. The kite is an
Chord line example. The wings of the first aircraft were like a
flat plate in this respect. It was later discovered that
Longitudinal axis
much more lift could be produced by curving the
upper wing urface, and the aerofoil evolved (Fig. 1-8).
The curved upper surface al o provided for a thicker
Figure 1-6 Angle of Incidence structure, which allowed for increased strength, fuel
storage and eventually the elimination of exterior
structural members.
Simply tated, the wing generates part of the total
lift by deflecting air downward. A wing also derives
part of its lift from the pressure differential between
the upper and lower surfaces. The theoretical expres­
sion of this fact is found in Bernouilli �theorem.This
Relative airflow theorem indicates that as the velocity of air increases,
its pressure decreases.

Relative Leading edge

airflow Upper camber
Chord line
Relative airflow
----

°
Angle of attack
Lower camber
i
Trailing edge
Angle of attack 10
Figure 1-8 Aerofoil Terminology

Figure 1-7 Angle of Attack

Pressure Distribution over an Aerofoil
Due to the curvature of the wing surfaces, the airflow
accelerates as it flows around the wing. With the
upper surface having a greater camber than the lower
do with the aircraft's flight attitude, just with the surface, the air flowing above the wing will be accel­
direction of travel of the aircraft (Fig. 1-5). erated more than the air flowing beneath the wing.
According to Bernouilli 's theorem, this results in a
relatively large decrease in pressure above the wing
Angle of Incidence and Angle of Attack and a smaller decrease in pressure below the wing
(Fig. 1-4). This resultant pressure differential pro­
Angle of incidence refer to the fixed angle between duces the force called lift.
the plane of the wing chord and the longitudinal axis Tests also show that as the angle of attack of an
of the aircraft (Fig. 1-6). It should not be confused aerofoil in flight is increased, the Centre of Pressure
with angle of attack which varies according to the move gradually forward. At a point well beyond the
angle between the wing chord and the relative angle of attack for ordinary flight, it begins to move
airflow. This angle can vary according to the direction back again. When the Centre of Pressure moves
of motion of the aircraft (Fig. 1-7). back far enough, the nose of the aircraft will pitch
6 Basic Principles ofFlight

downward sudden1y as the wing enters a stalled condition starts to become turbulent and increasingly thick. The
(Fig. 1-9). airflow beyond this point is described as the turbulent
The boundary layer is a thin layer of air, sometimes layer.
no more than a hundredth of an inch (0.25 millimetres) To maintain a laminar flow over as much of the
thick, flowing over the surface of a wing in flight. The aerofoil surface as possible, the laminar flow type
boundary layer is divided into two parts: ( 1) the wing was developed. This design is concerned with
desirable laminar layer, and (2) the undesirable turbulent the transition point. The laminar flow wing is often
layer. Air flowing over the wing begins by conforming thinner than the conventional aerofoil, the leading
to its shape; at this stage the boundary layer is smooth edge is more pointed, and the section nearly symmet­
and very thin. This is the laminar layer. There is a point rical, but most important of all, the point of maximum
of transition, which moves between the leading and camber (the point of greatest convexity of the airfoil
trailing edges of the wing, where the boundary layer from it's chord) is much farther back than on the con­
ventional wing. The pressure distribution on the lam­
inar flow wing is much more even, as the airflow is
accelerated very gradually from the leading edge to
the point of maximum camber. As the stalling speed
of a laminar flow wing is approached, the transition
point will move forward much more rapidly than it
will on a conventional aerofoil.

Drag
Drag is the force that acts parallel to the relative air­
flow and retards the forward motion of an aircraft. The
total aircraft drag is the sum of induced drag and par­
asite drag. Induced drag is a by-product of lift, and
parasite drag is made up of all the other drag
(Fig. 1-10).

Induced Drag. Wing tip vortices are formed when

higher pressure air beneath the wing flows around the
wing tip into lower pressure air above the wings
(Fig. 1-11). This disturbed air contributes to induced
drag.
In addition to vortices, downwash is produced
when air flowing around the wing is deflected down­
ward (Fig. 1-1). Down wash is required in the produc­
tion of lift and results in induced drag.
A way to visualize induced drag caused by down­
wash is to picture the resultant lift being tipped back­
ward as the angle of attack is increased (Fig. 1-12).
Induced drag is greatest during low airspeed because
of the large angle of attack. As speed increases the
angle of attack decreases and so does induced drag.
Aspect ratio affects induced drag. The aspect ratio
is the ratio of the span to the mean chord (Fig. 1-13 ).
The greater the span of an aerofoil in relation to its
chord, the less the induced drag. A long aerofoil with
a relatively narrow chord is called a high aspect ratio
wing.

Parasite Drag. This is drag made up of all other drag

on the aircraft that is not caused by lift. Unlike
Figure 1-9 The Centre of Pressure shifts as the induced drag, parasite drag increases as the speed
Angle of Attack Changes increases.
 Ba i Principles ofFlight 7

Total aircraft drag

Induced drag Parasite drag

Interference drag Profile drag

Form drag Skin friction

Figure 1-10 Total Drag

Figure 1-11 Wing Tip Vortices

8 Basic Principles ofFlight

Airflow

Figure 1-12 Forces Acting on an Aerofoil

much le by thi typ of drag. Ice dirt, or even

in ec accumulat d oo an aircraft contribute to kin
fri tion.

Minimum Drag. ince induced drag decrease with

an increa e in air peed and parasite drag increa e
with an incre e in air peed there i an air peed
where the total drag i th !owe t (Fig. 1-14). This
Less Induced drag More Induced drag minimum dr g p ed will be di cu ed further in the
High aspect ratio wing Low aspect ratio wing
[span: 50 feet (15.2 metres); [span: 25 feet (7.6 metres); exerci on gliding, range and endurance.
chord: 4 feet (1.2 metres); chord: 8 feet (2.4 metres);
area: 200 square feet area: 200 square feet
(18.6 metres2)) (18.6 metres2)] Drag
Figure 1-13 Aspect Ratio

lnterference Drag. Interference drag is a result of the

interference of airflow between two sections of the air­
craft. For example, where the wing and fuselage come Minimum drag
together air flowing along thefu elage will interfere with
the air flowing over the wing.

Profile Drag. Pr file drag con i t ofform drag and

skinfriction.

Form Drag. rm Drag i cau ed by the form or

hape of a b dy a it r i t motion through the air.
treamlining of all part of the aeroplane that are
expo eel to the air ill greatly reduce tbi type of drag.
Velocity - knots
Skin Friction. kin friction i the tenden y of air to
bold an air raft ba k by clinging to its urfaces.
mooth and highly poli h d aircraft ill be affected Figure 1-14 Minimum Drag Speed
 Basic Principles ofFlight 9

Equilibrium Yaw, Rudder, Normal (Vertical) Axis

The left or right movement of the no e of an aircraft

A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in in flight is controlled by the rudder, through the rud­
motion tends to remain in motion in a straight line der pedals. The rudder i hinged to the trailing edge
unless an external force i applied. This is Newton's of the fin (vertical stabilizer). Foot pressure on the
First Law of Motion. A body that is neither acceler­ left rudder pedal causes the rudder to move to the left
ating nor decelerating may be said to be in equilib­ and introduce camber to the fin· this causes a mass
rium. A parked aircraft is in equilibrium; an aircraft of air to be accelerated to the left which (Newton'
in traight-and-level flight at a constant airspeed is in Th.i rd Law) moves the tail of the aircraft to the right
equilibrium; an aircraft in a traight de cent or climb and causes the nose to yaw (move) to the left. Oppo­
at a constant airspeed is also in equilibrium. However, site reactions occur when pressure is applied to the
an aircraft in a turn at a constant height and airspeed right rudder pedal.
is not in equilibrium, since during a co-ordinated turn
the aircraft i always accelerating toward the centre of
the turn.
A Jot of effort is invested in designing aircraft to
maintain a state of equilibrium. However, a pilot must Normal or vertical axis
be able to disturb this equilibrium to manoeuvre the
aircraft. Flight controls alJow a pilot to produce forces
about the three axes of the aircraft (Fig. 1-15). These
forces disturb the aircraft's equilibrium and allow the
aircraft to be manoeuvred.

Roll, Ailerons,
Longitudinal Axis

When an aircraft is rolled, one aileron is depre sed Centre of Gravity

and the opposite one is raised. The "down' aileron
increases the effective camber of it wing producing
more lift than the other wing. The "up' aileron Figure 1-15 The Axes of an Aeroplane
reduce camber producing less lift. A a result, the
"down aileron" wing ri es and the "up aileron" wing
moves down. The total effect cau es the aircraft to roll
about its longitudinal axis. Aileron movement is con­ Adverse Yaw
trolled by rotation of the control wheel or left or right
movement of the control column. When the control Any yaw, regardless of origin, having an effect con­
wheel is rotated to the left, or the control column trary to theintere t of the piloti called adverse yaw.
moved to the left, the left aileron rises and the aircraft When adverse yaw occurs, the rudder is used to coun­
ro11s to the left. teract its effect and help provide directional control.
Adverse yaw re ult from aileron drag, gyroscopic
precession, torque, slipstream, and asymmetric thrust.

P itching, Elevators, Aileron Drag. Flight controls are designed to be

Lateral Axis effective, well balanced and responsive; however the
ailerons have an operating characteristic that should
Backward movement of the control column or wheel be explained. For example if a turn to the left is
raises the elevators. ThL change the camber, produc­ de ired, movement of the control column to the left
ing a force that cause the tail to go down and the causes the right aileron to move downward and
nose to rise. Forward movement of the control lower increase the camber of tb.e right wing, causing that
the elevators· this produces the oppo ite reaction rai - wing to develop more lift and rise up (Fig. 1-16).
ing the tail and lowering the nose. The elevators pro­ Conversely, the left aileron move upward and
duce and control a pitching movement about the decrease the camber of the left wing, causing that
lateral axis of the aircraft. wing to develop less lift and move down. However in
10 Basic Principles ofFlight

de el ping more lift, the right wing i ubjected to

more induced drag and in developing l lift, the left
ing i ubjected to 1 induced drag. The whole
ffect cau e a momentar aw to th right when a
turn co the lefti de ired.
aw cau ed b aileron drag may be mor
n ticeable wbeo operating at r duced air peeds or Angle of attack
hen applying large abrup aileron deflection. Wb n
aileron drag cau es the aircraft lo ya , rudder p ure
mu l be applied imultan I with, and in the ame
direction a aileron input. Th rudder pre ure
required ill ary and i nece ar only while aileron
c ntrol i being applied. When aileron pressure i
removed aileron drag cea e , and the rudder pre ure Increased angle of attack produces more lilt
applied to correct aileron drag must be readjusted to
maintain co-ordinated flight.
In mo t aircraft of recent manufacture, using one Figure 1-16 The Effect of the Aileron on the
r a combination of two de ign f ature partly com­ Angle. of Attack
pen ale for aileron drag. Di ff r ntial aileron are
d igned to cause the d ngoiog aileron to move
through a mailer angle than th upgoing aileron for had been applied in th
a i en movement of the control column. The degre from where th � re was actually appli d.
upgoing aileron produce m re drag and help to Thi i called gyro opic prec ion. The pinning
minimize adver e yaw. ri e aileron produce a m of an aircraft propeller i an e ampJe of a gyro
imilar effect by placing th hinge ucb that the no e heel.' uch, it i u ceptible to gyro copic pre-
of the upgoing aileron pr je t into the airflow ion. Gyro copic effect f th.i kind can ometim
b neath the wing and produce extra drag. bile th be quite noticeable in la.ii wb I equipped aircraft th
d wngoiogaileroni treamlin d. tail • raised during th rak -off uence (Fig. 1-17 .
IL i though lhe pil L had rea bed out and applied
pi Preces • on. ce i applied to a th force to the prop U r at the top of the arc. If tb
spinning gyro wheel, it will though the force pr peller rotate cl ck i e. hen ie ed from th

The aircraft reacts as if the force

had been appfiecl here, and yaws
to the left

Tail raised

Figure 1-17 The Effect of Raising the Aircraft's Tail

 Basic Principles ofFlight I1

cockpit gyro c pie effect change the position of the

force and applie il to the extreme right point of the
propeller arc. Thi cau e the aircraft to attempt to
tum (yaw) to th I ft and r quire application of right
rudd r pre ure to maintain the de ired heading.

Torque. he engine rotate the propeller in one

direction, but in o doing, and in obedience to e -
ton' Third Law, il aJ o Lrie to rotate the whole air­
craft in th oppo it dire tion. In the c e of mo t
orth American aircraft, if the propeller rotate cJock­
i e a do n ard for e • being exerted on the Jeft
id of the air raft.
nd r condition of high p wer bile the aircraft
i on the ground c rqu will ca-u e the left heel to
carr light! m r eight than the right. Thi ,·vilJ
pr due m r friction or drag on the left heel and
add to the tenden y of an aircraft to ya to the left
on the t e-off roll. Figure 1-18 Slipstream Has a Rotational Velocity
1n the de ign of the aircraft tb.i unde irable force
i ometime neutralized by gi ing the left wing
Jightly more angle of incidence and. therefore, Brakes
lightly more lift than the right wing. It hould be
noted that torque doe not directly caa e yaw. Torque On many aircraft ea h main landing wheel ha i own
caa e rolJ, and r 11 in turn cau e yaw. ind p ndent braking y tern to facilitate manoeuvring
n the ground. Brake of I.bi type may be u ed to
horten a landing roll and give directional control on
lip tr am. . he ma of air thru t backward b the
th ground at peed where rudder control i inade-
propelleri called the lip tream. It i roughly the ize
quate. Pre ure appli d t the left brake pedal brake
ofacylinder fthe amediametera thepropeller.
the left wheel and turn the aircraft to the left· pre -
The elocity of the. lip treamis greater than that
at which the aircraft i Lravelling through the air. Thi ure appti d to Lb right brake pedal tarns the aircraft
to the right. To bring an aircraft to a straight top
mean that the v I city of the air flowing over tho e
equal or near equal pre ure mu t be applied to each
parts of Lhe aircraft in the lip tream would be much
brake pedal.
more than that f th airflow over parts not in the
lip tream.
The prop 11 r impart a rotary motion to the slip­
tream in the ame direction a the propeller is turn­
Trim Tabs
ing. The re ult i that the lip tream strikes only one
To improve control and balance (trim) of an aircraft,
ide of aircraft urfa e uch a the fin and rudder,
mall auxiliary control urfaces called trim tab are
and affect the dir ctional and lateral balance of the
fixed r hing d to the trailing edges of the aileron
aircraft (Fig. 1-.18). To com pen ale for this the fin or
engine may b off el lightly to balance the aircraft
for normal cruj ing flight. Thi baJance i up et when
th engin p wer i changed above or below crui e
power etting ig. 1-19).

mmetric Thrust. Adver e yaw i al o cau ed by

th a mmelrical I ading of th propeller. When an
aeroplane i flying at a high angle of attack with the
prop Uer axi in lined and with high po er etting ,
th downward mo ing blade hich i on the right ide
of the prop Uer a een from the cockpit, has a higher
angle of alla and th r fore produce more thru t
than th up ard mo ing blade on the left. The re uJc
i a ya ing tenden of the aircraft to the left. Figure 1-19 Fin Offset
12 BasicPri11cipl o[Flight

ele alO . and rudd r. Fixed tab are pre- et on th

gr und to obLain a balanced contr I loading at th

�
n rmaJ le el crui ing peed of particular aircraft.
Hinged tab ar ntrolled b th pilot. Larger air­
craft for th mo r part ha e bin ed tab fitted to alJ
ontrol urface to compen ate for lateral hift in
C: Plain Hap�
J ading and to pro ide additionaJ rudder control in the

E__�
event of an engine failure on multi-engined aircraft.
Jn the case of mo, t small single-engined aircraft, ucb
a those u ed for flight training, nly the elevator
have controllable trim. Elevator trim compensate for Slotted flap
th con tantly changing longitudinal tability r ulLing

C �
from arying attitude of flight. ix.ed trim tab if
fitted are normally adequate for the lateraJ aileron)
and directionaJ rudder tabiJit and control of chi
cla of aircraft. Sprltflap

Variable Incidence Tail Planes {Horizontal

Stabilizer)
E__� Zap flap �

c--�- �
On ome ajrcraft the incidence of th tail plane can
be varied in flight to trim the aircraft longitudinally.
The effect i much the ame a trimming the elevator·
on an aircraft with a fixed tail plane.
Fowler flap

Flaps
Plap are controlled b the pilot. Tb impro e the
E__;;>-�
Dooble-slotted flap �
Ii tandothercharacteri tic ofanaer foil b incre
iog the camb r fa large portion f th wing. me
of the operation I ad antage of flap r :

I. StaJling p di decrea ed.

2. A Leeper approach to landing can be made with­
«E ;;?-�
Double-slotted Hap �
out an increa in air peed. and leading-edge slat �
Forward vi ibility is improved on approach
landing duet th lower po ition f th no e.
4. The take-off run may be horten d. Figure 1-20 Types of Flaps

The plain flap i tuaJly a portion f the main aer -

foil, including upp rand lower urfa , which hinge Stability
downward into th relati e a.irllow. Howe er. in th
a of more ophj Licated articulated flap terns table air raft i on that tend t r cum to it orig­
Zap and Fo 1 r are typical e ample ther i an inal flight c ndition after bein di placed by om
ffecti e increa e f the chord f th aerofoil hicb outside force uch an updraft or other air • tur-
uptoagi enpointintbeiroperationgrearl increa e bance. The tabilit of an air raft concern it thre
lift while impo ing minimum drag ( ig. J-20). plane of r tarioo: (1) pit hing, (2) yawing and
When the piJ t el els a flap p iti n, both flap (3) roJUng. tabilily in the pitchfog plane is called lon­
go down or up together. When flap are fully retracted gitudinal tability, in therolJingplane, lateral tability
(up) they conf rm to the hape of the wing. Flap and in th yawing plane, directional tability.
mu tbeu edjudi i u lyatalltime butextrernecare
mu t be taken wh n retracting them in fligbt-e pe- Lateral Stability. One d ign feature that pro ide
iall near the gr und- becau f the udden l tability in th rolling plan i dihedral. This is a wing
fljft and cbao in the aircraft baJan e. de ign feature in hich the win tip are high r than
 Basic Principles ofFlight 13
the centre section of the wing. When a wing is low­ speed, power, and attitude. It is difficult to obtain the
ered due to an outside influence, such as turbulent air, right degree oflongitudinal stability to meet all con­
the aircraft starts slipping toward the "down" wing; ditions of flight, but it is essential to achieve an
the "down" wing is now exposed to more airflow acceptable compromise if the aircraft is to be safe and
(than the "up" wing), and, as a result of its higher pleasant to handle. Turbulent air, operation of the
angle of attack, produces more lift and returns to its flaps, and other factors can disturb the balance of the
former level state (Fig. 1-21). aircraft.
This problem is primarily resolved by the horizon­
Longitudinal Stability. Of all the characteristic that tal stabilizer (tail plane) aided by the vertical stabilizer
affect the balance and controllability of an aircraft, (fin). Purposely placed at a considerable distance
longitudinal stability is the most important, as it can behind the wing, these tabilizers aerodynamically
be influenced by both aerodynamic and physical fac­ provide the basic forces necessary to counteract the
tors, including human error. effect of outside forces. Because of its distance from
The position of the Centre of Gravity of an aircraft the Centre of Gravity, which gives it great leverage,
has the greatest influence on its longitudinal stability, even a small force on the tail plane will produce a
but this stability is also influenced by changes of large correcting moment.

Dihecira[l = --e

Dihedral causes a slip or a skid to produce a roll

More lift produced

by the lower wing

Figure 1-21 Dihedral Keeps the Aircraft Level

14 BasicPrincipleso/Flight

uch like th tail feather on an arrow the tail

plane will re i t outside influence altering the air-
raft elected longitudinal flight path. Outside influ­ Vertical i
en es and force ma b likened to unc -ordinated u e 200) lbs.
of the flight c nLrol co h.i b a table properl
trimmed aircraft will al o offer re i tance. A table
aircraft will not auempt to counL ract force inten­
tionally intr due d by co-ordinat d u e of the flight
ntrol and throttle.

Directional Stability. Directional tabil.ity concern

the motion of th ircraft about the n rmal axi . r
the yawing motion of the aircraft. n automobile ha
a dfrectiooaJ tability that can be een every time the
fter the turn i made and the
Leering wheel r I ed the wheel traigbten and th
ar mo e i:n a traight direction. Thi i directional
tability. The erti al tabilizer ontributes to the
Figure 1-22 Load Factor in 60 Degree Banked
directional tability of an aircraft.
Tum

factor ri e it approache th O degree bank Lin

wb.icb it reach nly at infinity.
Load Factors Therefore, although an aircraft may be banked t
90 degrees, a constant altitude turn with this am unl
Any force applied t an aircraft to deflect its flight fbank i math matically impo ibJ for conventional
from a traight line produce tre n it tructure, aircraft. At lightly more than 80 degree of bank th
th amount of which i termed a load factor. Lo d load factor e c ed 6 G , h.ich i generally the flight
factor i the ratio of the load upp rted by the aero­ load factor Limit of aircraft tructuraHy designed for
plane wing to th a tual weight of Lhe aircraft and erobatic fli hL For conventi nal lioht aircraft. th
it ontent . appro imate maximum bank in a u tained le I co-
load factor o 3 means that the total load on an ordinated tum. i 60 degrees. addjtional IO degr
aircraft structure i tim its gro ighL Load fa to of bank ill increase the load fa tor b approximate!
are generally e pre ed in terms of G . A load fa t r I G bringing the loading clo 10 the point at which
of 3 is u ually p ken of as 3 Gs. When an aircraft i tructural damage may occur.
• bjected to 3 G for ex.ample in an abrupt pull-up the
pilot will be pre ed down into the eat with a force equal
to 3 times hi or her own weight. Thu , a rough estimate of
the load factor obtained in a manoeu re can be made by
9

8
I
c n ideringthedegreetowhichaper on i pre seddown
in the eat
7
'
I

J
Load factor ar important for tw di tinct reason :
l a tructural o erload can be impo ed upon an air­
craft; 2) load fa t r increase th tall peed making
I
I
tall pos ible at mingly afe airspeed .
Fig. 1-22 sh an aircraft banked at 60 degrees. Th
total lift produc i 4 000 pound J 1 kilogram .
The aircraft ight i 2 000 pound 07 kilogram ). 7
The ratio of total lift to weight • 2. we ay the load .-�
factori 2. 1
Fig. 1-23 reveaJ an important fact about turn - 0
the load factor increa e at a tremendou rate after 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
the bank bas reached 50 degree . lt i important t Bank angle in degrees
remember that th wing mu t produ lift equal to th
load factor, otherwi e it will be impo ible co maintain Figure 1-23 Load Factors Produced at Varying
altitude. otice h rapidly the Jin representing load Degrees of Bank at Constant Altitude
 Basic Principles ofFlight 15

Stalling Speeds mon in conventional training aircraft, it is important

to develop the ability to judge load factors from their
When the angle of attack of the wing exceeds the effect on the body.
stalling angle, the relatively smooth flow of air over
the wing breaks up and tears away, producing the sud­
den change of flight characteristics and loss of lift Turbulence
known as a stall.Within the limits of its structure and
the physical strength of the pilot, any aircraft may be Aircraft are designed to take gust loads of consider­
stalled at any airspeed. able intensity. Gust loads represent loading imposed
The stalling speed of an aircraft increases in pro­ upon an aircraft, particularly the wings, as a result of
portion to the load factor. An aircraft with a normal the aircraft being flown into vertical or horizontal air
stalling speed of 50 KT can be stalled at 100 KT by currents, commonly referred to as "turbulence." By
imposing a load factor of 4 Gs upon it. If it were definition, gust load factor is an acceleration imposed
possible to impose a load factor of 9 Gs upon this upon an aircraft flown into a gust. Gust load factors
aircraft, it could be stalled at 150 KT. This knowledge increase as airspeed increases: in moderate or extreme
must be applied from two points of view: ( 1) the dan­ turbulence, such as may be encountered near thun­
ger of unintentionally stalling an aircraft by increasing derstorms or frontal weather conditions, it is wise to
the load factor, as in a steep turn or a spiral; (2) the red"uce airspeed to the manoeuvring speed specified
tremendous load factor imposed upon an aircraft when for the aircraft. This is the speed least likely to permit
it is intentionally stalled above its manoeuvring speed. structural damage to the aircraft, yet it allows a suf­
This may be done by an abrupt pull-up, or any other ficient margin of safety above the normal stalling
manoeuvre producing a load factor beyond 1 G, and speed if abrupt control movements must be made.
can result in a hazardous and sudden loss of control. "Maximum dive" or "never exceed" speeds for a par­
Abrupt or excessive deflection of the flight controls ticular aircraft are determined for smooth air only.
can impose severe structural loads upon an aircraft, Abrupt manoeuvring or high diving speeds in turbu­
and these load factors are directly proportionate to the lent air at airspeeds above the specified manoeuvring
aircraft's speed. This type of loading may occur when speed can place damaging stresses on the whole struc­
executing certain flight manoeuvres or during light ture of an aircraft.
in turbulent air. For this reason each aircraft type has
a design manoeuvring speed, which is defined as "the
maximum speed at which the flight controls may be
fully deflected without causing structural damage." Structural Damage
This speed limitation may be found in the Aircraft
Flight Manual of a particular aircraft. Many people have a mistaken tendency to consider
Si.nee leverage in control systems varies from air­ load factors only in terms of their immediate effect
craft to aircraft, the pressure required on controls can­ upon aircraft components. The cumulative effect of
not be accepted as an index of the load factors exceeding the load factor over a long period of time
produced by the various manoeuvres of any particular may loosen and weaken vital parts so that a structural
aircraft. Load factors can be measured by certain failure may occur later, when the aircraft is being
instruments, but since these instruments are not com- operated normally.
CHAPTER TWO

Weight and Balance

Centre of Gravity even though the maximum p rmi ible overall weight
is not exceeded. For example, if the fuel load of a
four place aircraft is reduced to remain within maxi­
It i the re ponsibility of th pilot-in-c mmaod to load mum permi sible take- ff w ight, then two relatively
the a roplane .in accord.an with the weight and baJ­ lightweight people are placed in the forward eat two
an e information provided by the manufacturer. Thi very h vy people are placed in th rear eats and the
ini rmation limits the maximum I d that can be car­ afL luggage compartment i I ad d to its maximum
ried. It al o limits the pla ement of the load within all wable eighL Ao aircraft loaded could have
the aeroplane. In order to do thi . th pilot-in-com­ uch an ex i e aft Centre f Gravity that the pilot
mand must en ure that the w ight i belo the gro uld ha control problem beginning from take-off
eight of the aeroplan and th entre of Gravi and th norma1 tall characleri tic might change d
ithin i specified range. ti ally. bould an aircraft ith e i e aft loading
To implify loading p bl m , mo t manufa ture be permitted to enter a pin, th re i e ery po ibilit
f light aircraft upply pre- alculated graphs, charts that r o ery would be e tr mely difficult if not
r I ading e amp1 for ific aircraft that are ade­ impo ible to execute.
qua� for the u of the average pri al pilot. Ho e er,
you houJd ha e a working Imo ledge of the basic
principle behind the e cal ulati n .. Useful Load
Tbe entre of Gravity for each aircraft i calculated
ac the fa tory and recorded n the weight and balance Of prime interest to the pilot-in-command is the useful
rep rt. The method u ed lo find the Centre of Gravity load an aircraft can carry. [n light aircraft, useful load
f ran mpty aircraft is al o used to calculate the shift coo i t of crew, pa oger , baggage, u able fuel and
f th entre of Gravity cau d by loading of fuel, oil and other non-fixed items. It may be calculated
pit t, pa eagers, baggage, etc. by ubtracting empty weight fr m maximum permi -
It is imperative for optimum c otro·t response and ible weight. Tbe e weight are generally defined as:
tability that the Centre of Gra ily of an aircraft be
maintained within its permi ·ibl de ign limitation . I. Licen ed Empty eight The weight of the ba ic
u can riously affect the cootrolJability of our air­ aircraft including i fixed equipment and uou abl
craft b positioning th load in rrectly. If the Centre fu I and oil.
of Gra ity loading limitati n utlined in the Air-
l
craft Fligl t Manual are foll d carefully you will . 8 ic Empty igbt. The eight of the b i
ha a table aircraft and predictabl response to the air raft, in Luding i fi ed equipm nt unu able fuel
ntrol . If the Centre of Gra ity • permitted to go an full operating flui including full oil.
be ond th forward limitati n . th aircraft ilJ
om le r poosive to up ele ator control and . M imum Permi ibl eight. The maximum
ery difficult to trim. penni ible gro take-off weight specified in the air­
How er, in the average light aircraft there i con­ raft' Certificate of Airw rthin
id rably more cope fi r error in e ceeding the aft
entr of Gra ity limitati n . arel aft loading can Pa . nger . Although airline u e average pa enger
I ad t very hazardou baJan and control problem. weights for weight and balan computation a tual

16
 Weight and Balance 17

passenger weight must be used for aircraft with lim­ in front of the no e. To avoid negat i ve numbers,
ited seating capacity. Light aircraft can easily be most aircraft balance datums are situated so that a!J
loaded outside limits when estimates or average u eful loads are positioned aft of the balance datum.
weights are used particularly when winter clothing is 3. Centre of Gravity (empty) in inches from the ba l­
worn. If in doubt, ask passengers how much they ance datum.
weigh and make appropriate allowances for clothing. 4. Moment arm. The distance in inches from the bal­
ance datum to the Centre of Gravity of the aircraft
or Centre of Gravity of an item of Joad.
Weight and Balance
Concerning the propo ed load, the pilot-in-command
The maximum pernti sible weight must never be must be aware of:
exceeded. If you carry additional fuel to give the air­
craft more range, you must in many cases balance it l. The weight in pound of each passenger and/or item.
by reducing the number of passenger or baggage, 2. The location of each passenger and/or item within
freight, or other such weight so as not to exceed the the aircraft.
maximum permissible weight.
The pilot-in-command must know all the loading Weight and balance factors may be computed a
information about the aircraft to be flown and be able follows:
to determine permis ible loading and it correct di -
position. Current weight and balance data should be 1. The balance moment of the empty aircraft is found
carried as part of the aircraft documentation· unles by mu]tiplying the empty weight by the moment
loaded in accordance with thi information, the air­ arm of the aircraft.
craft cannot be considered airworthy. In addition, it 2. The balance moment of each item of load i found
may bear a placard concerning operational loading, by multiplying its weight by its respective moment
uch as the seat to be occupied in olo flight or a fuel arm.
tank to be emptied fir t. The information on these 3. The new Centre of Gravity is found by dividing
placards must be observed scrupulously. the total balance moment by the total weight of the
Weight and balance limitations are imposed for the aircraft.
following principal reasons:
Sample Computations. A sample weight and balance
l. The effect of the disposition of weight (and sub­ calculation for a typical light aircraft, with a Centre of
sequently balance) on the flight characteri tics of Gravity 30 inches (0.762 metres) aft of its datum when
the aircraft, particularly on tall and spin recoveries, empty, using the foregoing item and factors might
low flight, and stability. look like this:
2. The effect of the weight on primary and secondary
structure of the aircraft. Moment Balance
3. The effect of weight on take-off and landing Weight Arm Moment
performance. (LB} (inches) (LB-inches}

Aircraft empty 1, 000 30 30, 000

Pilot 170 20 3,400
Computing Weight and Balance Passenger 190 20 3, 800
Fuel 50 30 1, 500
The weight and balance calculation for individual Oil 10 20 200
flights are computed by using information in the air­
1,420 38, 900
craft's Weight and Balance Report, and the weights
and di position within the aircraft of each pa enger Metric Version
and/or item of the load proposed for the flight. The Moment Balance
items of information available on the Weight and Weight A.rm Moment
Balance Report are: (metres) (kg-metres)
(kg)

l. Empty weight, in pounds. Aircraft empty 453.6 0. 762 345.6

2. Balance Datum. This is the reference point from Pilot 77. 1 0.508 39.0
which all weight and balance calculations are Passenger 86. 2 0.508 43.6
made. It could be anywhere on the aircraft, pref­ Fuel 22.7 0. 762 17.3
erably omewbere forward of the Centre of Gravity. Oil 4.5 0.508 2.3
It could even be a point in open space several feet 644.1 447.8
18 Weight and Balance

The new Centre of Gravity is 27.4 inches (0.695 m) Metric Version

aft of the balance datum. Divide 38,900 (447.8) by Moment Balance
1,420 (644.1). Weight Arm Moment
The pilot-in-command must now refer to the cur­ (kg) (metres) (kg-metres)
rent aircraft documentation and verify that the loaded Aircraft empty 0.940 661.8
704.0
weight of 1,420 pounds (644. 1 kilograms) and the Pilot and
loaded Centre of Gravity of 27.4 inches (0.695 metres) passenger at
aft of the datum are both within the prescribed 84 kg each 168.0 0.914 153.5
tolerances. If they are not, the aircraft should not be One passenger
flown until satisfactory adjustments are made. 63.6 1.778 113.0
in rear seat
The following is an example of another weight and Baggage 54.5 2.413 131.5
balance computation for a more sophisticated aircraft: Fuel, 208 L at
0.72 kg/l 150.0 1.219 183.0
Oil, 7.6 Lat
Moment Balance 0.95 kg/L -2. 7
-- 7.2 -0.381
Weight Arm Moment 1147.3 1240.1
(LB) (Inches) (LB-Inches)
Aircraft empty 1,552 37 57,424
In this case the loaded Centre of Gravity (loaded
Pilot and
moment divided by loaded weight) is 42.5 inches
passenger at
(1.08 metres) aft of the datum point. The example
185 LB each 370 36 13,320
above uses a balance datum somewhere aft of the nose
One passenger
to illustrate a minus item; in this aircraft the oil
in rear seat 140 70 9,800
reservoir is forward of the balance datum and therefore
Baggage 120 95 11,400
must be shown as a minus quantity on the total scale
Fuel, 55 US gals.
of balance.
at 6 LB/gal. 330 48 15,840
The pilot-in-command of this particular aircraft must
Oil, 2 US gals.
now refer to the current aircraft documentation and
at 7. 5 LB/gal. 15 -15 -225
- - verify that the loaded weight of 2,527 pounds (1147. 3
2, 527 107,559 kilograms) and the loaded Centre of Gravity of 42.5
inches (1.08 metres) are both within the prescribed
tolerances. If they are not, the aircraft should not be
considered airworthy until atisfactory adjustments
are made.
CHAPTER THREE

Engine Handling

A typical four-cylinder aircraft engine has- over 250 of fuel from the fuel strainer drain into a suitable glass
moving parts and 70 non-moving parts. The failure of container. Make sure that the fuel is free of water and
any part may result in a complete loss of power, or sediment. Look for oil and fuel leaks. Physically
sufficient power loss to require an immediate landing. check component on the engine to see if there are
However, because of compul ory testing of material any loose items or wires, etc. Check the propeller and
and parts a high degree of quality control is achieved, spinner for nicks and security. If in doubt concerning
resulting in the aircraft engine being one of the most damage to any part of the aircraft, check with your
reliable mechanical components in u e today. Whether flight in tructor or an Aircraft Maintenance Engineer.
or not thi high level of reliability is sustained Prior to starting an engine there are several things
depends to a great extent on the pilot-in-command' that can be done to ensure that it will perform
handling of the engine. Beside its flight operation, properly:
the handling of an engine includes the use of rec­
ommended fuels and oil , pre-flight inspection , and 1. Verify the fuel supply by a phy ical check of the
a basic knowledge of how an engine and its ancillary fuel tanks.
component. work. Since it represents the majority of 2. Fuel tank air vents mu t be open and clear of for­
training aircraft power plant in use today, the engine eign material to en ure that fuel may flow at rec­
we will consider is air cooled, has horizontalJy ommended rate
opposed cyUnders, and is unsupercharged. The pro­ 3. Check all fuel tank cap for security. In most cases,
peller may be made of wood, composition material, if a cap comes off in flight, the contents of the
or metal and ha a fixed pitch. tank will empty rapidly through the filler neck, due
to the syphoning action of the airflow.
4. Check the propeller for nicks and other damage
that may cause imbalance and undesirable and
Inspection often dangerous engine vibration.
5. Engine oil. Never add a detergent oil to an engine
that uses a non-detergent oil a its regular lubri­
Before any flight the pertinent log-books are studied cant. Add non-detergent oil to an engine that uses
to check the engine hours, what inspections repairs detergent oil as its regular lubricant in an emer­
or modifications have been made, whether any gency only.
reported defects are outstanding, and whether the air­ 6. Cold oil The oil used in the engine of an aircraft
craft ha been currently signed out by the appropriate is of higher vi cosity than that used in most other
authority. engines and becomes very thick when cold. With
Never inspect an aircraft engine and propeller until the ignition switch off and mixture control in idle
the ignition (magneto) switches have been checked cut-off position, turn the propeller by hand for sev­
and are off, and even then always treat the propeller eral revolution to help break the drag created by
a if it were "live." There i not a great deal that a cold oil between the p_iston and the cylinder wall.
pilot can do in the way of mechanically in peeling an Thi will ea e starting and reduce the load on the
engine prior to flight but the few thing that can be starting mechanism and battery. Remember to treat
done are extremely important. The engine oil can be the propeller a if it were "live.'
checked for acceptable level and the carburettor air 7. Drum fuelling. Refue!Jing an aircraft from drum
filter checked for obstructions. Drain a small sample not a preferred method if regular fuelling

19
20 Engine Handling

facilities are available, because condensation and located on the instrument panel. The primer draws
flakes of rust are often present in the drums. Since filtered fuel from the fuel system and injects a fine
most of the foreign material settles to the bottom spray directly into the engine intake ports. This system
of the drum, make sure that the suction tube on is useful particularly for cold weather starts when fuel
the pump being used has at least an inch clearance is difficult to vaporize.
from the bottom of the drum. A chamois strainer Some points to remember regarding the use of
should be used, since it not only removes solids primers are:
but also resists the passage of water. When refu­
elling from drums it is critical that the drum,
1. The primer must be used only as specified in the
pump, hose, nozzle, and aircraft are properly
Aircraft Flight Manual.
grounded and bonded. The proper sequence to be
2. Overpriming will increase the possibility of an
followed is: drum to the ground (anchor post),
engine fire during start.
drum to pump, pump to aircraft, nozzle to aircraft,
3. Most manual primers are equipped with a lock and
then open the aircraft fuel cap. When finished,
after being pushed full in must be rotated either
reverse the order. Information regarding aviation
left or right unti.I the pin is past the notch and the
fuel handling is contained in the Aeronautical
knob cannot be pulled out. If the primer is not
Information Publication (A.l.P) Canada AIR
locked the engine may draw fuel through the prim­
section.
ing system, and the enriched fuel/air mixture can
8. Ensure that the fuel is of the octane rating speci­
result in engine roughness or engine failure.
fied for the engine. Never use a lower grade; in an
emergency use the next higher grade. The octane
rating of a fuel is indicated by its colour.
Warm-up

There are two warm-up phases. The first is before

Starting taxifog to ensure that the engine instruments are
begin.ning to register somewhere in the operating range
The engine is started (and operated) as specified in before applying power to begin taxiing. Tb.is warm-up
the Aircraft Flight Manual or as specified by a par­ is important when more power may be required to pull
ticular operator to meet the requirements of non-stan­ the aircraft through snow or loose soil.
dard conditions, such as temperature and elevation The second warm-up, prior to take-off, ensures that
extremes. engine temperatures and pressures are within the spec­
Once started, use the RPM recommended in the Air­ ified limits. At this point the RPM may be increased
craft Flight Manual for engine warm-up. Too low an to hasten the warm-up. The ground running of the
RPM results in inadequate distribution of the sluggish engine should be carried out with the aircraft headed
engine oil; too high an RPM can cause excessive wear into wind or as close to it as possible. As an aircraft
of parts that depend on gradually acquiring heat to engine is closely cowled for efficient in-flight cooling,
expand to operating cJearances. If, after starting, an take care to avoid overheating it on the ground.
oil pressure indication as specified in the Aircraft
Flight Manual is not evident, shut down the engine.
To ensure that there are no fuel blockages between
the fuel tanks and the engine, you may wish to run Run-up
the engine for a period of time on each tank separately
If there is to be a change in fuel tanks before take­
while on the ground. In this case you should ensure
off, change them before the run-up. Should a .fuel
that the fuel selector is moved to the proper setting
system malfunction occur as a result of changing
before the run-up check and take-off.
tanks, let this show itself during the run-up, not during
Avoid starting and running up an engine where the
the take-off.
propeller may pick up loose stones, blow them back,
and possibly damage the aircraft or other property
behind it.
Carburettor Heat Check
Aircraft Engine Primers Set the engine RPM as recommended in the Aircraft
Flight Manual; if there is no recommended RPM avail­
A fuel system component of many light aircraft is a able use the setting recommended for the magneto
small hand pump called a primer. It is generally check. Then:
 Engine Handling 21

1. Select "fulJ cold" position of carburettor heat and high RPM range, but may be well below maximum
note RPM. RPM. When ao. ignition. system operates satisfactorily
2. Select "fulJ hot" position and note decrease in RPM; at maximum pressure, proper operation at lower pres­
alJow RPM to stabilize in this position. sures is en.sured. Therefore, when other than the RPM
3. Select "cold" position again and note increase in specified in the Aircraft Flight Manual is used the
RPM to confirm that the unit and its controls are check may not prove what it is supposed to prove.
functioning through their full range. If, on return­
ing the control to "cold," the RPM shows an increase
over the initial RPM reading, carburettor icing Full Power Check
conditions exist and additional care will be
necessary. Most light aircraft engine run-up procedures no longer
include a static full power check, but unless this is
The engine air intake filter is usually bypassed when carried out nothing in the normal check will ensure
"hot" is selected. Unless otherwise recommended in that full power is actually available. Normally this
the Aircraft Flight Manual, use the "cold" position check is carried out during the take-off roll, but if the
while taxiing or during sustained ground operation of surface allows, for a short field take-off do a full
the engine. This will help prevent particles of foreign power check before al1owing the aircraft to move.
material, such as sand, from entering the carburettor
and engine.
Application of carburettor beat will result in an
RPM decrease. If there is no decrease in RPM, suspect Climbing
a malfunction. Should you suspect that an in-flight
power loss is due to an engine air intake filter clogged
with snow or ice, apply full carburettor heat to obtain Most light aircraft climb at high power and relatively
an alternate source of intake air. Carburettor heat low airspeed compared with cruising flight. Since the
should be applied at any time when a power loss due engine is dependent upon the flow of outside air for
to ice is either noted or suspected. Depending on cooling, the lower the airspeed the less effective the
atmospheric conditions, many pilots perform periodic cooling. The normal climbing speed specified for an
carburettor heat checks for ice accumulation every ten aircraft takes into account, among other things, the
to fifteen minutes. Under certain conditions, it may need for adequate cooling.
be necessary to perform this check more often or even However, two other climbing speeds are geoeralJy
fly with the carburettor heat control in the full hot specified for an individual aircraft:
position.
1. Best angle of climb speed.
2. Best rate of climb speed.
Magneto Check
As both of these climb speeds are often lower than
The primary purpose of dual ignition in aircraft normal climb speed, with resultant higher engine tem­
engines is safety, and the magneto check tests this peratures, their use should be limited to the period of
feature. The magnetos are both operating when the time they are necessary, with normal climbing speed
magneto switch is selected to the "both" position. resumed as soon as possible.
When the magneto switch is selected to "left" or In the case of engines designed to climb at full
"right," the engine is operating on one magneto only. throttle until cruising altitude is reached, you gain no
By selecting one or the other, you can test the proper advantage by reducing power on climb with the
functioning of each. The first check should be made thought of "sparing the engine" provided you strictly
at low RPM (idle or slightly above) before leaving the adhere to the specified climbing speed. One of the
flight line to ensure both are working. Next, check the important reasons for maintaining the recommended
magnetos during the run-up as recommended in the speed concerns adequate cooling, which has already
Aircraft Plight Manual. Normally this involves a been discussed. Another reason is that with a fixed
check of each ignition system for smooth running and pitch propeller an airspeed higher than normal may
"drop" in RPM and that the RPM ctifferential between cause engine RPM to exceed the limitations for sus­
magnetos does not exceed that specified in the Air­ tained full throttle operation.
craft Flight Manual. Unless otherwise specified, the procedure for air­
Ignition systems operate properly up to the point craft equipped with a mixture control is to take off
of maximum compression stroke pressure in the and climb with the control in the "full rich" position.
engine cylinders. This high pressure point is in the Within certain bounds an aircraft engine runs cooler
22 Engine Handling

with a rich mixture, and since a power setting greater rapidly even in relatively warm weather. A sudden
than that of normal cruise power generates much more application of power, such as for an overshoot, can
undesirable heat the enriched mixture contributes damage a cold engine and/or result in a momentary
greatly to the welfare of the engine. engine malfunction. Therefore, it is good practice in
a sustained descent to apply power periodically to
Cruise Power retain engine operating temperatures.
Power should be increased and decreased by
Most of the time the average light aircraft is operated prompt but smooth operation of the throttle; this elim­
in the normal cruising range. Io determining the inates backfiring and the possibility of an abrupt loss
cruise power setting of an engine for a particular air­ of power at a crucial moment.
craft, the manufacturer strives for the best choice in With normal use an engine will cool enough during
consideration of reliability, performance, economy of approach, landing, and taxiing to permit shutting it
operation, and engine life. Of these, engine reliability off without further idling. However, if there bas been
is the overriding factor. It goes without saying, there­ an excessive amount of power used while taxiing,
fore, that a sustained power setting in excess of that allow the engine to run two or three minutes at just
recommended for normal cruising may threaten a above the idling speed, before you shut it off.
most important factor of safe flight, i.e., engine Prior to shutdown, at idle RPM, select the magnetos
reliability. "off" .momentarily to determine if the engine will
stop. If it doesn't, you have a live magneto. This is
General very dangerous because the engine may fire should
anyone tum the propeller by band after shutdown.
When descending with low power settings or idle This condition should be reported immediately to the
power, as in the case of a glide, an engine will cool operator or an Aircraft Maintenance Engineer.
CHAPTER FOUR

Aircraft Documentation

Your tudent pilot pennit indicates that, subject to cer­ Thls is required before the Student Pilot Pennit can
tain conditions, the holder may for the purpo e of be validated. The Student Pilot Permit is normally
their flight training and under supervision, act as issued and validated by an "Authorized Person"
pilot-in-command of any aircraft not carrying passen­ delegated by Transport Canada to carry out certain
gers. Pilot-in-command means the person respon ible licensing actions. It hall be carried by the pilot while
for successful completion of a afe flight. The pilot­ f lying solo.
in-command of any aircraft must be familiar with, and An expired Student Pilot Permit may be re-issued
conform to, all the regulations and administrative by ati fying all the requirements for initial issue as
requirements relating to the flight and in particular, outlined in Part IV of the Canadian Aviation
the conditions under which the aircraft mu t be flown. Regulations.
In many respects these conditions are governed by the
documents that must normally be carried on board an Pilot Permit or Pilot Licence. Pilots shall, during
aircraft during flight. flight, carry a vaUd permit or licence, appropriate to
their duties. Thls includes the Student Pilot Permit. The
validity period of the pennit or Licence is determined
Documents Required on Board from the accompanying Medical Certificate.
Regulations also require crew members to produce
l. Student Pilot Penn it, Pilot Permit or Pilot Licence their permits or licence upon demand by designated
and Medical Certificate. Transport Canada officials, peace officers, or immigra­
2. Radiotelephone Operator's Restricted Certificate tion officers.
(Aeronautical). The Medical Certificate, pilot pennit and licence
3. Aircraft Radio Station Licence (not required for have important information on the back with which
flight in Canada). you mu t comply.
4. Certificate of Airworthine or Flight Permit.
5. Certificate of Registration.
Radiotelephone Operator Re tricted Certificate
6. Aircraft Journey Log.
(Aeronautical). Any person operating radio trans­
7. Copy of Liability Insurance (privately registered
mitting equipment installed in an aircraft registered in
aircraft).
8. Aircraft Flight Manual (in most cases). Canada is required to hold and carry this certificate
issued by the Department of Communications.

Document Information
Aircraft Radio tation Licence. Radio equipment used
in Canadian registered civil aircraft does not require
a radio station licence for flights within Canada.
It is the responsibility of the pilot-in-command to ensu.re However, a valid radio talion licence issued by
that all documentation required for an aircraft and it Industry Canada is required for international flights.
crew is on board and valid for the flight. The licence should be checked to ensure that the call
ign is correct and the document i valid.
Student Pilot Permit. Upon receipt of a satisfactory
medical as essment, a Medical Certificate or Medical Certificate of Airworthine . The issuance of a Cer­
Assessment Letter will be issued by Transport Canada. tificate of Airworthiness signifies that Transport

23
24 Aircraft Documentation

Canada is satisfied that lhe aircraft identified on the ited. An agricultural spray aeroplane would be an
certificate conforms to Transport Canada recognized example of an aircraft issued a SpeciaJ Certificate of
design standards and is considered fil and safe for Airworthiness classified as restricted.
flight on the date of issue of the certificate. A Certif­
icate of Airworthiness makes the aircraft valid for
Flight Pertnit. A Flight Permit may be issued for
flight in any lCAO Contracting State. For a Certificate
experimentaJ or other specific purposes in place of a
of Airworthiness to remain in force, the aircraft must
Certificate of Airworthiness.
be safe and fit in all respecLS for lhe intended flight.
An Experimental Flight Permit may be issued for
and certain conditions must be met:
any aircraft, excluding amateur built aircraft, manu­
facrured for or engaged in aeronautical research and
l. The weight of the aircraft and its load must not
development, or for showing compliance with airwor­
exceed the maximum permissible weight specified.
thiness standards.
2. The load must be properJy distributed.
A Specific Purpose Flight Permit may be issued for
3. The equipment and any cargo carried must be
an aircraft that does not comply with applicable air­
secured to prevent shifting in flight and placed
worthiness standards but is capable of safe flight. It
to allow unrestricted exit of passengers in an
provides flight authority in circumstances when a Cer­
emergency.
tificate of Airworthiness is invalidated or there is no
4. The required emergency equipment must be carried
other certificate or permit in force. A Specific Pur­
on board in good condition.
pose Flight Permit may be issued for:
5. As well, to be safe and fit for the intended flight,
aircraft owners and operators are responsible for
compliance with aJl airworthiness directives (ADS) l. Ferry flights to a base for repairs or maintenance.
that are applicable to their aircraft. ADS are notices 2. Importation or exponatioo flights.
issued by Transport Canada concerning safety 3. Demonstration, market survey, or crew-training
defects that must be rectified immediateJy or within fligbis.
a specified time period or flight time limitation. 4. Test purposes following repair, modification, or
AJJ aircraft maintenance requirements inspec­ maimenance.
tions must also be completed. These inspections 5. Other purposes as determined by the Minister of
may vary according to aircraft type, operation. or Transport.
Lhe maintenance prorg am being followed_
6. Where an aircraft bas undergone maintenance, the
Certificate of Airworthiness or flight permit of that A Specific Purpose Flight Permit may carry restric­
aircraft is not in force until a maintenance release tions with it such as a prohibition from carrying pas­
has been entered in the aircraft journey log and sengers; therefore, it should be checked carefully prior
other maintenance records and signed in respect to operating the aircraft.
of the work perlormed. The maintenance release
indicates that the maintenance was performed in Certificate of Registration. Every aircraft in Canada,
accordance with the applicable standards of air­ other than hang gliders, is issued a Certificate of Reg­
wortJ1iness. istration. Except for balloons it shall be kept on board
7. Tbe Certificate of Airworthiness indicates under
the aircraft during llight. Check the Certificate of
which category the aircraft may operate. Most Regisrration to ensure that it is tbe one issued for the
operate under the standard category. When check­ aircraft. lf a change of ownership is in process, there
ing an older Certificate of Airworthiness, you may
may be circumstances where the aircraft cannot be
note the term normal, which means the same as flown. Information concerning aircraft registration can
standard. The Certificate of Airworthiness must be
be found in the Licensing, Registration, and Airwor­
on board during flight, and the pilot must ensure lbiaess section of the Aeronautical lnfonnaiion Pub­
that it is valid and the one is ued for tbe aircraft. licatio11 (ALP.) Canada
A Special Certificate of Airworthiness is issued
when an aircraft does nol meet all the requirements Aircraft Journey Log. Prior Lo flight. ensure that the
for a standard Certificate of Airworthiness but is con­ journey log is the one assigned to the aircraft and
sidered fit and safe for fliglu on the date of issue of check that it is up-to-date. Check that all airworthiness
the certificate. It is vaJid only in the country in which inspections are completed and that the appropriate
it was issued. A SpeciaJ Certificate of Airworthiness airworthiness entries and certifications have been
may be issued in any one of the following classifi­ made. Remember that irregularities in the journey log
cations: provisionaJ, restricted, amateur built, or lim- may invalidate the Certificate of Airworthiness. Close
 Aircraft Documentation 25

scrutiny of the journey log wiJJ assist the pilot in an Aircraft Flight Manual for the type and model to
determining whether the aircraft is legal and safe to be flown is published, it is strongly recommended that
fly. Certain companies, including many flight training it be carried at all times.
units, have been authorized to conduct specific types
of flights without having to carry journey logs. Com­
panies affected by this authorization have a letter from Other Documents
Transport Canada outlining the conditions under
which the journey log need not be carried. It i.s rec­ Weight and Balance. The specific weight and bal­
ommended that copies of that letter be on board the ance documents for the aircraft should be carried on
aircraft in the event of inspection by a Transport Can­ board, especially when landing away from the pilot's
ada delegated official. If in doubt about whether the home base.
journey log must be on board, check with the operator
before taking the aircraft.
Annual Airworthiness Information Report. A per­
Entries in the journey log shall be made in ink by
sonalized Annual Airworthiness Information Report is
a competent person, as soon as possible after the
sent to each registered aircraft owner normally five to
events occur. Should an error be made in an entry, do
six weeks in advance of the anniversary of the last
not erase or alter the entry. Draw a single line through
issued Certificate of Airworthiness or Flight Permit.
the full length of the incorrect entry, initial it, and
The aircraft owner shaU complete the annual report
insert the correct entry in the next space. No person
by entering aJI data required and certifying that the
shall tear or remove any leaf from the Jog, or otherwise
information supplied is correct.
deface or destroy the log.
Submission of the annual report is mandatory,
Every aircraft owner shall nonnally preserve each
regardless of whether or not the Certificate of Air­
journey log maintained for a period of not less than
worthiness or Flight Permit is being renewed. It wiJl
one year after the date of the last entry in the log. The
not, however, cause the reinstatement of a previously
owner shall also, on the first page of every log taken
expired or out-of-force Certificate of Airworthiness or
into use to replace another log, make entries from the
Flight Permit.
preceding volume necessary to ensure that an unbroken
One copy of the Annual Airworthiness Information
chronological record is maintained.
Report is retained with the Certificate of Airworthi­
When making entries, it is important to differenti­
ness or Flight Permit.
ate between flight time and air time. Flight time is the
total period of time f rom the moment the aircraft first
moves under its own power for the purpose of taking Interception Procedures. Every person operating an
off until the moment it comes to rest at the end of the aircraft in Canadian airspace should understand the
flight. Air time is the time elapsed between the aircraft procedures for interception and visual signals. lt is
leaving the surface on take-off and touching the sur­ recommended a copy of these procedures be carried
face again on landing. on board the aircraft. These can be found in Part VI
of the Canadian Aviation. Regulations, the Search
and Rescue section of the Aeronautical Information
Liability Insurance. AU Canadian aircraft, whether
Publication (A.LP.) Canada, or the Canada Flight
privately or commerciaUy registered, are required to
Supplement.
carry liability insurance. Privately registered aircraft
must carry proof of insurance coverage on board dur­
ing flight. Aircraft Technical Log. Every aeroplane must have a
Technical Log in which the overhaul and maintenance
history of the aircraft's airframe, engine, propeller,
Aircraft Flight Manual. Information contained in
components, and installations and modifications is
this manual may be required by the pilot during the
recorded.
flight. Aircraft manufactured prior to the requirement
for flight manuals may not be equipped with this doc­
ument. In such cases the aircraft operating limitations Pilot Log-book. You must maintain a pilot log-book
must be conspicuously placarded in the aircraft. To be of recognized form, with accurate, legible, certified
considered airworthy, some aircraft require that the entries. A personal log-book is a requirement for proof
Aircraft Flight Manual be carried as part of the doc­ of experience for the issue of licences and endorse­
umentation. Whether this requirement exists or not, if ments throughout a pilot's career.
CHAPTER FIVE

Airport Operations

An aerodrome means any area of land, water (includ­ a field condition report if you have any concerns,
ing the frozen surface thereof), or other supporting especially when winter airport maintenance is being
surlace used, designed, prepared, equipped or set apart carried out.
for u e either in whole or in part for the taking off,
landing, surface manoeuvring, or ervicing of aircraft.
In Canada there are two classes of aerodromes: aer­
odromes that are not certified as airports; and aero­ Runway Conditions
dromes that are certified as airports. Those certified
as airports must be maintained and operated in accor­
dance with applicable Transport Canada standard Snow, slush, or standing water on a paved runway can
Aerodromes Ii ted in the Canada Flight Supple­ seriously degrade take-off performance. The length of
ment (CFS) that are not certified as airports are calJed grass or crops, gravel, roughness of the surface, or
Iegistered aerodrome . Before using them, pilots mud on any unprepared area selected for take-off can
should obtain current information on the aerodiome also greatly affect aircraft performance. Aircraft Flight
condition from the owner or operator. Where use of Manual often give an approxjmation of the increase
an aerodrome requires prior permission from the in take-off length under some of the e conditions. Due
owner or operator the designator "PPR" is hown in to the variables involved, such as depth of snow no
the Canada Flight Supplement. However, in an emer­ one figure can be applied to alJ itaations.
gency any airport or aerodrome may be used. Pilots must take great care in assessing their own
capabilities and the capabilities of their aircraft wben
deciding whether to attempt a take-off under any one
or combination of these conditions. It is recommended
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM): Field Condition that pilots select a reject point somewhere along the
Reports take-off path. If the aircraft ha not lifted off by this
point, tbe pilot should throttle back and stop. The
At many airports, the NOTAM office provides OTAM reject point should take into con ideration adequate
and NOTAM summaries concerning operations that room to stop if required to do so and al o the clear­
may affect an aircraft in f light at or in the vicinity of ance of obstacles off the departure end once airborne.
certain airport Pilot will often walk the runway to check it before
These OTAMs also conta in field condition report making a ·final decision. If in doubt, don't go!
on various airports and should be reviewed very care­ When landing at an unfamiliar location, it is impor­
fully by pilots prior to carrying out local or cross­ tant to obtain prior information concerning the con­
country flights. Usually the airport NOTAM office is dition of tbe runway or landing area. A couple of
located in or adjacent to the Flight Service Station inches of snow could be enough to put an aircraft on
(Fss). Transport Canada' flight information publica­ it nose or its back. Ice or tanding water could cause
tion, the Canada Flight Supplement provides infor­ the aircraft to have reduced or no braking action
mation on those aerodromes where NOTAM service can which could be disastrous if the length of the landing
be obtained and the telephone number of the operator area is short. Prior information may not be available
where applicable. or perhap conditions changed en route. Upon arrival
When approaching an airport to land never hesitate it i� extremely important that the pilot check the land­
to ask the control tower (or Flight Service Station) for ing area carefully to determine its suitability. The pilot
26
 Airport Operations 27

mu t b prepared to divert I here if it i doubtful Taxi a centre-line marking and holding-point

that a landing can be accompli bed. Thi contingen marking are readily dj • • om runwa mark-
•
hould be included in the pre-flight planning. . The colour u ed tead of white and
L are a relati el f 6 inch . Tax.i-
holding-point m j t of olid and bro-
Surface Winds ken • th • holding bay parallel
to th 1g. .
ntrol to ers and Flight rvice tations broadc l
urfa winds for the airpon wh the are located, in
kn and in degrees magnetic. ll a Flight Serv ice
talion providing a Remote rodrome Ad i or
er ice (RAAS through a Remote mmunications
utlet CO wiJJ broadca l urface wind in knot
and d gree. magnetic. At site thee than the airport
wher the Flight Service talion i, .located or provid­
ing Remote Aerodrome Advi ry ervice, winds are
given in degree true.

Wind Direction Indicator

t aerodrome that do not ha prepared runway
the ind direction indicator i uall mounted on r
near me conspicuou building ociated \ ·th th
a rodrome or th general aircraft parking area.
ind direction indicat ma be l ated near both Figure 1-24 Ta.xi Holding Position
with barter
the wind directi n indi ator ill be central}
lo ated to be i ibl fr m approaches and the Taxi Holding Positions
ircraft parking area. For night peration the ind
dir tion indicator will be lighted. Taxi holding po ition are e tabli bed at man airports
t erodrome certified by Tran port Canada for but at airports wher th ha e not been e tabH h d
publk u e a dry tandard win direction indicat r an aircraft bould be held at I a l 200 feet (61 m tr
will react to wind speed a foll w : from the edge of the runway in use. Where thi i not
po ible, aircraft hould b held at a di tance that doe
not create a hazard to arriving or departing aircraft.
Wind Speed Wind Indicator Angle
15 KT+ Horizontal
10 KT 5 degrees below horizontal Runway Button
6 KT 30 degrees below horizontal
Th term bunon • has n fficiaJ definition. It n r­
maJL mean th point at th end of a runway \ here
1 ther aerodrome . n n- tandard ind indi at r an aircraft i po itioned f; r take-off with the intention
'Y t m ma be in us that uld rea t different] to of having the full length f Lb runway available.
wind peed.

Runway Numbering
Manoeuvring Surfaces
Rum are numbered a rdino to their direction.
n aircraft hould not be operat d o the aircraft man­ run ay running east and e t ould be called run-
u ring urfa e at a c ncr lied airport without a a 09-27. Th e numb repr ent the bearing f
cl arance to do o from th c ntr I tower. Even if the 090 and 70 degr with the I t di 0 it remo ed. Th
aircraft i being moved � r purpo e other than intend­ number near t the e en 10 degree divi ion i u d.
d flight, the control Lower mu t b advi ed by radio, r example a runway b aring 134 degree i num­
t leph ne or other mean . bered 13 at one end and 3 .I at th other. If an aircraft i
28 Airport Operations

aligned with runway 14, the compass should indicate on the approach side, one following the other on the
a beading between 135 and 144 degrees. former centre-line, leading up to and pointing toward
the new runway threshold.

Runway Threshold Markings

Centre-Line Markings
The markings for runway thresholds consist of lines
across the width of the runway at the threshold ends Centre-line markings of a runway are useful both as
parallel with the runway centre Une. a directional guide and as an aid to depth perception
The threshold of a runway may be temporarily or because of the "broken" line presentation. The marks
permanently displaced to take a poor surface out of are 100 feet long and longitudinally spaced 100 feet
service or to bring the runway within zoning stan­ apart at airports under Transport Canada's jurisdiction.
dards. Under certain conditions you may be tempted
to land before the displacement marking because the
displaced part may look reasonably serviceable. Avoid Responsibility
this. The area may not receive regular maintenance
and could contain hazards not readily visible, especially Whether an airport is controlled or uncontrolled, noth­
during the winter when windrows of snow may be left ing reli.eves the pilot-in-command of the responsibility
by snow-ploughs. for exercising good judgement and adhering to the
rules of the air when an aircraft is being manoeuvred
The markings that indicate a temporarily displaced on or in the vicinity of an airport. A t a controlled
threshold consist of a white line placed across the airport, air traffic control will provide assistance to
width of the runway to indicate its new end, and four increase the safety of the operation, but the pilot-in­
white arrowheads equally spaced across the width of command must never assume that operation of the air­
the runway on the approach side of the runway end craft is handed over to that agency. For example, when
with their points indicating the new threshold. A per­ a tower controller clears an aircraft across a runway
manently displaced threshold will have a white line or through any active area, the pilot-in-command must
across the width of the runway and two white arrows still check that there are no hazards before proceeding.
CHAPTER SIX

Weather Considerations

Encountering Weather Below VFR Pilots shouJd ass s their abilities and the capabil­
itie of their aircraft very carefully before intentionally
Conditions flying in special VFR conditions. Remember weather
is never a constant and can change quickly.
lf you are qualified for flight under the Visual Flight
Rule VFR only plan your fli ht o that there i no
ri k of encountering weather b I w the e conditions. White-out
Howe er aJway ha e an alternate plan bou-1d the
w ath r deteriorate. ormaJly the b t plan is an early ach winter th re are a number of aircraft a ciden
I O d gree turn to fl back into better eatheL Wben as a re ult of pilo flying into white-out condition
no alternate appears availabl and the eather contin- and becoming di orient d du to reduced • ibility
u to deteriorate, contact . Th y will do aJJ thal i the la k of distinguishable featu on the ground, and
p ible to: th lo of a vi ual horizon. The caus and effect f
th phenomenon known bite-out may be described
I. Pr ide information con ming an alternate route a follo
and radar navigation a i lance if thi will enabl
th flight to be continued in R weather condi­
tion • or er a t White-oat A pr duct of a uniform layer f
2. If the above action is not practicable pro id radar cloud over a snow- o er d urface. The ray from th
navigation or radar approach guidance. If you ha e un are scattered and diffu d as they pas through
any doubt about the afety of your flight, don t the cloud and are then refle ted by the snow surface
allow a doubtful situation to develop into a bad one. in all directions. As a re ult the space between the
Declare an emergency. ground and cloud appears to be filled with a diffused
light with a uniform white glow. Depth perception
i completely lacking as the ky blends impercepti­
Special VFR bly with the ground at the horizon line, cau iog
di orientation.
When weather conditions ar b low VFR minima pe­
cial R flight in a C nlr I Z n may be authorized
b the appropriate TC unit ubject to current or anti - ater Fog White-out. Pr duced by the clou con­
ipated Instrument Flight Rul I R traffic. taining supercooled ater cir pie with tbe cloud ba c
AT unit cann t ug t peciaJ VFR to a pilot ually in conta t with th old now urfa e. 1-
lf th controller or Flight tation operat r bility both horizontall and rtically i affected by the
indicate that the eath r i belo VFR, it becom ize and distribution of the water droplet u p oded
th poosibility of the pil l to requ t special VFR. in th air.
uthorization is nonnally obtain d through the local
tower or fJjght ervic tation and mu t b obtained ing no White-out Produced by fine blo ing
prior l op rating in or entering a ontrol Zone. lt no plucked from the n urface and uspended
do not relieve pilot from th respon ibility of avoid­ in the air by winds of 20 KT or more. The u pend d
ing other aircraft ob truction , or weather condition grain of now reflect and diffu e unlight and r duce
b y nd their capabiliti vi ibility.

29
30 Weather Considerations

Precipitation White-out. Although all falling snow of light between the snow-covered surface and the
reduces visibility, small .wind-driven snow crystals cloud base is further complicated by the spectral
falling from low clouds above which the sun is shining reflection from the snowflakes and the obscuring of
produce a white-out condition. The multiple reflection the landmarks by the falling snow.
PARTTWO

AIR EXERCISES
EXERCISE ONE

Familiarization

The first flight will involve very little formal instruc­ in future flight training exercises.
tion. You will occupy the seat from which you will Do not hesitate to ask questions. The instructor's
subsequently fly the aircraft. Your role as student will voice must be completely audible and understandable·
be mainly that of an observer. This flight will begin if it is not, say so.
to accustom you to the sensation of flying and to the The flight instructor will point out readily identi­
appearance of the countryside from the air. Your flight fiable local landmarks and explain their orientation to
instructor may also include Exercise 4, "Taxiing;' and the airport. The function of various flight instruments
Exercise 5, "Attitudes and Movements." will also be explained, and from time to time you may
The first flight may be an entirely new experience. be asked to state the altitude and the speed of the
Remember, what looks complicated and difficult at aeroplane.
this time will become less so as your flight training You will also be given the responsibility to assist
progresses. in looking out for other aircraft that may be in the
You may be asked to keep your hands lightly on vicinity. These aircraft could be in any position rela­
the controls and your feet lightly on the rudder pedals. tive to you and flying in any direction. Their position
The instructor will emphasize that only small, smooth should be passed on immediately to the instructor,
control movements are required to control the aircraft who will decide if any avoiding action is necessary.
and will briefly discuss the procedures to be followed

33
EXERCISE TWO

Aircraft Familiarization and

Preparation for Flight

This exercise begins with the flight instructor As the names imply, they provide the aircraft with
acquainting you with the type of aircraft to be used stability in certain planes of movement.
during the training period. The main components of
the aircraft will be pointed out and the function of each Ailerons, Elevators, and Rudder. These are movable
carefully explained. For example: aerofoil surfaces, which enable the piJot to manoeuvre
and control the aircraft in flight.
The ailerons are positioned on hinges toward the
Wings. The wings provide the lift required to make outer ends of the wings· one moves up as the other
the aeroplane fly by obtaining a useful reaction from moves down when the control column is moved from
the air through which the wing moves. side to side. They are used to control bank in flight.
The elevators are hinged to the trailing edge of the
Fuselage. This is the main body of the aircraft. It is horizontal stabilizer and are moved up or down when
what is left if the wings, engine landing gear and tail the control column is moved backward or forward. They
surfaces are removed. are used to pitch the aeroplane up or down in ilight.
The rudder is hinged to the trailing edge of the
TaH Surfaces. These may be separated into horizon­ vertical stabili.zer and i linked to the rudder pedals.
taJ stabilizer (tail plane) and vertical stabilizer (fin). The pilot controls yaw by means of the rudder.

19

1 Propeller Spinner
2 Propeller
3 Engine cowling
4 Nosewheel 9
5 Main landing gear
6 Leading edge of wing
7 Wing tip
8 Left position light (red)
9 Right position light (green)
10 Rear position light (white)
11 Fuselage
12 Aileron
13 Flap
14 Wing root
15 Horizontal stabilizer
16 Vertical stabilizer (fin)
17 Rudder
18 Elevator
19 Anti-collision light 8

Figure 2-1 Major Components of an Aircraft

34
 Aircraft Familiarization and Preparation for Flight 35

Landing Gear. The function of this component Flight Instruments

requires little explanation, other than that it includes
at least the supporting struts, wheels, tires, and any Airspeed Indicator. This instrument indicates the
springs or other devices to absorb shocks due to une­ aircraft's speed through the air. It relates only indi­
ven terrain or landing impact. Floats and skis are rectly to the speed of the aircraft over the ground. It
components of other types of landing gear. may indicate speed in miles per hour (mph) or knots
(KT). Knots are nautical miles per hour.
Flaps. These are movable surfaces forming part of
the wing and are mounted at or near the trailing edge,
between the wing root and the ailerons. They extend Altimeter. This is a pressure sensitive instrument
and retract together and increase or decrease the effec­ which, if properly set, indicates the height at which
tive lift of the wing by altering its camber and in some the aircraft is flying. The customary procedure is to
cases the area. They are controlled by the pilot. set the instrument so that it indicates height above
mean sea level. When the aircraft is on the ground,
the indication on the atimeter
l
will be that of the ele­
Trim Tabs. These are small ancillary aerofoils hinged vation of the aerodrome.
to the elevators and, in some aircraft., to the ailerons
and rudder. They help the pilot by reducing control
pressures induced by changing flight attitudes. Turn-and-Bank indicator. The needle portion of this
instrument indicates whether the aircraft is turning,
Flight Controls. These consist of the control column together with the direction and rate of tum. The ball
and the rudder pedals. The control column may con­ portion of the instrument is fundamentally a reference
sist of a wheel arrangement or a strai. ght "stick." for co-ordination of controls. In all co-ordinated flight
Rotate the wheel (or move the stick) to the left, and the balJ will be centred in its curved glass tube. Instead
the left aileron moves up while the right aileron moves of a turn-and-bank indicator, the aircraft may be
down; rotate the wheel (or move the stick) to the right, equipped with a tum co-ordinator, which provides basi­
and the right aileron moves up while the left aileron cally the same information, but with a different display.
moves down. Push the left rudder pedal, and the rud­
der moves to the left; push the right rudder pedal, and
the rudder moves to the right The rudder pedals may Magnetic Compass. This is the basic reference for
also be used to "steer"' the aircraft on the ground by heading information. The compass points toward the
means of a steerable nose wheel or tail wheel; pushing magnetic north pole, but it is susceptible to certain
the left rudder pedal turns the aircraft to the left, and errors such as oscillations in turbulence and incorrect
vice versa. readings during turns or when influenced by other
magnetic attractions. These errors are explained in
Throttle. This is the power control. To increase Exercise 6, "Straight-and-Level Flight."
power, move the throttle forward; to decrease power,
move the throttle back Most throttle arrangements
include a device for increasing or decreasing tension Heading Indicator. This gyroscopic instrument bas
on the throttle so that the power setting does not no magnetic qualities of its own and, therefore, must
change when your band is removed from the throttle. be set periodically by reference to the magnetic com­
pass. Its main asset is that it provides a stable direc­
Ancillary Controls. These comprise the mixture tional reference, and (unlike the magnetic compass) is
control and carburettor heat control (see Exercise 3, relatively free of error during turns, acceleration, and
"Ancillary Controls"). deceleration in noonal flight manoeuvres.

Environmental Controls. These are normally the Attitude Indicator. This gyroscopic instrument is an
windshield defogger, and the heating and ventilation artificial horizon. The miniature aircraft superimposed
controls (see Exercise 3, "Environmental Controls"). on its face enables the pilot to determine the aircraft's
attitude relative to the real horizon.
instrument Panel. The instrument layout directly in
front of the pilot is called the instrument panel. The
instruments may be divided into three categories: Vertical Speed Indicator. Tbjs pressure sensitive
flight instruments, engine instruments, and navigation instrument indicates the rate at which the aircraft is
instnnnents. climbing or descending, in feet per minute.
36 Aircraft Familiarization and Preparation for Flight

Outside Air Temperature Gauge. This is not a flight increase in RPM. As the throttle is eased back, the
instrument, but it is a valuable aid to flight safety opposite effect is achieved.
since its indjcations can belp the pilot assess tbe pos­
sibility of icing conditions, including carburettor ice. Oil Pressure Gauge. This vitally important instru­
The instrument usually registers outside air tempera­ ment registers, usually in pounds per square inch, the
ture in both degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Celsius. pressure of the lubricating oil being supplied to the
engine. Refer to the Aircraft Flight Manual for limits
and recommended pressures during particular phases
Engine Instruments of engine operation.

Tachometer. This instrument indicates the speed at Oil Temperature Gauge. This gauge indicates the
which the engine crankshaft is rotating in revolutions temperature of the engine lubricating oil. It reacts by
per minute (RPM). In aircraft with a fixed pitch pro­ showing rugher than normal temperatures if the oil
peller, RPM is directly related to power. As the throttle pressure system malfunctions or if engine cooling is
is eased forward, the tachometer will indicate an inadequate.

Airspeed indicator Attitude indicator Altimeter

Turn-and-bank indicator Heading indicator Vertical speed indicator

Magnetic compass Turn co-ordinator

Figure 2-2 Basic Flight Instruments
 Aircraft Familiarization and Preparation for Flight 37
Manifold Pressure Gauge. This instrument indicates Ignition System
the pressure in the intake manifold of the engine,
which relates to the pressure developed for any given The engine ignition system uses magnetos for its elec­
condition of throttle setting and RPM. It is mainly used trical power source. As an added safety feature, each
on aircraft equipped with a constant speed propeller. engine bas two magnetos, and each cyHnder bas two
This instrument is cajjbrated in inches of mercury. spark plugs firing simultaneously. Should a magneto
fail in flight the engine will run quite satisfactorily
on the one remaining, with only a slight loss of power.
Navigation Instruments
voR (Very High Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Communications System
Range) Receiver Display and Control Unit. This
instrument permits an aircraft to track to or from a The air-to-ground communications system usually con­
VOR ground station on any track the pilot selects. sists of a two-way radio operating on VHF. Although
two-way, it is not simultaneous like a telephone. The
ADF (Automatic Direction-Finder). The ADF display pilot presses a button on the microphone to talk, and
includes a pointer (often referred to as the "needle") during this period all other nearby transmitters and
that points in the direction of any suitable ground radio receivers on the same frequency are jammed. The
station tuned into the ADF receiver by the pilot. pilot must release the microphone button after the
transmission to receive a reply. Transmissions must be
short and to the point.
OPS (Global Positioning System) Receiver. By utiliz­
ing information received from GPS satellites, the GPS
receiver displays accurate position information allow­
ing an aircraft to fly a direct track to any point on the
Earth. The receiver can also calculate a variety of
Flight Preparation
navigation solutions. such as, grouodspeed, track. and
time to destination. It is good practice to take all the charts and publi­
cations required for the proper navigation of the flight
o VFR flight should leave the ground, regardless of
Fuel System bow short its duration, without current aeronautical
charts on board covering the area in which the flight
The fuel system of the average training aircraft is rel­ will be conducted.
atively simple, but the fact that the fuel supply to the After releasing the aircraft tie-downs, ensure that
engine is under the pilot's control requires that it be the following actions are carried out:
understood thoroughly. The fuel system must be man­
aged as outlined in the Aircraft: Flight Manual. I. Remove exterior flight control locks, where
applicable.
2. Remove pitot tube cover.
Electrical System 3. Remove wheel chocks.
4. Free flight controls of any locking or securing
TI1e electrical system of a light aircraft is not a great system in the cockpit.
deal different in principle from that of an automobile:
there is a generator or alternator, a starter, a battery, The pre-flight external line check, often referred to as
a voltage regulator, an ammeter, and various switches the "walk around," determines from the pilot's point
for carrying out routine functions. of view that the aircraft is serviceable and that it bas
sufficient fuel and oil for the intended fligbL A rec­
Master Switch. When the master switch is turned on, ommended line check is included in most Aircraft
it connects the battery to the electrical system. Elec­ fJjght Manuals.
trical power is required to operate specific instruments Your first impression of an aircraft cockpit may be
and equipment and is also used ro start the engine. that it is cramped and complex. This impression will
Once the engine is started, it runs independently from quickly disappear as you learn the proper method of
the electrical system, requiring only the magnetos entering the cockpit and adjusting the seat and con­
for its operation. If the master switch is turned off, trols. Once comfortably seated, fasten the seat-belt
you will lose all electrically powered instruments and and shoulder harness and learn bow to adjust and
equipment, but the engine will continue to run. release them. Fastening the seat-belt and shoulder
38 Aircraft Familiarization and Preparation for Flight

harness as soon as possible after you are seated in the Parking

cockpit is a habit to acquire immediately.
In a seaplane operation, the practice concerning Carefully select the surface upon which to park or stop
seat-belts and shoulder harnesses is slightly different. an aircraft. Avoid icy surfaces, since the wind exerts
It is considered good seaplane practice to delay fas­ considerable force upon an aircraft and may move it
tening seat-belts and shoulder harnesses until ready for even though the brakes are securely applied. During
take-off and to release them when the aircraft reaches engine start or run-up, the wheels must not be on a
the taxiing mode following a landing. slippery surface, otherwise the aircraft may move for­
The flight instructor will explain the opening and ward against its brakes. When parking the aircraft
proper securing of doors, panels, and windows. Cabin make sure it is left on firm ground, otherwise it may
and baggage door latches used on most small aircraft settle and subsequently prove very difficult to move
do not provide a conspicuous visual indication that under its own power.
a door is not secure, nor are such aircraft usually If for any reason the brakes have been used a lot,
equipped with a "door open" warning device in the the braking system may have been overheated. Should
cockpit. Therefore, if a pilot becomes distracted or is the parking brake be applied immediately under these
otherwise inattentive when performing the pre-flight circumstances, the brakes may self-release when the
checks, an unsecured door can be overlooked. The system cools. When overheated brakes are suspected,
unexpected opening of a door, window, or panel dur­ allow a suitable time interval for cooling to take place
ing any phase of flight can be very disconcerting due before you apply the parking brake, or chock the two
to noise and airframe buffeting. In some aircraft, con­ main wheels, both ahead and behind each wheel, before
trol may be affected by increased drag, loss of lift, leaving the aircraft.
and adverse aircraft stability. (See Exercise 29.) When an aeroplane is parked for any length of
The aircraft should be positioned so that the pro­ time, or if high winds exist or are forecast, it should
peller slipstream does not present a hazard or nuisance be tied down. Tie-downs consist of appropriate lengths
to others when the engine is started or during the sub­ of rope or nylon Jjne attached to weights, pickets, or
sequent engine run-up. It is discourteous and thought­ other devices on or in the ground, with which the air­
less to start an engine with the tail of the aircraft craft may be securely tied. The correct way to tie down
pointed toward a hangar door, parked aircraft or auto­ a specific aeroplane is usually outlined in the Aircraft's
mobiles, or a crowd of spectators. The ground or sur­ Flight Manual.
face under the propeller should be firm, smooth turf In addition to the tie-down, the aircraft being parked
or concrete if possible, so that the propeller slipstream should also be secured as follows:
does not pick up pebbles, dirt, mud, or other loose
particles and burl them backward, damaging not only
the rear portions of the aircraft but often the propeller 1. Secure flight controls in. cockpit.
itself. Avoid blocking a taxiway. 2. Set the parking brake. For additional security, place
Before starting the engine, make a geographic wheel chocks ahead and behind each main wheel.
check of all items in the cockpit, and then do a pre­ 3. Install the pi tot tube cover.
start check. These checks are very important. For 4. Install the exterior control locks, where applicable.
example, if the brakes are not on and secure when the
engine starts, the aircraft may move forward unex­
pectedly. Starting the engine with the carburettor heat
on can damage the carburettor beat system should the
engine backfire. The battery may become discharged
Surface Contamination
should you vainly attempt to start the engine with the
mixture control in the idle cut-off position or with the Never attempt to take off with any frost, ice, snow, or
fuel selector valve in the "off" position. other such contaminants on any of the critical sur­
Your flight instructor will show you the procedures faces. Critical surfaces are the wings, control surfaces,
that apply to your own aircraft. The pre-take-off propellers, upper surface of the fuselage on aircraft
checks are carried out as specified in the Aircraft that have rear mounted engines, horizontal stabilizers,
Flight Manual. One item :important to remember is vertical stabilizers, or any other stabilizing surface of
that if there is to be a change in fuel tanks before an aircraft. Even a minute film of ice or frost can
take-off, make it before the engine run-up. Then, if seriously reduce the lift qualities of an. aerofoil. It has
a fuel malfunction exists, it will show up before been demonstrated that contamination having the
take-off. thickness and roughness of medium to coarse sand­
paper can reduce lift by as much as 30 percent and
increase drag by 40 percent. Insofar as frost, ice, or
 Aircraft Familiarization and Preparation for Flight 39

snow on other parts of the aircraft are concerned, survival. Due to the varying climate and terrain of a
consideration must be given to the additional load and country as vast as Canada it is difficult to specify all
the possibility of the controls becoming jammed due requirements; however, you can use as a guide the
to chunks dislodging or the refreezing of melting equipment and clothing listed under the following
precipitation. subject headings in Transport Canada's Aeronautical
Removal of the contaminant by cleaning or de-icing Jnfonnation Publication: "Sparsely Settled Areas;'
can be accomplished in many ways; using squeegees, "ELT (Emergency Locator Transmitter);' "Life-Saving
a
brushes, brooms, etc., or by using approved de-icing Equ_ipment," and "Single-Engine Aircrft Operating
a
fluids contining various mixtures of hot water and in Northern Canada:'
glycol depending on the condjtions.
De-icing fluids with higher concentrations of glycol
may provide some protection against refreezing, but
do not provide much protection against further accu­ Emergency Locator Transmitter
mulation. Accumulations of mud can be removed
through washing. In winter conditions, care must be (ELT)
taken to ensure that the water used does not result in
a covering of ice. An ELT is a unit carried on board an aircraft which,
Only close inspection can determine if an aircraft when activated, transmits a distinctive audible signal on
is clean, and the inspection should be performed just the emergency frequencies of l 21.5 megahertz (MHz)
prior to take-off if there is a possibility that the aircraft and 243.0 kilohertz (KHz). This enables search and
may be contaminated. In some cases while taxiing, rescue personnel to quickly locate downed aircraft.
water, snow, and mud could be thrown up onto the As there are many types on the market, you should
wings and tail surfaces by the wheels, propeller(s), or be familiar with how to operate the ELT in the aircraft
other aircraft. If the pilot cannot confirm that the air­ you are flying. Details on the need to carry an ELT
craft is clean, the take-off must not be attempted. It and its testing and use may be found in the Search
is the ultimate responsibility of the pilot-in-command and Rescue section of the Aeronautical Information
to ensure that the aircraft is in a condition for safe Publication.
flight.

Passenger Safety Briefing

Survival Equipment and Clothing
lf you are carrying passengers, a safety briefing is
Because the average light aircraft is as comfortable essential. Tuey should know about the use of seat­
and warm as an automobile, there may be a temptation belts and shoulder harnesses, smoking limitations, and
to treat the need for proper clothing and survival how the doors work. They should know what actions
equipment too lightly. Should you be forced to make to expect in the event of an emergency landing. To be
an unscheduled landing, there is every possibility that prepared for this, they must know the location and use
the landing site will be in a remote or isolated area of emergency exits, the ELT, the fire extinguisher, the
where wannth and shelter are not immediately at first-aid kit, and other items for use in an emergency.
hand. Proper clothing and equipment at such a time Items specific to the aircraft being used (e.g. life vests)
are essential to your welfare, perhaps even to your must be included in the briefing.
EXERCISE THREE

Ancillary Controls

Although the usua] definition of ancillary is "subor­ To engine

dinate to" or 'auxili ary;' ancillary controls are vital
to the safe and comfortable operation of an aircraft.
The ancillary controls to be discussed here are the
carburettor heat control, the mixture control, and the
environmental controls.

Carburettor Heat Control

Icing
Under certain moist (and "moist" is a key word)
atmospheric conditions, with air temperatures ranging
anywhere from -13 °C to +38 °C, it is possible for ice
to form in the induction system (Fig. 2-3). The rapid
cooling in the induction system using a float type car­
burettor is caused by the absorption of heat from the
air during vaporizati.on of the fuel and is also due in
part to the high expansion of air through the carbu­
rettor venturi. As a result of the latter two influences,
the temperature in the venturi may drop as much as
21 °C below the temperature of the incoming air. lf
this air contain a large amount of moi ture, the cool­
Incoming air
ing process can cause precipitation in the form of ice,
which may build up to such an extent that a drop in
power output results and if not corrected may cause
complete engine stoppage. Indications of icing to the Figure 2-3 Carburettor Icing
pilot are a loss of RPM with a fixed pitch propelJer,
and a loss of manifold pressure with a constant speed
propeller together with the accompanying airspeed to form use the "fuJI hot" po ition long enough to
loss and engine roughness with both types. be sure of eliminating the ice. Using full heat will
To counteract the formation of carburettor ice, an injtiaJly cause a loss of power and possible engine
aircraft is equipped with a controllable system for pre­ roughness. Heated air directed into the induction ys­
heating the air before it enters the carburettor. tem will melt the ice, which goes through the engine
as water, causing some of the roughness and more
Carburettor Heat power loss. Despite this temporary roughness and
power loss, a pilot is not damaging the engine at a
Always anticipate possible icing and use carburettor cruise power of 75 percent or less with any amount
heat before the ice forms. However, should ice begin of heat.
40
 Ancillary Controls 41

When u ing carburettor heat there are related fac­ I. Start the engin with the carburettor beat control
tor to remember. The engine lo e an average of 9 io the cold p ition to avoid damage to the car­
p rcent of it p wer when full heat i applied due to bur ttor heat y tern.
the redu d lumetric efficiency of heated air and 2. h n relati e humidity i high and the um.mer
lo of the ram air featur . arbur ttor beat al o cre­ ambient temp rature i below 28 °C use carburettor
ate a richer mi cure, which may cause the engine to heat immediately before take-off. lo gen ral car­
run r ugh parti ularly in th full hot po ition. If there bur tt r h at h uld not be used while taxiing
i any thr ttl a ailable, bring the power up to the becau e in th 'on' po ition intake air u ually
form r RP etting th n lean out and readju t tile byp e the arburettor air filter.
mixture until th ngine run smoothly again. Read­ oid u ing carburettor beat during take-off in
ju t lb m • ture ub equent throttle and carburettor it may cau d tonatioo and po ible engine damage.
heat change ar mad . c ption to thi might be in ery lo temp r­
t lo p r h in th traffic pattern it ma hicb cal I for spe ial procedw
not be practical to lean the mixture.
Carburettor icing ma be controlled or a aided by
adopting th fi II wing pra ti

CARB ICING
CAUTION - chart not valid when operating on MOGAS
The curves encompass conditions known to be
favourable for carburettor icing. The severity of
this problem varies with different types but these Moderate icing a ects cruise
curves are a guide lor the typical light aircraft. power; serious icing
Caution: Light icing over a prolonged period affects glide power
may become serious. When you receive a
weather briefing, note the temperature and dew
point and consult this chart.
, Due to its higher volatli1ty. MOGAS 1s more
susceptible to the formation of carb icing In severe cases. ice
may form at OATs up to 20 C higher than with AVGAS

Serious Icing affects any power

Dew point
Serious lcing affects ("C)
glide power

-----�----......._________._______......_____..________, -20°
-20° -10" 10" 400 20° 30"
Ambien temperature ("C)

Figure 2-4 Carburettor Icing Graph

42 Ancillmy Controls

4. Remain alert after take-off for indications of car­ 9. During descents when carburettor icing is present
burettor icing, especially when visible moisture is or suspected, apply full carburettor heat and peri­
present. odically apply sufficient power so that enough
5. With a carburettor air temperature gauge, partial engine beat is produced to prevent or disperse ice.
carburettor heat should be used a necessary to This is a general rule for many aircraft. Consult
maintain safe temperatures to forestall icing. With­ the Aircraft Flight Manual for the procedures in a
out such instrumentation use full heat if you con­ specific aircraft.
sider carburettor heat necessary.
6. When carburettor ice is suspected immediately
The diagram of a carburettor beat system (Fig. 2-5)
apply full heat. Watch for a power loss to indicate shows that when the system is in the ''heat on" mode,
the presence of carburettor heat, then an increase
air entering the carburettor is no longer filtered. This
in power as ice melts.
is the main reason for ensuring that the system is in
7. If carburettor ice persists after a period of full heat,
the "heat off" mode when taxiing. At ground level
gradually increase power to obtain the greatest the air may be laden with airborne particles harmful
amount of carburettor heat.
to the engine if inge ted· at 100 feet above ground
8. Carburettor i.cing can occur with the ambient tem­
level this possibility is almost negligible.
perature as high as +38 ° C and humidity as low as
There is a misconception that it does not matter to
50 percent. Remain especially alert with a combi­
the efficiency of the engine whether the carburettor
nation of ambient temperature below +28 °C and heat is on or off. If this were true, engine manufac­
high relative humidity. The possibility of carburet­
turers would design their engines so that heated air
tor ice decreases (a) in the range below 0°C,
was constantly directed through the carburettor air
because of lessened humidity as the temperature
intake system, to completely eradicate the problem of
decreases, and (b) at around -10 °C because of ice
carburettor icing. But they don t, because the appli­
crystals that pass through the induction system
cation of carburettor heat in standard atmospheric
harmlessly. It should be remembered that if the
conditions will:
intake air does contain ice crystals, carburettor heat
might actually cause carburettor icing by melting
the crystals and raising the moisture laden air to 1. Reduce the maximum power output of the engine.
the icing temperature. 2. Increase fuel consumption.

A Carburettor heat on
B Carburettor heat off Carburettor heat valve

Carburettor heat control

Carburettor air filter

-+Cold air ••--�• Hot air

Exhaust pipe
Figure 2-5 Carburettor Heat System
 A ncilla,y Controls 43

As the ambient temperature decreases, the effect of on the recommended lean mixture setting detailed in
carburettor heat on the efficiency of the engine also the Aircraft Flight Manual.
decreases. Light aircraft engines operated at extremely Many light aircrft
a
pilots place the mixture conrrol
low (winter) ambient temperatures may require the in the "full rich" position prior to a routine desceni
warming influence of carburettor heat to ensrne from altitude. The prime reasons for doing this are to
adequate response to throttle application. ensure that the mixture will not be too lean should
there be a sudden need for power and to guarantee
th.at the control is in the proper position for the
approach to landing. IdeaJJy, the mixture should be
Mixture Control adjusted gradually toward "full rich" as the descent
progresses. An overrich mixture tends to cool an
engine, which is probably already being overcooled
As an aircraft gains altitude, the surrounding air due to the lower power-to-speed ratio of the descent
becomes less dense. Atmospheric pressure of approx­ itself. Prolonged descents with the mixture in the
imately 14.7 pounds per square inch at sea level is "rich" position have been cited by some engine man­
only 10.2 pounds per square inch at 10.000 feet above ufacturers as one of the causes of premature spark
sea level. At altitude, the engine draws a lesser weight plug failure.
of air into its cylinders than it does on the ground. If The correct adjustment of the mixture control and
the weight of the fuel drawn into the cylinders a technical knowledge of how it affects the engine,
remained the same, regardless of altitude, the mixture plus its overall effect on the total aircraft operation
would become too rich at altitude. are most important, especially during cross-country
Since the carburettor of an aircra.ft engine is flights in a varying environment. For example, when
adjusted to give maximum power for take-off, as the the fuel/air mixture is too rich:
aircraft gains height the fuel/air mixture gradually
becomes too rich. This imbalance may be corrected by l. The engine may not develop the rated power.
use of the mixture control, which is a lever or push-pull 2. The engine will run unevenly.
knob with.in easy reach of the pilot. 3. The engine may operate cooler than is desirable.
To obtain the best performance from an engine a 4. Fuel is wasted.
proper fuel/air mixture is important. Unless otherwise 5. There is increased possibility of spark plug fouling.
specified, the customary procedure is to take off and 6. Range is reduced.
climb with the control in the "full rich" position, and
leave it there while operating within the airport traffic On the other hand, when the fuel/air ratio is too lean:
pattern. Within certain bounds an aircraft engine runs
cooler with a rich mixture, and since a power setting
greater than that of normal cruising power generates 1. Power will be lost
much more undesirable heat, the enriched mixture 2. The engine may run roughly and be subject to
contributes to the welfare of the engine. Some Aircraft unnecessary vibration.
Flight Manuals suggest leaving the mixture control 3. The engine may operate hotter than is desirable.
lever in the "full rich" position below specif ic alti­ 4. The engine may be damaged due to detonation.
tudes. Only on rare occasions would mixture control
have to be leaned for take-off and climb, for example Under normal fljgbt conditions, if an aircraft is not
at airports with a very high elevation. Some aero­ equipped with fuel/air ratio instruments. it is best to
dromes on the North American continent have field adjust the mixture so that it is on the rich side.
elevations of over 5,000 feel
Correct procedures for mixture control are outlined
in the Aircraft Flight Manual. However, the generally
accepted procedure for leaning the mixture is to move Environmental Controls
the mixture control slowly toward the "lean" position
until maximum RPM is obtained with a fixed power Windshield Defogger
setting. Then, move the mixture control toward "rich"
until a decrease in RPM is just perceptible. This pro­ At all times the windshield of an aircraft should be
duces optimum power for the throttle setting, with a kept clear and free of anything that will interfere with
slightly rich mixture to prevent overheating, since sus­ forward visibility, not only for control purposes but
tained operation with the mixture too lean can damage also to see outside fixed obstructions and other air
the engine. It is important to note that aircraft per­ traffic clearly. For those aircraft so equipped, the
formance chart fuel flow and range figures are based windshield defogging system will generally keep the
44 Ancillary Controls

windshield clear of interior fogging when the aircraft Heating and Ventilation
is in flight; however, while taxiing or waiting at the
take-off position. or during nm-ups, windshield fog­ The cabin heating arrangement of most training air­
ging may occur. On these occasions, fogging may be craft consists of a controllable system of directing out­
controlled by opening the aircraft door or window side ram air (air entering an air inlet as a result of the
slightly to improve interior air circulation. This pro­ forward motion of the aircraft), through an exhaust
cedure has also been found effective for aircraft with­ manifold beat exchanger and by flexiole tubing into
out windshield defoggers. the cabin area. Many aircraft are also equipped with
Take care to ensure that the door and window are a controllable system for bringing in outside air to
closed and properly latched again before take-off. cool the cabin during hot weather.
EXERCISE FOUR

Taxiing

Taxiing is the generally accepted word for manoeuvr­ Weathercocking. Taxiing a single-engine aircraft
ing an aircraft on either water or land surfaces. The with a tail wheel in moderate to high winds can
prime purpose of taxiing is to manoeuvre the aircraft require effort and skill, due to its tendency to weath­
to the take-off position and return it to the apron after ercock (continually wanting to head into wind). In the
landing. Study the aerodrome chart and the runway case of the aircraft with a nose wheel arrangement the
and taxiway layout of all aerodromes you intend to weathercocking tendency is far less· as a result such
use so that taxiing can be carried out expeditiously aircraft are easier to control and manoeuvre on the
and safely. ground, except under strong wind conditions.
Taxiways are identified by letters and spoken as
Alpha, Bravo, Delta, Echo, etc. Commence Taxiing. More engine power is .required
Part of the taxi clearance that an aircraft could to start an aircraft moving, than to keep it moving.
receive from a control tower might sound like this: The amount depends on several things, but the prin­
" ... the runway in use is two six - cleared to taxi via cipal factor is the degree of firmness of the surface
taxiways Bravo and Echo." This means that you first upon which the aircraft is resting. ln any case the
use taxiway Bravo, then turn onto taxiway Echo. You throttle may have to be used more or less liberally,
must know the taxiway and runway layout in order to but once the aircraft starts to move, power must be
determine the direction of turn from one taxiway to reduced promptly. As soon as the aircraft starts mov­
another. In the above taxi clearance the control tower ing test the brakes by bringing it to a smooth full
bas cleared your aircraft to, but not onto the runway stop. The brakes may not operate perfectly, and it is
in use· you wiJI not have to ask permission to cross important to know just how efficiently they are
working.
other runways. When the tower wants you to report
crossing other runways it will be stated in your taxi
clearance, but tbis does not relieve you of the respon­ Turning. Most light aircraft have steerable nose
sibility of ensuring that other aircraft are not using wheels or tail wheels connected to the rudder system,
these runways before you cross them. and under most circumstances they may be manoeu­
Should you be told to 'hold short" of any partic­ vred on the ground by this feature alone, without
ular spot such as a taxiway, runway, or perhaps a ter­ using brakes to assist turning. To turn the aircraft to
the left, move the left rudder pedal forward; to main­
minal parking gate that portion of the clearance must
tain a straight heading, neutralize the rudder pedals.
be "read back" to the controller.
The amount of rudder pedal action required to
At large, unfamiliar airports, especially those that establish a desired heading varies according to the
use more than one runway simultaneously for take­ radius of turn, the condition of the manoeuvring sur­
offs and landings, taxiing an aircraft in the correct face, and the strength and direction of the wind. Of
direction can be complicated and puzzling. Do not these three the wind has the most influence. In aircraft
hesitate to ask the control tower or ground control for with differential braking systems (a separate brake
guidance if there is any doubt in your mind concern­ system for each main wheel), a turn may be assisted
ing correct procedure. Mention that you are a student by applyi�g a sufficient amount of brake pressure on
pilot or unfamiliar with the airport; you will find Air the same side as the rudder pedal being used to
Traffic Control personnel very co-operative and initiate the turn. Use brakes sparingly and never
helpful. har hly.

45
46 Taxiing

Taxi speed and look-out. It is considered poor prac­

tice to taxi an aircraft with excessive power settings
Use up aileron on Use up aileron on
and then control speed with continual braking. This
LH wing and neutral RH wing and
may lead to overheating of the brakes and reduce their elevator neutral elevator
effectiveness. The lower the speed, the easier it wiJl be
to stop : taxi slowly and remember that there is a slight
interval between the time the pi lot in itiates a change
in speed or direction and the time the change actually
occurs .
It is essential that the view ahead be unobstructed
by the nose of the aircraft; in the case of many tai l
wheel aircraft, i t may therefore b e necessary t o zigzag,
first looking out one side of the aircraft and then the
other, to ascertain that the tax iway is clear.

U e of contro ls while taxiing. When taxiing directly

cross-wind, if the control column is held to the side
from which the wind i s coming, the deflection of the Use down aileron on Use down aileron on
ailerons will help maintain directional control . Various LH wing and down RH wing and down
amounts of rudder will be required to prevent the air­ elevator elevator
craft from turning into the wind and to maintain a
---- Wind direction
constant direction along the taxiway. Wben taxiing into
wind and a right turn is desired, holding the control
Note: Strong quarteri ng tail winds req uire caution:
column to the left will assist the turn (and vice versa).
avoid sudden bursts on the throttle and sharp
Take extra care when taxiing nose wheel aircraft, braking when the aircraft is in this attitude. Use the
particularly those with a high wing, in strong quar­ steerable nose wheel and rudder to maintain
tering tail winds. To understand this term, picture an di rection.
aircraft taxi ing on a heading of say, due north . Any
wind blowing from a southeasterly or a southwesterly Figure 2-6 Taxi ing Diagram
direction would be a quartering tail wind. When tax­
iing in strong quartering tailwinds, the elevators ground depends basically on the wind velocity, the
should be down (control column forward) and the speed at which the aircraft is taxiing, and whether the
aileron on the side from which the wind is blowing, aircraft has a tai J wheel or a nose wheel landing gear
down (Fig. 2-6). As an added precaution, avoid sharp arrangement. Of these three wind velocity is the most
braking and sudden bursts of power. important.
You should realize that some manufacturers of nose Because of the many influencing factors, the air­
wheel aircraft recommend the use of ailerons at var­ craft's response to steering on the ground varies. ln
iance to this method. In all cases the recommendations reasonably still air, steering can be almost as positive
of the manufacturer should be fol lowed. as that of an automobile, but control diffi cu lties
When turning from downwind to upwind (into increase as wind velocity increases. Relatively l ittle
wind), slow down. The inherent tendency for an air­ pressure on the rudder pedal is required to turn an air­
craft to tum into wind, further aggravated by too much craft into wind, but considerable pressure and coarse
forward speed, can introduce an excessive amount of movement may be necessary to turn the ai rcraft out of
centrifugal force. Coupled with top-heaviness, the addi­ wind. In addition, once the aircraft is started into the
tional centrifugal force may cause the aircraft to over­ turn, this pressure may have to be varied to maintain
turn. At the very least it may result in an undesirable the desired radius of turn. It may be necessary under
side force being placed on various components. some c ircumstances, especi a l ly in the case of a tai l
When the manoeuvring area is soft or very rough, wheel aircraft, t o anticipate the need fo r a control action
and more power is being used than would be normal before the requirement for such action becomes evident.
for a firm level surface, it is best to taxi with the For example, when turning into wind you may have
control column held firm ly back, unless the wind to anticipate a need for opposite rudder pressure to
strength and direction dictate otherwise. arrest the turn, so that it does not become too sharp .
Except when the air is sti ll, the amount of foot It is impossible to rule on a specific taxiing speed
pressure that must be applied to a rudder pedal to that will assure safety at all times. The primary
execute a manoeuvre or maintain a heading on the requirement for safe taxiing is complete control of the
 Taxiing 41

aircraft, hich means the ability to op or tum where indicator T&.B attitude indi ator AJ and b ading
and when o essary. The speed hould be slo enough indicator HI for deflection, displacement, and indi­
that hen the throttle i closed the aircraft may b cations as follo
topped promptly. Ho er it is again emphasized that
afe taxiing i directly relat d t wind elocity: th
tronger the wind, the more lowly the aircraft should Taxiing Turning Tumlng
be manoeuvred on the ground. Instrument Straight Left Right
When taxiing on a soft surface, ucb as a muddy T&B Needle Centre Left Right
field or in slu h or snow, maintain speed at a low, T&B Ball Centre Right Left
teady pace, otherwise the aircraft may come to a halt Al Bar Steady Steady Steady
before power can be reapplied. Thj may neces itate HI Degrees Steady Decreasing Increasing
the use of near fuJl power to b gin moving again.
Be ide being bad for the engin thi carries the ri k
of the propeller picking up lump of mud, ice no
etc. damaging i elf or other parts of the aircraft. arshalling. When an aircraft is receiving ou ide
It is poor pra tice to turn or try to turn an aircraft guidance it is being mar. hailed. It is always w· to
by pi oting it about a tationary main wheel through ha e competent outside help hen taxiing on an icy
the use of diffi rential brake. [f differential braking i urface in high winds or in congested areas. The
used to assist a turn. allow the braked wheel to rotate standard tern of marsballin ignals may be found
forward ufficiently to a oid putting a twisting train in Transport Canada's Aeronautical Information Pub­
on the wheel and trut assembly. lication (A.1.P.) Canada.
When starting to taxi, fir: t I t the aircraft roll for­
ward slowly and centre the no e or tail wheel. Ibis
will prevent the possibility of a werve into another Taxiway urtesy. Never block a taxiway unnece -
aircraft or a nearby obstruction. sari.Jy. Lf for ome reason the engine warm-up or run­
up will cau e delays to aircraft behind you, ch o e
ln trument b c . While taxiing in an area clear of ome other convenient place on the rurport to carry
obstacles aod ther aircraft, cbe k the tum-and-bank out the e fun tions.
EXERCISE FIVE

Attitudes and Movements

In this exercise you wiU learn the range of attitudes tones, "You have control? This should be immedi­
through which the aircraft will normally be operated ately acknowledged by the words, '1 have control."
and how the movements necessary to achieve and When ·the flight instructor wishes to take over control
maintain the desired attitudes of flight are produced of the aircraft, the instructor does so and at the same
and controlled. Some of these matters may appear time says, "I have control." The student acknowledges
complicated on paper, but you will gain understanding immediately by saying, "You have control:'
very quickly when they are demonstrated in the air.

Attitudes
Look-out
The basic attitude of an aircraft is termed a cruise
Now that flight training has begun in earnest, start attitude. Cruise attitude is the datum (reference point)
observing this rule: look around. For safety in :flight, to which all other attitudes of flight are related. It can
keep alert for other aircraft.. Look continually. Realize be defined as the aircraft attitude for level flight at a
that there is a blind spot beneath your aircraft and constant altitude and airspeed, using a recommended
never assume that others see you. Be especially alert cruise power setting, with the wings parallel to the
during periods of nose-up attitudes of your aircraft horizon. All attitudes are considered as being relative
when the blind spot enlarges due to a decrease in for­ to the horizon.
ward visibility. The attitudes of flight may be broken down into
A pilot must be constantly on the look-out for other two groups:
aircraft and must keep up a continuing search of the
sky. It is commonly believed that the eye sees every­ Pitch Attitudes. Any attitude of the nose of the air­
thing in its field with equal clarity. This is not so. Fix craft above or below the reference datum. Fig. 2-7
your gaze about 5 degrees to one side of this page, illustrates a range of pitch attitudes above and below
and you will no longer be able to read the printed the reference datwn and indicates the approximate
material. Studies have revealed that the eye perceives attitude limits for this stage of training. The attitudes
very poorly when it is in motion. Wide sweeping eye above the datum are termed "nose-up attitudes" and
excursions are almost futile and may be a hazard, those below "nose-down attitudes:•
since they give the impression that large areas of sky
have been exa ined.m
A series of short, regularly Bank Attitudes. Any attitude of the wings of the air­
spaced eye movements is recommended for maximum craft when inclined relative to the datum. Fig. 2-8
efficiency in searcb:ing the sky. illustrates a range of bank attitudes relative to the ref­
erence datum. The illustration indicates the approxi­
mate bank attitude limits for this stage of training.
Transfer of Control The air peed for flight in the cruise attitude
selected should be noted, as it will be referred to when
During flight training there must be a clear under­ nose-up and nose-down attitudes are demonstrated.
standing, between the student and the flight instructor, The other flight instruments will be referred to fre­
of who has control of the aircraft at a given moment. quently. If you have an appreciation of the per­
Whoever is handing over control should say in clear formance of your aircraft by reference to flight
48
 Attitude and Movement' 49

ger not grabbed and queez d. Appreben ion and

Nose-up attitude tension may result in a tenden to choke the control
not exceeded ,n column. D eloping such a habit d troy 'feel .
normal Hight

Control Response
The amount of controJ movement required to achi ve
Cruise a desired flight response depend to a great extent on
attitude the sp ed of the air flowing ver or past the ailerons
elevator and rudder. Th crui e attitude airsp ed may
be consid r d the de ign datum for control effe ti e­
ness • at pe d above crui e peed th control
Nose-down become firmer and there i a greater reaction to
a "tudes equi alent c ntrol mo emenL t lo er crni iog air-
Nose-down attitude pe d th control become mor yielding and I
no exceeded in effort i ne ded to mo e th m. but relati el more
normal ghl control m menl. may be o ed d to achie e an atti­
The JX)Sibon of the nose in the cruise attitude is the tude chang . The aileron b ing outside of the pr -
datum (or reference attitude) for pitch attitudes. peller lip tr am react con i tently with air pe d
change but the elevators and rudder do not cept
Figure 2-7 Pitch Attitudes in a power-off de cent . Since the elevators and rudder
are in the propeller slipstream they wiU remain cn­
The position of the wings in the cruise attitude is the sitive to control movement. Thi ensitivity increa
datum (or reference attitude) for bank attitudes. with iocr a e of power mor or le independently of
airspeed in the low range until the crui e attitude
airspeed i rea bed. In a power- i ted de ce11t at a
lo airsp eel, th aileron control v ill require relati ely
coars m meat whereas el ator and rudder ontrol
mo emen will remain relati el fine to a hie the
d ired ontrol re ponse.

Movements, Controls, and Axes

Bank attitudes Range of normal
not exceeded in bank attitudes The fundamental consideration i the method of con­
normal flight trol of the three movement of the aircraft. Ln any
aircraft all three movement are around one central
fulcrum, th ntre of Gravity and they can be defined
Figure 2-8 Bank Attitudes relat:i e to th pilot an or th aircraft a foll
(Fig. 2-9 :
ia trumen , as 11 a by out id reference you ·u
d elop from the start the habit of monitoring our I. Pitching: any movement ar und the lateral axi .
wo and th air raft performaa ontinuously. 2. Rollin : any mo ement around the longitudinal
axis.
3. Yawing: any mo ement around the normal ( rti­
Handling the Controls cal) axi .

During the air exerci es the po iti n of the feet wben These movements are aJway relative to the aircraH
applying pre llf to the rudder pedals, should be and the pi! t, regardles of the aircraft's position r 1-
comfortable, with mo t of their weight supported by ative to the h rizon. Thi may be difficu.lt to vi ualize
th he ls in contact with the fl r thu allowing a here but ill b come apparent in flight.
fine sensiti ity of touch with the toe . The control The thre mo ement of an aircraft ig. 2-9
column houJd b held firmly but lightly ith the fin- pitching, rollin and yawing are go em d by the
50 Attitudes and Movements

�
Movement about the lateral axis is called the
pitching movement and is produced and
controlled by the elevators or stabilator.
Lateral
Axis

Movement about the longitudinal axis is

called the rolling movement and is produced
and controlled by the ailerons.

Longitudinal
Axis

Normal
Axis Movement about the normal axis is called
the yawing movement and is controlled by
the rudder.

Figure 2-9 Aircraft Axes and Movements

 Attitudes and Movements 5l

three controlling surfaces - elevators, ailerons, and l . Airspeed decreases.

rudder. The elevators are used to produce and control 2. The miniature aircraft will be above the horizon
the pitching movement required to achieve and main­ bar of the attitude indicator.
tain the desired pitch attitudes. The ailerons are
used to produce and control the rolling movement When the aircraft is pitched into a nose-down attitude,
required to achieve and maintain lateral level and
bank attitudes. The rudder is used to control yawing 1. Airspeed increases.
movemenl 2. The miniature aircraft will be below the horizon
Yaw may occur adversely for many reasons: tur­ bar of the attitude indicator.
bulence, power changes, or misuse of rudder. Failure
to control yaw may cause the aircraft to slip or skid When the aircraft is rolled into a banked attitude for
and ultimately roll; therefore, control of yaw is very a turn,
necessary to maintain co-ordinated flight.
The following statements concerning the flight con­ 1. The miniature aircraft will indicate a bank in rela­
trols will be true regardless of the position of the air­ tion to the horizon bar on the attitude indicator.
craft. relative to the earth. 2. The heading indicator shows a change in direction.
3. The turn-and-bank indicator needle will be
J. When backward pressure is applied to the control deflected in the direction of the turn; if the turn is
column, the nose pitches up. co-ordinated, the ball will be centred.
2. When forward pressure is applied to the control
column, the nose pitches down. When the aircraft is pitched up or down while banking
3. When the aileron control is moved to the right, the left or right, the instrument .indications will be a com­
aircraft rolls to the right. bination of those indicated during the individual atti­
4. When the aileron control is moved to the left. the tude demonstrations. For example, should the aircraft
aircraft rolls to the left.. be pitched into a nose-down attitude while in a co­
5. When the left rudder pedal is pushed, rhe nose ordinated bank to the left:
yaws to the left.
6. When the right rudder pedal is pushed, the nose I . The airspeed will increase.
yaws to the right. 2. The miniature aircraft will be below and banked to
the left in relation to the horizon bar of the attitude
indicator.
3. The needle of the tum-and-bank indicator will be
Inertia deflected to the left, and the ball will be centred.
4. The heading indicator will show decreasing degrees
An aircraft possesses inertia. It tries to continue on its of heading.
original path even when forces are introduced to 5. The altimeter will show a constant decrease in
change that path. Thus when the controls are moved altitude.
there may be a slight lapse of time before the flight
path changes, even after the attitude has been altered. This is your first real training exercise. Many new and
The attitude of the aircraft is always referred to as relatively strange events seem to be occurring rapidly.
relative to the horizon. The horizon referred to is the Even after the exercise has been demonstrated in the
earth's naturaJ horizon, but the inference also includes air, there are bound to be things you do not fully
the horizon bar of the attitude indicator. understand. This is perfectly natural� so do not hesitate
to question your flight instructor concerning areas that
still appear vague to you.
At a certain stage you may feel that you cannot do
Flight Instrument Indications anything right, that you lack co-ordination and com­
prehension, that you aren't learning anything. AU stu­
dents go through this stage. Stay determined and you
During the pitch and bank demonstrations, the instruc­ will discover that learning comprehension and co­
tor wiJJ ask you to observe the indications of certain ordination will sharpen as you become more familiar
fUght instruments. with the aircraft and the environment in which it
When the aircraft is pitched into a nose-up attitude, operates.
EXERCISE SIX

Straight-and-Level Flight

Straight-and-level flight may be described as holding As you accelerate on a heading of east or west the
a steady direction with the wings laterally level while compass indicates a turn to the north. The compa s
maintaining a constant altitude. This skill is essential returns to its previous heading as the acceleration
in all of your subsequent training, so it is important to sub ides. A deceleration will produce the opposite
establish correct habits in this exercise. effect. The compas will indicate a turn to the outh
Straight-and-level flight is achieved by the restrained and will return to it previous heading as the decelera­
use of all three flight controls. It is normal for minor tion diminishes. Acceleration/deceleration error i most
variations to occur in heading, altitude, and airspeed. pronounced on headings of east and we t and dimin­
Pilots constantly strive for accuracy by checking the ishes to no effect on headings of north and south.
instruments and making prompt, smal 1 corrections to Turning error is most pronounced when you are
keep performance within close tolerances. ln smooth turning from a beading of north or outh. When you
air, the actual control movements are so small that it begin a tum from a beading of north, the compa s
is more a question of applying slight pressure than any initially indicates a turn in the opposite direction. Once
appreciable displacement of the flying controls. tbe turn is established the compass will show the tum,
In this exercise, straight-and-level flight will be but it will lag behind the actual heading. When you
demonstrated and practised using the cruise attitude begin a tam from a heading of south the compass will
as the focal point around which variations of attitudes indicate a turn in the correct direction, however, it will
and airspeeds in straight-and-level flight will be lead the actual heading. The amount of lag or lead
achieved. The cruise attitude is established by visually dimini hes as the turn progre ses until the aircraft
fixing the relationship of some portion of the aircraft, reaches a heading of east or west, at which point the
usually the nose and the wing tips, with the horizon. turning error is nil.
As experience is gained, you will develop a sense of When turning from a heading of east or west to a
being level but the visual aids will be used as checks. heading of south there is no error as you begin the
Straight flight is maintained by keeping the wings turn. However, as the heading approaches outh the
level and applying the necessary pressures on the rudder compas increasingly leads the actual aircraft heading.
pedals to prevent yaw. If you allow the aircraft to bank, The oppo ite i true when turning from a heading of
it will begin to tum in the direction of the lower wing. east or west to a beading of north. In this ca e the
Use the heading indicator to maintain straight flight. compa s increasingly lags the actual aircraft heading
This instrument must first be set by readings taken as it approaches north.
from the magnetic compass and reset every fifteen
minute thereafter to remain accurate. The magnetic compass read correctly only when
the aircraft i in straight unaccelerated flight. In other
words, you can set the compass when flying straight
in either level, climbing, or descending flight
Magnetic Compass provided the airspeed i con tant. When taking
reading under turbulent conditions it may be
Due to the construction of the magnetic compass, necessary to take two or three readings and average the
error occur during flight in turbulent air or while results or read the mean of the swing of the compass.
turning or changing speed. The error presented here,
clas ified as acceleration error and turning error, are
valid only for flight in the Northern Hemi phere.
52
 Straight-and-Level Flight 53

Effect of Power Reducing Airspeed

The air pushed backward by a propeller revolves with To reduce the airspeed while in straight-and-level
considerable force around an aircraft in flight, in the llight, throttle back smoothJy to the power setting esti­
same direction as the rotation of the propeller, causing mated for the speed desired. Anticipate and prevent any
an increased pressUie on one side of the fin. This pro­ yaw that will occur as a result of the power change.
duces a force that moves the taiJ sideways and causes Apply sufficient back pressure to the control column
the aircraft to yaw. To compensate for this action, the to maintain the desired altitude. Keep the wings level.
fin may be slightly offset, either aerodynamically or At first, the back pressure needed will be barely per­
mechanically, to provide optimum directional balance ceptible, but as the speed decreases, the pressure needed
at normal cruise power settings. An increase in power, will increase. When the desired airspeed is reached,
which increases the rotational force of the propeller readjust the power setting, then trim the aircraft.
slipstream, will cause aircraft with clockwise rotating
propellers to yaw to the left. A decrease in power will
cause the aircraft to yaw to the right. This action can Increasing Airspeed
be readily observed if power is increased or decreased.
Any tendency for the aircraft to yaw with power To increase the airspeed while in straight-and-level
changes should be anticipated and prevented by ap­ flight, advance the throttle smoothly to the power set­
propriate use of rudder. ting estimated for the speed desired. At the same time,
When power is increased, the nose wi1J pitch up apply sufficient forward pressure to the control col­
and if no compensating control movement is made, umn to keep the altitude from increasing. Keep the
the aircraft will begin to climb. Decrease power and wings level. When the desired airspeed is reached,
the nose will pitch down and if no control adjustment readjust the power setting, then trim the aircraft.
is made the aircraft will start to descend. When power Increasing and decreasing airspeed in level flight
adjustments are made to increase or decrease airspeed has important practical applications. For example, you
in straight-and-level flight, immediate flight control need this skill to maintain correct spacing with other
adjustments are required to keep the nose from pitch­ aircraft in the circuit. At a busy airport, aircraft have
ing up or down. As power is increased or decreased, varying circuit and approach speeds. It may be nec­
keep the pitch attitude constant with appropriate ele­ essary at one point in the circuit to maintain a high
vator control pressure. When the aircraft is at the cruise speed and then reduce speed at another point to
desired airspeed, trim to relieve the control pressure fit safely into the traffic pattern while maintaining a
required to maintain straight-and-level flight. constant altitude.
Straight-and-level requires minimum use of the
controls if the aircraft is properly trimmed and the air
Attitude Plus Power Equals Performance is smooth. In rough air, more physical effort and co­
ordination are needed to maintain heading and altitude.
A question often arises concerning which cockpit con­
trols have primary control over air speed and altitude.
The truth is that neither elevator nor throttle controls Trim
airspeed or altitude independently. The elevators con­
trol the pitch attitude of the aircraft, and the throttle As you increase and decrease airspeed, you will feel
controls the power. An expressi.oo you will hear many pressure on the controls as you try to maintain level
times in your flight career explains this: "Attitude plus fljght. The more the speed changes, the more pressure
power equals performance." you will feel. Once the new speed is established, elim­
When an aircraft is in the cruise attitude, forward inate the control pressures by trimming the aircraft.
or backward pressUie on the control. column will affect Trim is also influenced by a change in power. Pres­
both speed and height. Likewise, changes in power sure changes on the controls will be felt before there
settings can affect both speed and height. This may is any change .in airspeed. The amount of pressure felt
prompt the question of which control takes precedence will. depend on the amount of power change.
in a manoeuvre that requires adjustment of both power Changing attitude and power affects trim. In trim­
and flight controls. The fact is that the controls are ming the aircraft, it is not what you do that dictates
interdependent, since changes in speed in the cruise whether you trim, but rather what pressure you feel
attitude require simultaneous adjustment of the throttle on the controls.
and elevator controls. Any concept to the contrary Once your instructor shows you how to trim the air­
will only delay progress in acquiring the control co­ craft, make trimming a habit. Learn to recognize control
ordination needed to manoeuvre an aircraft from one pressures and eliminate them to make your flying more
airspeed to another. accw-ate and less fatiguing.
EXERCISE SEVEN

Climbing

Climbing is the process whereby an aircraft gains alti­ achieve the greatest gain in height in a given distance.
tude. During the first demonstration of this exercise, If there are obstacles in the take-off path, for example,
you will notice that there are changes in far more than the aircraft should be climbed at the best angle of
altitude. When an aeroplane climbs, forward visibility climb speed so that within the shortest possible ground
decreases because of the higher nose attitude. Air­ distance the aircraft will be well above the height of
speed also changes and becomes an important refer­ the obstacles.
ence. Maintaining a particular airspeed during the It is possible for the engine to become overJieated
climb allows you to obtain optimum performance. if the aircraft is flown for too long a period at the best
The question 'What is optimum performance?" angle of climb or best rate of climb speed. The normal
depends on the circumstances. There are a number of climb speed should therefore be resumed as soon as
ways of climbing. If you are departing from an aer­ it is appropriate to do so.
odrome where you must climb over an obstacle the
best climb will be one that provides the steepest climb
angle. If you depart on a long cross-country flight and
wish to take advantage of strong tail winds at altitude, Best rate of climb speed Cruising altitude
the best climb will be one that allows you to gain
altitude as quickly as possible (Fig. 2-10). If you are
climbing in the vicinity of other traffic, the best climb
will be one with a pitch attitude low enough to afford
good visibility. If you are just climbing with no par­ Minimum time to altitude
ticular concern or aim other than gaining altitude the
best climb will be one that combines reasonable climb
rate with good visibility and efficient engine cooling. Best angle of climb speed
During your training you will learn how to accom­
plish each of the following kinds of climbs:

l. Best rate
2. Best angle
3. Normal
4. En route

The airspeed at which you climb will determine which

of the performances will be achieved. En route climb speed

Best Rate. The recommended best rate of climb

speed is the airspeed that will afford the greatest gain
in height in a given time. If it is important to reach a
given altitude quickly, then this is the airspeed to use. No hurry to get to altitude

Best Angle. The best angle of climb is used to Figure 2-10 Climb Speed

54
 Climbing 55

Normal Climb. As the term implies, normal climb must be taken not to exceed manufacturer's recom­
speed is the speed at which the aircraft is climbed mended RPM at this time), and reduce engine power
under normal circumstances. Normal climb speed is for normal cruise flight. Readjust attitude to maintain
higher than best rate of climb and best angle of climb altitude, recheck the power setting, then trim the aircraft
speeds and is recommended for routine climbing sit­ for straight-and-level flight.
uations because: The density of the air plays an important part in
the climb performance of an aircraft (Fig. 2-11). The
l. Forward visibility is better. more dense the air the better the performance. Three
generally true factors to remember about air density
2. Most light aircraft take off and climb at full throt­
are:
tle. At this power setting the engine is dependent
upon a high volume of airflow for cooling. There­
fore the higher the airspeed the more effective the 1. Density decreases as height increases.
cooling. The normal climb speed specified for an 2. Density decreases as temperature increases.
aircraft takes into account and allows for (among 3. Density decreases as moisture in the air increases.
other things) the need for adequate cooling.
Humidity also affects aircraft engine performance
En route Climb. En route climbs are carried out at because water vapour in the air reduces the amount
various airspeeds between normal climb and normal of air available for combustion.
cruise speed. The purpose could, for example, be to Relatively good climb performance can be expected
gain altitude slowly under a gradually upsloping cloud on a cold, dry day from an aircraft at an airport with
cover, using an airspeed slightly under normal cruise a field elevation of 150 feet above mean sea level,
speed and a power setting slightly above cruise power. whereas a much poorer performance can be expected
During this type of climb, convenience and comfort on a hot, humid day at an airport with a field elevation
are the prime factors, since no climb time or climb of 2,000 feet above mean sea level.
distance limitations are assumed to apply. The air density, or lack of it, that affects the engine
As mentioned in Exercise 6, the propeller slip­ performance also affects the function of the airspeed
stream attempts to yaw the aircraft to the left. This indicator as the aircraft gains height. As the density of
effect becomes especially apparent at low airspeeds the air decreases with gain in height, the airspeed indi­
with high power settings, such as during a climb. Keep cator indicates a progressively lower speed, although
the wings )eve.I and use rudder to control any tendency the actual speed of the aircraft may be relatively
for the aircraft to yaw to the left. unaffected. Unless airspeed adjustments are made as
Before you begin a climb, look around carefully for the aircraft climbs, the rate of climb will decrease
other aircraft, particularly in the area ahead. As the until finally the aircraft will be flying level instead of
nose of the aircraft rises, your forward scan becomes climbing.
limited to the point where other aircraft at the same To maintain a reasonably accurate rate of climb, a
altitude or below become obscured. rule of thumb is to decrease the recommended indi­
To enter a normal climb, establish the aircraft in a cated sea level climb speed by 1.75 percent (about
nose-up attitude, one that you estimate will maintain 2 KT) for every 1,000 feet increase in height above
normal climbing airspeed and increase power to the mean sea level, excluding the first 1,000 feet. Suppose
recommended setting for a normal climb. At first the the recommended normal indicated climb speed of the
operation of flight and power controls will be sepa­ aircraft is 90 KT. At an indicated altitude of 2,000 feet,
rately timed movements, but as you gain experience the indicated climb speed would be adjusted to 88 KT;
they should occur almost simultaneously. When the at 3,000 feet indicated, 86 KT; and so on.
airspeed has settled, adjust the aircraft attitude to Density altitude is the altitude corresponding to a
attain the desired airspeed. Recheck the power setting, given density in a standard atmosphere. It is a "con­
then trim the aircraft until no pressure is required on dition;' not a level of flight. Unless density altitude is
the control column. The altimeter will show a steady known, it is difficult to determine the performance of
increase in height, and the vertical speed indicator wil I an aircraft accurately, and this can be a very important
show a steady rate of climb. factor under some conditions of take-off and climb.
If the air is turbulent, even experienced pilots can For example, the flight manual for a certain aircraft
have difficulty achieving steady indications on these states that at an airport 3,000 feet above sea level the
instruments, especially the vertical speed indicator. initial rate of climb will be 400 feet per minute. The
To return to straight-and-level flight from the elevation of the airstrip should be converted to density
climb, establish the aircraft in the normal cruise atti­ altitude to give a true picture of expected aircraft
tude, allow it to accelerate to cruising airspeed (care performance. Should the outside air temperature be
56 Climbing

Dense air Less dense air

Low altitude H igh altitude
Cold temperature Warm temperature
Dry air Moist ai r

Figure 2-1 1 The Effect of Air Density and Humidity on Take-off Run and Rate of Climb

+28 ° C at the time, the density altitude could be as cl imb at power settings less than f l l throttle , when
u

h igh as 5 , 000 feet. Looking at the flight manual again carburettor heat is applied, maintain the desired RPM
for an elevation of 5,000 feet, the initial rate of climb (or manifold pressure ) by advancing the throttle , and as
is reduced to 260 feet per minute . Some cl imb data air densi ty allows, maintain airspeed and rate of climb.
tables give mean temperatures with field altitudes but Consult the Aircraft Flight Manual for procedures in
they must be i nterpolated carefully under extremes a specific aircraft.
of temperature. Density altitude calculations can be The effect of weight on the performance of a light
resolved quickly on most circular sl ide-rule or electronic aircraft is more pronounced in a climb than any other
flight computers. As moist air ( water vapour) weighs normal manoeuvre. Because of ground effect an air­
less than dry air it is less dense. Therefore, on a moist craft may leave the ground with in an acceptable dis­
or rainy day the resulting climb performance is less than tance when loaded to its maximum permissible gross
on a normal dry day. Thus , under some conditions, weight , but once out of ground effect its rate of climb
the rate of climb after take-off could be critical . may be seriously affected. Climb performance data are
An aircraft with retractable landing gear climbs at of great importance if there are obstacles in the pro­
a higher rate, and gains height in a shorter distance posed climb path of the aircraft, especially if the airport
when the l anding gear is retracted. As soon as ( field ) elevation is high and the ambient temperature
possible after the aircraft is established in its initial is high. Consult the Aircraft Flight Manual for climb
cl imb attitude, the landing gear should be retracted to performance data.
obtain optimum climb performance. Be prepared to Occasions arise when it is necessary to overshoot
make attitude corrections as the landing gear retracts, from an approach to landing and enter a climb when
since many aircraft are inclined to pitch upward when the aircraft is in the landing configuration with flaps
the wheels are no longer offering resistance to the ful ly extended. Take-off power mu t be applied
propeller slipstream. smoothly but promptly as the aircraft is placed in a
On some types of aircraft a certain degree of flap nose-up attitude consistent with a safe climb airspeed.
is extended as a routine take-off procedure, but cus­ With flaps fully extended, this attitude mu t be esti­
tomarily flaps are used only when it is necessary to mated by outside visual references based on a prior
shorten the take-off run and steepen the initial angle kno wledge of the attitude. Since the trim was adjusted
of climb. In any case , consult the Aircraft Flight Man­ for a landi ng, the application of power wi ll most likely
ual for correct usage, since even the flap setting offer­ pitch the nose upward; therefore, it is important that
ing optimum lift for minimum drag will lower the you be prepared to apply forward pressure on the con­
aircraft's rate of climb. Therefore, if flaps have been tro l colum n and readjust the trim to maintain the
extended for take-off, retract them as soon as there is desired attitude. The flaps must be retracted as soon
no longer any operational requirement for them, but as possible to an appropriate setting for the climb, but
not before the aircraft is establ i shed in the des ired gradually and in small increments. Each time the flap
climb attitude we ll above any obstacles. setting i changed, the trim must be readjusted. For
Should there be a risk of carburettor ice you may those aircraft with mechanically defined flap settings
have to apply carburettor heat during the climb. In the retract the flaps one setting at a time.
case of full throttle climbs, this will reduce available During prolonged climbs lower the nose momen­
engine power. Maintain airspeed and accept a slight tarily, or change beading at regular intervals to search
reduction in rate of climb. In an aircraft designed to the sky ahead of the aircraft for other air traffic.
EXERCISE EIGHT

Descending

Descending from a higher to a lower altitude can be atic situation it Jrught be better to use the familiar
carried out in several way ' to atisfy various opera­ recommended still air gliding speed, then estimate the
tional r quirements. Desc n can be divided into two range available to you under the circumstance .
ba ic procedure vi ual method fore timating gliding range is outlined
in th following paragraph .
I. Power-on (power a i ted) de cen
2. P , er-off (glide) de cent .
Estimating Range
Both basi methods of d nding can be aried to
m t th rate of d ent and di tance co ered requi­ ou will recall from a pre i us hapter that if another
rem n of practically an ituati n. Howe er. the air raft appears to oc upy a tationary po iti n on
po er-on d cent give the pilot more control of th ur indshield and to be gr iWi:ng larger you will
air ra� de cent path. e enroall collide with it unles e asi e action i
Th air peed that pro id the be lift/drag ratio taken. [n relati e tenns the other aircraft become a
ill p rmit the aeroplane to glide for maximum range. tarionary object and it appear to grow larger you
etermine and remember thi airspe d, as this i are n a collision course ith it. Thi ame principle
the type of de cent used for approacbe to forced ma b effecti ely applied when attempting to reach
landing . Mo t Aircraft Flight Manuals include the a pecific point on th ground during power-on r
b t glide peed in their maximum glide charts. One p r-off descent , uch a when executing a normal
typical chart bows that at its best glide peed of 70 approach a precautionary landing, or a forced land­
K (in till air) from a height of 6,000 feet above ing. The point on the ground may be the point of tlar
ground level, the aircraft will glide a distance of 10 at an aerodrome or the touchdown point of a forced
nautical miles (NM). The ame aircraft flown at 60 landing. If the selected pot on the ground remain
KT may ustain a .lightly lower rate of descent, but talionary in relation to a fixed point on your wind­
it will n t attain the 10-mile di tan e, because of the hield, the aircraft will sub equently touch down at
I wer airsp ed. If the rune air raft i flown at an air- the elected spot on the gr und.
peed of 55 KT, the Ii drag rati deteriorate to th Th fixed point i any p int n th windshi Id that
p int here the rate of d cent i mu h greater than you choo e a a referen p int. It could be o many
it uld be at 70 KT. Thi togeth r with the lo er in h up from the instrument panel, or adjacent t
air p ed ould achie e a glid di tance of L than 4 th magneti compas a mark ou have mad ourself
mile. \ "th a non-perman m marking pencil or a small piece
Th recommend d b t gliding pe d will pro id f ta . E erything i m ured in relation to this
an attitude that acbje the great t range distan ) imaginary, or a tual, point on th windshield.
in till air. However , ind vel ity play a command­ When stabili.zed in a con tant power or po r-off
ing role in d termining th airsp and attitude Lo d nt at a constant atritud and airspeed, i uaJ
o er the greate t distance p r unit of height available. ob ervation of ground p itioo in relation to a fix d
Detennining this attitude u.nd r th constantly varying point on your windshield v ill provide information a
condition of wind dire ti o and wind speed can be follows:
m t difficult. o in an emerg ncy ucb as a forced
landjog instead of complicating an already problem- 1. Po itions on the ground that appear to move down

57
58 Descending

from the fixed pos1tton on the windshield are carburettor heat during power-off descents; in others
ground positions that you can reach and fly over it is not recommended. Consult the Aircraft Fligh.t
with height to spare. Manual for the correct procedure.
2. The position on the ground that remains stationary
in relation to the fixed position on your windshield
is the ground position that your aircraft should Power-on Descents
reach.
3. Positions on the ground that appear to move up A power-on descent is used when precise control of
from the fixed position on the windshield are the rate of descent and distance attained is desired.
ground positions that your aircraft cannot reach. Most routine descents and approaches to landings are
power assisted to control the rate of descent for pas­
senger comfort and meet the speed and spacing
demands of airport circuit procedures. To enter a
Power-off Descents power-on descent, carry out the cockpit checks, look
around for other aircraft, then:
To enter a power-off descent from straight-and-level
flight: I. Reduce engine power to an RPM setting judged (or
predetermined) to give a desired airspeed and rate
1. Complete any cockpit checks and note the altimeter of descent.
readjng. 2. Allow the airspeed to decrease to that desired
2. Search the sky, above and below, for other aircraft. airspeed.
3. Close the throttle smoothly but promptly. 3. Lower the nose to an attitude that will give the
4. Keep straight (the aircraft will tend to yaw to the desired rate of descent
right) and allow airspeed to decrease. 4. Trim to maintain this attitude.
5. Assume the approximate anitude for best glide 5. Check that the airspeed and rate of descent are
airspeed. those desired; if not, increase or decrease the
6. Trim. amount of power, adjusting the nose attitude as
7. If necessary make minor pitch adjustments to attain required, until the proper fligh.t condition is
correct airspeed, and retrim. obtained.
8. Note the steady decrease in altitude on the altim­ 6. Retrim.
eter and the rate of descent on the vertical speed
indicator. To decrease the rate of descent while in a power-on
descent, apply the amount of engine power that will
To return to straight-and-level flight from a power-off give the desired rate of descent, and simultaneously
descent: adjust the attitude of the aircraft to maintain the best
descent speed and retrim for the new attitude. In most
I. Search the sky ahead, and above, for other aircraft. aircraft the application of power will pitch the nose
2. Note the altimeter reading. up, and as a result very little control adjustment is
3. a) Advance the throttle to the power setting for needed to establish the new attitude and maintain the
cruise flight (carburettor beat off). original airspeed. If the need for a power-off descent
b) Assume the cruise attitude and maintain it ensues, as the throttle is closed the nose will pitch
until the aircraft accelerates to cruise speed. down and more or less assume the attitude for best
c) Keep straight (the aircraft will tend to yaw to gliding speed without a great deal of adjustment, if
the left as the throttle is advanced). the aircraft is properly trimmed for each attitude.
4. Trim. Proper trim is the key to a smooth and accurate tran­
5. Adjust power and flight controls to maintain the sition from one attitude or airspeed to another.
desired airspeed and altitude. Any variation of airspeed and rate of descent may
6. Retrim. be combined to obtain the effect desired. An en route
descent is usually a power reduction to provide a suit­
During power-off descents the engine must not be able rate of descent while still maintaining cruising
allowed to become too cool� otherwise it may fail to airspeed. When approaching the destination airport, it
respond properly when the throttle is advanced to may be desirable to reduce power so that descent is
regain straight-and-level flight. Cruising power should made at a reduced airspeed. Finally, the power-on
be applied at appropriate intervals during the descent descent involves a power setting that will provide the
to keep engine temperatures near normal and to pre­ desired rate of descent while maintaining the recom­
vent fouling of the spark plugs. Many aircraft require mended approach to landing airspeed.
 Descending 59

Power-on de cen requmng steep angles of The prevailing wind will affect the maximum glid­
de cent as in an ob tacle clearance approach, usually ing distance greatly Fig. 2-13 . When gliding into a
in olve full extension of the flap and lower than nor­ head wind you can increa e range by selecting an air­
mal approach air peeds. on ult the Aircraft Flight peed lightly higher than normal. When gliding
Manual or Pilot Op raring Handbook to determine the downwind a greater di tance can be covered by using
flap etting and airspeed. hould calibrated airspeed' an airspeed I wer than normal. The ame logic applie
A b gi en en ure that you use the airspeed hen crui flying for range into or with a wind.
correction table in the manual or handbook to calcu­
late the "indicated air peed J to fly the obstacle
clearanc appr acb.
The angl of d nt of aircraft with relra table oHaps
landing gear can be effectively steepened by extending
the landing gear. o air raft ha e too flat a glid
angle for many purpo e such as clearing obstacles
on the approach to landing. The angle of descent
could be teepened by de cending at a very high or a
. • •.ti....... .. .• •. ... .. • ..
very I '- ai pe but neither is satisfactory under .. · ..
ru rm.al circum tan . Therefore the aircraft is fitted .. ·
ith flap . Flap , wb n extended. teepen the angle of
d c.ent for an particular airspeed (Fig. 2-12). The
more the flap are e t oded, the teeper the angle of
d cent for a gi en airspeed. Another ad antage i that
the t per th d nt attitude, the better the ie-.
ahead. In addition to the drag caused by extending the Full ffaps
flap lift i increa ed for the ame airspeed. lt i
therefore po ible to d cend at a lower air peed than
when th flap are retra.cted.
Figure 2-12 Wing Flaps Affect the Rate of
Descent and Range

The wind determines the maximum gliding distance as wetl as the best glide speed.

1.-oistance travelled while gliding into wind---<•""t-1 ... ----Distance travelled while gliding with wind--l

Figure 2-13 Gliding Distance and Gliding Speed

EXERCISE NINE

Turns

The turn is a basic manoeuvre used to change the

heading of an aircraft. An accurate level tum may be
described as a change of direction, maintaining a Vertical
desired angle of bank, with no slip or skid, while component
maintaining a desired altitude. This is also the descrip­ of lift
tion of a co-ordinated tum. Aerodynamically the turn

I!
is probably the most complex of basic manoeuvres
and involves close co-ordination of all controls. Centripetal
To tum an aircraft, co-ordinated pressures are force Honzontal
Centrifugal ◄ • component
applied to the controls until a desired banked attitude force I of lift

I
is achieved. The object of bank during a tum is to
incline the lift so that in addition to supporting the

j
aircraft, it can provide the necessary force (centripetal
force) toward the centre of the tum to oppose centrif­

I Weight
ugal force, which is endeavouring to pull the aircraft
away from the centre of the tum. Incidentally,
centrifugal force is not a true force but is the result [L __ _
of a body, for example an aeroplane or a car tending Combination of
to continue in a straight line. centrifugal force As the angle of bank in a level
In a level tum, lift must be sufficient both to sup­ and weight turn increases, so does the
amount of lift required.
port the aircraft and to provide the inward force.
Therefore, it must be greater than during straight-and­ Figure 2-14 Forces In a Turn
level flight. The additional lift can be acquired by
increasing the angle of attack of the wings and accept­ Entering a tum, the rising wing creates more drag than
ing a varying degree of reduction in airspeed the descending wing. Thi tends to yaw the aircraft
(Fig. 2-14). Up to a certain degree of bank airspeed toward the raised wing and causes the aircraft to
may be maintained by increasing power. attempt initially to turn in the wrong direction. This
For training purposes turns are divided into three classes: is adverse yaw (see Chapter 1). To counteract adverse
yaw, use appropriate rudder pressure, in the direction
1. Gentle turns, involving angles of bank up to 15 of the tum. The amount of rudder movement neces­
degrees. sary varies according to the abruptness of the execu­
2. Medinm tum , involving angles of bank from 15 tion of the tum, and often the type of aircraft.
to 30 degrees. It is most important at this stage to understand fully
3. Steep turns involving angles of bank over 30 that rudder is used in a turn only if there is any
degrees. adverse yaw. Adverse yaw has almost been eliminated
from aircraft of recent manufacture so that the rudder
In addition to level turns there are: pressure required on turn entry to counteract adverse
yaw has been reduced very effectively.
l. Climbing turns, which are normally gentle turns. These are some basic facts you should understand:
2. Descending turns which may be gentle medium
or steep. 1. At a given airspeed, the greater th.e angle of bank:
60
 Turns 61

(a) The greater the rate of turn.

(b) The smaller the radius of turn.
(c) The higher the stalling speed.
(d) The greater the load factor.
2. The higher the airspeed at a given angle of bank:
(a) The lower the rate of turn.
(b) The lru:ger the radius of tum.
3. To achieve a turn of the smallest radius and
greatest rate for a given angle of bank, fly at the
lowest possible airspeed for that angle of bank. A
fact applicable to all aircraft is that the stalling
speed increases as bank angle increases, and this
increase in stalling speed accelerates very rapidly
as the angle of bank continues to steepen. At 30
degrees of bank, the stalling speed increases to
about 8 percent over the stalling speed in level
flight; at 45 degrees, 18 percent; at 60 degrees, 40
percent; at 75 degrees, 100 percent; at 83 degrees,
200 percent. Therefore, an aircraft with a level
flight stalling speed of 50 KT has a stalling speed
of 150 KT (50 + 100) when subjected to an 83
degree bank tum.

Similarly, the wing loading or load factor increases

slowly at first as the angle of bank increases and very
rapidly thereafter (see Chapter I, "Load Factor"). As
an example, the load factor on an aircraft executing a
60 degree bank turn at any flying speed while main­
taining altitude is double that of straight-and-level Figure 2-15 Posture During Turns
flight, while the load factor for an 80 degree bank tum
is 5.76. all three controls into one simultaneous movement.
The importance of look-out, or searching the sky Initially, however, it is best to think of each control as
for other aircraft before and during a turn, cannot be having one definite function, the ailerons controlling
overemphasized. Before entering a tum, look around bank attitude, the elevators controlling pitch attitude,
carefully in both directions, above and below. During and the rudder controlling yaw. This will help elimi­
the tum continue to look out, especially in the direc­ nate some of the more common faults at the outset,
tion of the turn. When recovering from the turn look such as overcontrol of the rudder.
around again, in all directions, above and below. To To enter a level tum:
maintain a good look-out and manage the aircraft at
the same time requires the pilot's constant attention. 1. Make sure that the aircraft is in accurate straight­
Posture is important in all aircraft manoeuvres, but and-level flight.
especially so in turns. Sit comfortably upright; do not 2. Look around for other aircraft.
lean away from the centre of the tum, but do not make 3. Roll the aircraft gently to the desired bank attitude
a conscious effort to keep your body stiffly vertical. with aileron control. Maintain this attitude.
Relax and ride with the tum. Stiffening up or contin­ 4. At the same time, use appropriate rudder pressure
ually changing sitting position affects visual refer­ to control any tendency for the aircraft to yaw
ences and may cause handling of the controls to adversely.
become tense and erratic (Fig. 2-15). 5. Use elevators to maintain the aircraft in the correct
An accurate level tum entry requires that the air­ pitch attitude in relation to the horizon.
craft be flying straight-and-level, as accurately as pos­ 6. Maintain the look-out.
sible, prior to entering the turn. Any error made before
entering the tum is likely to be exaggerated as the turn In a gentle turn, the position of the nose in relation
develops. The same principle applies to climbing and to the horizon, which is the visual reference for pitch
descending turns. attitude, will remain almost the same as in straight­
When entering, maintaining, or recovering from a and-level flight. However, as the angle of bank. is
turn, the trained pilot co-ordinates the movement of increased beyond a gentle turn, the pitch attitude must
62 Turns

be altered (by backward pressure on the control col­ attitude selected and maintained during the climbing
umn) to increase lift; this is to compensate for the tum will depend upon the operational requirements at
added load factor imposed by centrifugal force as the the moment and will be those attitudes described in
turn steepens. The loss in airspeed, or the need Exercise 7, "Climbing." 1n a descending turn, power
for an increase in power to maintain airspeed, will be reduced in varying amounts from cruising to
becomes more apparent as the angle of bank throttle fully closed. The nose-down attitude will
increases. again vary to achieve the desired results, but will cor­
As the aircraft settles into an accurate tum: respond to those attitudes as discussed in Exercise 8,
'' Descending:•
I. The nose will move steadily around the horizon, The lateral stability of an aircraft in a climbing or
neither rising nor falling. descending turn is affected by the angle at which the
2. The airspeed wilJ be constant relative airflow meets each wing. As a result
3. The turn indicator will show a constant rate of tum.
4. The ball will be centred in its glass tube. I. ln a descending tum, the aircraft moves a given
5. The altimeter will be steady on the selected distance downward during a complete turn, but the
altitude. inner wing, turning on a smaller radius, descends
on a steeper spiraJ than the outer wing, like the
handrails on a spiral staircase. Therefore, the rel­
One of the most common faults when entering turns ative airflow meets the inner wing at a greater
is excessive use of rudder. This fault can be corrected angle of attack and so obtains more lift than the
quickly or completely prevented if you remember outer wing. The extra lift acquired this way com­
right from the outset not to apply rudder unless it is pensates for the extra lift obtained by the outer
necessary to control adverse yaw. wing due to its travelling faster. Therefore, in a
To recover from a tum: power-off descent the angle of bank will tend to
remain constant.
J . Look around. 2. rn a climbing tum, the inner wing still describes a
2. Roll the wings level with aileron control steeper spiral, but this time it is an upward spiral.
3. At the same time. use appropriate rudder pressure so the relative airllow meets the inner wing at a
to control adverse yaw. smaller angle of attack than the outer wing. In this
4. Keep wings level. case the outer wing obtains extra lift, both from its
5. Maintain correct pitch attitude with elevator extra speed and its greater angle of attack. There­
control. fore, the angle of bank will tend to increase and
6. Keep straight the aileron control must be used accordingly to
7. Look around. maintain the desired angle of bank.
8. Trim.
Initially, climbing and descending turns will be
In gentle level turns the lateral stability designed into entered from normal straight climbs and descents and
the aircraft will attempt to return it to straigbt-and­ the recovery made back to straight climbing or
level flight, therefore, slight aileron pressure may be descending flight, to enable you to experience and
required to maintain it in such a turn. However, as the readily observe the difference in pitch attitude nec­
bank attitude increases beyond a certain angle, lateral essary to maintain the desired airspeed. As you gain
stability is overcome. Simply stated, this results from proficiency, these turns will be entered directly from
the outer wing travelling faster than the inner wing straight-and-level flight and recovery made directly
and therefore obtaining more lift, causing the aircraft back to straight-and-level flight.
to continue its roU unless the pilot takes some action Power-off descending turns are particularly impor­
to stop it. Therefore, aileron control must be used tant, as they are directly related to forced landing pro­
accordingly to maintain the desired angle of bank. cedures. It is necessary that you learn to execute this
Climbing and descending turns are executed Like type of turn to reasonable proficiency almost subcon­
level turns except that, instead of maintaining a con­ sciously, since during a forced landing you must
stant altitude, a constant climb or descent is main­ attend to many other details. Because the controls may
tained. While the control inputs to enter, maintain, and be less responsive than in power-on turns, power-off
recover from the turn are the same as in level tu.ms, descending turns require the development of a dif­
there are additional considerations regarding power ferent technique from that required for power
and attitude control. manoeuvres.
In a climbing turn, additional power is required to When recovering from a power-off descending turn,
achieve the desired increase in aJtitude. The nose-up the pressure exerted on the elevator control during the
 Turns 63
turn must be decreased, or the aircraft will pitch up bank, an aircraft with a level flight stalling speed of
too high and airspeed will be lost. Such an error will 50 KT would stall at 70 KT.)
require a lot of attention and control adjustment before The greater the angle of bank, the greater the
the correct attitude and airspeed can be resumed. amount of lift required to maintain a constant altitude.
More altitude will be lost in a power-off descending Increased lift produces increased drag, thus more
turn than in a straight descent. engine power is required to maintain a constant air­
speed. Therefore, the angle of bank that can be
sustained in a level turn (disregarding structural
Steep Turns limitations) depends on the engine power available
(Fig. 2-17).
Steep turns are a means of turning quickly in a rela­ A steep turn is entered like any other tum, but as
tively small area, but as an exercise in flying they have the angle of bank is increased beyond the 30 degree
a value beyond purely practical application. They angle of the medium tum, you will need extra engine
provide one of the best instances of sustained extra power to maintain altitude and airspeed. A steep turn
loading effect, together with excellent practice in requires complete and simultaneous co-ordination of
co-ordinating all three flight controls and the power all controls. Because of the rapid rate of change of
control. The practical applications of steep turns are direction, the look-out for other aircraft before doing
almost all limited to emergency situations. Practise a steep tum is even more important than for other
them diligently so you can execute them accurately turns.
and without hesitation. Enter as for a medium turn. As the bank increases
Up to a limited angle of bank, a steep tum may be beyond that of a medium tum, move the control col­
executed without increasing engine power. However, wnn back to maintain the correct pitch attitude. Start
in order to maintain a constant altitude airspeed must increasing power as necessary to maintain airspeed as
be sacrificed. When carrying out this procedure the angle of bank increases beyond 30 degrees. When
remember that the stalling speed increases with an the required angle of bank is reached, keep it constant
increase in angle of bank (Fig. 2-16). (ln a 60 degree with aileron control.

- rh
0� ........ Angle of bank. ..................... 2Cf................................................40°
1.0 ......... Load lactor......................... 1.06 .............................................1.31
0......... lncrease in stall speed........... 3% .............................................13%

6� ........... Angle of bank .................... 75� ..............................................80"

2.0........... Load factor........................ 4.0 ............................................ 5.76
40% ........... Increase in stall speed ......100% ........................................... 140%
Figure 2-16 The Relationship Between Angle of Bank, Load Factor, and Basic Stall Speed
64 Turns

Level flight 30° bank 60° bank

Vertical component
of lift

-=

In a 60° bank, the line

Weight As the aircraft is banked, Weight representing lift is
the line representing Weight twice as long as the
lift becomes longer. one for level flight.

Figure 2-17 Lift and Angle of Bank

If the nose pitches too far down in a steep turn, do A steep descending turn can be used to come down
not attempt to correct by applying back pressure through a hole i_n clouds should you be unable to
alone, as this may serve to tighten the turn. Use co­ maintain adequate reference to the ground or water.
ordinated aileron and rudder pressure to reduce the Care should be taken .in a steep descending turn to
angle of bank slightly and correct the pitch attitude. maintain a safe and constant airspeed and avoid a
Recover from the tum exactly as from any other spiral.
turn, except that engine power should be reduced Specific technique in the e applications of steep
simultaneously with the return to straight-and-level turns - bank angle, power, airspeed, and flap settings
flight. Maintain a good look-out. - may vary according to the situation and type of
As it gives you the ability to turn quickly in a aircraft. Your instructor will discuss these with you.
reduced radius the steep tum has important practical lt is important to note that many of the situations
applications. For example, by increasing the rate and that require the use of a steep tum are a result of poor
reducing the radius of tum, a steep turn can be used decision making. Superior decision making can keep
to avoid a collision. The reduced radius also makes a you out of situations requiring the use of superior
steep turn useful as a "canyon turn�' This type of tum skill.
may require both a steep angle of bank and a reduced
airspeed. The suggested airspeed to use is not less
than the airspeed for maximum endurance. You will Instrument Indications
recall that maximum endurance airspeed is some­
where between the airspeed for slow flight and the During a turn instrument indications are as follows:
airspeed for maximum range. Extending a small
amount of flap in most aircraft will reduce the stall Tum-and-Bank Indicator. The needle will deflect in
speed, thereby providing an increased margin of the direction of the turn and will indicate the rate at
safety. [t is seldom necessary in practice or in an which the aircraft is turning. In a co-ordinated turn,
emergency to carry this turn beyond the 180 degrees the ball will be centred in its curved glass tube. If the
needed to reverse direction in a canyon. ball is off-centre to the inside of the tum, the aircraft
After you have performed the look-out, and the air­ is slipping into the centre of the turn. lf the ball is
craft is at the desired airspeed in straight-and-level off-centre to the outside of the turn, the aircraft is
flight, enter the tum promptly with co-ordinated use skidding out from the turn.
of all controls. As the aircraft approaches a 30 degree
angle of bank, apply power and establish the required Attitude Indicator. The horizon bar ( of most instru­
bank. Maintain the bank and adjust the pitch attitude ments) will remain parallel to the real horizon, and
as necessary to control altitude. the miniature aircraft in relation to the horizon bar
When recovering from the turn establish straight­ will indicate a bank in the same direction as the real
and-level flight and allow the airspeed to increase aircraft. This instrument also indicates the attitude of
before raising the flaps and reducing power. the aircraft in the pitching plane. The nose of the
 Turns 65
miniature aircraft, in relation to its artificial horizon, turn creates more drag, resulting in a decreased air­
corresponds to the pitch attitude of the nose of the speed. In a steep turn the airspeed decrease is more
real aircraft in relation to the real horizon. noticeable than in a gentle or medium turn. In the case
of a poorly co-ordinated turn, the airspeed indicator
Heading Indicator. Immediately as a turn begins, will react more significantly. As we1J, if the nose is
this instrument begins rotating to indicate the succes­ allowed to pitch too high, there will be a decrease in
sive new headings of the aircraft during the turn. airspeed; conversely, if the nose is allowed to pitch
When the turn stops, it stops. To decrease the numer­ too low, the airspeed indicator wi1J rapidly indicate an
ical values on the face of the instrument turn left; to increase in speed.
increase values turn right. A memory aid is "left for
less." Altimeter. In a co-ordinated level turn, the altimeter
needle would remain stationary at the selected alti­
Airspeed Indicator. Because the load factor tude. If the nose is held too high, there will be an
increases as a result of the turn, additional lift must increase in altitude. If the nose is allowed to drop too
be obtained by increasing the angle of attack. This in low, a decrease in altitude will be indicated.
EXERCISE TEN

Flight for Range and Endurance

To make effective use of an aircraft, you must under­ However, since most light aircraft do not have an
stand the concepts of range and endurance and be able angle of attack indicator, the pilot must rely on some
to use available charts to determine range and endur­ other ·means to determine when the aircraft is being
ance in known circumstances. flown at the correct angle of attack.

Flight For Range Airspeed

When an aircraft is being flown for maximum range, There is an indirect relationsrup between airspeed and
the objective is to fly the greatest distance possible angle of attack. By referring to the chart in Fig. 2-18,
per unit of fuel consumed. This capability depends on you can see that flying at the correct angle of attack
a number of factors. results in minimum drag, as shown on the total drag
curve, and corresponds to a given calibrated airspeed.
You can use indicated air peed since the difference
between the two speeds in most Light aircraft is neg­
Fuel Available ligible. Thls is fortunate since it is the only speed to
which you have direct reference.
Perhaps the most obvious factor affecting range is the So, there is an indicated airspeed that corresponds
amount of fuel available. When the tanks are full, it to the angle of attack that provides the best lift/drag
is an easy matter to determine the range for the air­ ratio. This speed does not change with altitude, but
craft by simply referring to the appropriate charts, must be increased slightly for increases in aircraft
which normally assume fuU fuel in the Aircraft Flight gross weight.
Manual.
However there are occasions when it is not possible
to carry full fuel partfoularly when aircraft gross
weight is a consideration. In these circumstances, it is Aircraft Weight
simply a matter of determining the rate of fuel con­
Increasing tbe weight carried by an aircraft results in
sumption for a given power setting and dividing the
an equal increase in the amount of lift required to
amount of fuel carried on board by that figure.
maintain level flight. This can be accomplished by
either increasing the airspeed or the angle of attack.
Since there is onJy one angle of attack that will pro­
Angle of Attack duce the best lift/drag ratio, the only way we can gen­
erate the extra lift required is to increase the airspeed.
As far as the aerodynamics of the aircraft are con­ As more power will be required to increase the air-
cerned, maximum range is achieved when the aircraft peed, more fuel will be used per mile flown, and
is being operated at the angle of attack giving the range will be decreased.
greatest ratio of lift to drag. The angle of attack that Note that manufacturers of light aircraft normally
gives the best lift/drag ratio for a given aircraft wilJ base performance data for their aircraft on gross
always be the same and is not affected by changes in weight. This doesn't mean that you should decrease
altitude or gross weight. your speed when operating at weights below gross.

66
 Flight for Range and Endurance 67
the airflow to exert this force. This force is equivalent
Drag or to adding weight to the tail and, depending on the type
thrust of aircraft, could be several hundred pounds. This is
required the same as carrying another passenger with baggage
(lbs} insofar as it affects the aircraft's performance.
Minimum drag When the Centre of Gravity is at its forward limit,
or more down force is required on the tail. This is
(L/D) max. accomplished by trimming the elevator to a slight
nose-up position, which produces the following unde­
sirable results:

1. More lift will be required (see the previous section

on Aircraft Weight).
2. The position of the trim tab and the elevator will
cause an increase in drag.

Since the solution to both of these problems is an

increase in power to maintain the correct airspeed, our
Velocity - knots range will be reduced.
Conversely, with a Centre of Gravity at the aft Limit
Power of the Centre of Gravity envelope, we will increase
required our range because there will be less down force on
(HP) the stabilizer and less drag caused by the elevator trim.
Therefore, less power will be required to maintain the
'O correct airspeed for range.
Q)
Q)
Q.
So, when considering Centre of Gravity and its
en effect on the range performance of an aircraft, it is
cu best to have an aft Centre of Gravity.
u5

Altitude
Selection of an altitude to fly is based on many fac­
(L/D) tors, including wind, turbulence, ceiling, distance to
---
max fly, terrain, radio reception, map reading, and aircraft
performance. Altitude has a significant effect on the
Velocity - knots range performance of an aircraft. The best altitude at
which to fly is determined by the efficiency of the
engine (and to some extent by propeller efficiency)
and not by the aerodynamics of the aircraft design.
Figure 2-18 Power/Drag Curves

Although technically correct this would not have a Engine Efficiency

significant effect on range performance for most light
aircraft. Besides, manuals for these aircraft don't give At low altitude, the engine power output is controlled
range performance charts for aircraft weights other with the venturi in the carburettor partially closed by
than gross weight. the throttle valve to avoid exceeding the recommended
power settings. Restricting the flow of the fuel/air
mixture to the engine in this manner causes it to run
less efficiently than when the throttle valve is fully
Centre of Gravity open.
To use both the aircraft and engine to best advan­
One of the ways pitch stabj\ity is achieved in aircraft tage to obtain maximum range, you must choose a
design is to have a positive force exerted downward higher rather than a lower altitude at which to fly.
on the stabilizer. This is usually accomplished by fix­ The optimum altitude is the altitude that permits
ing the stabilizer to the aircraft in a manner that causes the throttle to be fully open while providing the power
68 Flight for Range and Endurance

necessary to fly at the correct airspeed or angle of

attack. At altitudes above this, more power would be
Range Profile
required to maintain the correct airspeed. This will not 45 minutes reserve
be possible as the engine is already operating at full 24.5 gallons usable fuel
throttle.
Conditions:
1670Ibs
Climb Recommended lean mixture for cruise
Standard temperature
In many cases, it may not be practical to climb to the Zero wind
optimum altitude for maximum range due to the
nature of the intended flight, weather conditions, and Notes:
1. This chart allows for the fuel used for engine
the fuel required to climb to that altitude.
Referring to the chart in Fig. 2-19 you can see that start, taxi, takeoff and climb, and the distance
range decreases for the 45 percent power setting from during climb.
2. Reserve fuel is based on 45 minutes at 45% BHP
sea level up to 12,000 feet. This appears to contradict
and is 2.8 gallons.
what was said about selecting a higher altitude for
maximum range. However, a glance at the notes pro­
vided in the chart reveals the reason. Allowances have
been made for the fuel used for engine start, taxi
take-off and climb, the distance travelled during the
80 KTAS
climb to altitude, and 45 minutes reserve fuel. These
94 KTAS
aJlowances reduce the amount of fuel available for
102 KTAS
achieving maximum range at the optimum altitude.

Wind 91 KTAS
79 KTAS
One of the conditions specified for the chart shown
in Fig. 2-19, is that these range figures are based on
:S
i 6,000
a no wind situation. Depending on its strength and
97 KTAS
.�
1-------lf---+---+t----t---+-----<
direction, wind may have a greater effect on the range
of an aircraft than any other factor and is an important 89 KTAS
78 KTAS
<(
consideration when selecting an altitude at which to
103
fly.
As wind speed generally increases with altitude it KTAS .... ... ;:;
<ii
may be prudent to select an altitude where any head­
2,0001-----1
0
n..
94 KTAS
wind component will have minimal effect and tail­ 0
n..

87 KTAS
wind components will have maximum effect. How
77 KTAS
does a head-wind affect range? Quite simply it
350 400 450 500
reduces your ground speed and increases the length
Range (NM)
of time to get to your destination. This results in more
fuel being used.
You wiU never get the same range with a head-wind
component as you would in calm wind or with a tail
wind. However, with a head wind, you may improve Figure 2-19 Range Profile
the situation slightly by increasing the indicated air­
speed required for range by approximately 5 to 1 0 to fly to a destination l 70 miles away in a 50 KT head
percent (a negligible increase for most light aircraft) wind. (For i.llustration purposes, disregard the reserve
allowing you to get to your destination a little sooner. fuel requirement.) At a ground speed of 30 KT and
Consequently, by arriving sooner you have decreased fuel. for 5.5 hours, the aircraft would run out of fuel
the time you have been affected by the head wind at I 65 mile leaving it 5 miles short of its destination.
without appreciably increasing fuel consumption. The same aircraft with power increased to give it a
As an exaggerated illustration, consider a typical higher cruising speed of 90 KT has also increased its
light aircraft with fuel for 5.5 hours of flight at a rec­ fuel consumption so that on]y 4.5 hours of fuel is
ommended range cruising speed of 80 KT, planning available, but at a ground speed of 40 KT the aircraft
 Flight for Range and Endurance 69

wiU cover 180 miles on its available fuel, 10 miles Find the 6,000 ft. Pressure Altitude figure on the
more than required to reach its destination. left of the chart, and move across to the Standard
Conversely, by reducing lhe indicated airspeed by Temperature column. Move down the % BHP column
the same amount (5 percent to 10 percent) with a tail to the figure 45, read the first column to the rig.bl and
wind, you can increase the benefit derived from thjs find that your TAS will be 79 KT. As there is no wind,
situation due to the increased ground speed and a ground speed and true airspeed will be the same. ote
slight decrease in fuel consumption that will result in that the column next to the Pressure Altitude provides
an increase in range. the RPM required to achjeve various power settings. In
this case for 45 percent power you would adjust the
throttle to 2000 RPM.
Determining Range While there are occasions when you might want to
achleve the best range possible for a given set of cir­
When we speak of range, we are simply talking about cumstances, the truth of the matter is that in the
the distance the aircraft will travel in numerous hlghly majority of cases you will probably trade the economy
variable circumstances. T he cruise performance and of flight for range (and the lower speeds) just to get
range charts provided by the aircraft manufacturer to your destination more quickly.
make it possible to achleve optimum performance The desire to get there faster is usually a maner of
from your aircraft for a given set of these cir­ personal preference. If this should be your choice, the
cumstances and to determine the range for a particular Cruise and Range charts would be used in a different
power setting. You must be proficient in the use of order. After selecting a power setting and correspond­
these charts to determine range information for your ing TAS from the Cruise Performance chart, you
flights. would then refer to the Range chart to determine how
far you could safely go before stopping for fuel. A
reminder once again, these charts do not make allow­
Using the Charts ances for wind and in some cases, non-standard
atmosphere.
First look carefully at the conditions specified for the
Range Profile and Cruise Performance charts. For the
Range Profile chart (Fig. 2-19), you will note that the
figures are based on standard temperature, zero wind, Flight For Endurance
and a weight of 1,670 pounds, which happens to be
the gross weight for this aircraft. Another important There is a maxi.mum length of time an aircraft may
po.int to note in the conditions specified for both remain airborne for a given power setting depending
charts is that the mixture must be leaned in accor­ on the amount of fuel carried . This time or endurance
dance with the manufacturer's recommended proce­ will obviously be less when the aircraft is operated at
dures. Again, read the applicable conditions carefully. hlgh power settings and greater at low power settings.
They are not the same for all charts. However, when an aircraft is being operated io a
When considering aircraft pcrfonnance, trne air­ manner that will enable it to remain in the air as long
speed and fuel consumption for a given power setting as possible for the amount of fuel carried on board, it
at a given altitude are obtained from a chart in the is said to be flying for maximum endurance. While
Aircraft Flight Manual such as the one shown in most pilots will seldom encounter situations necessi­
Fig. 2-20, Cnuse Performance. tating llight for maximum endurance, there are cir­
For example, let us assume that you have selected cumstances that do require the use of this skill.
6,000 feet ASL as the altitude for your cross-country The pilot who requests Special VFR into a busy
flight (for illustration purposes, disregard the VFR Class C aerodrome may be required to hold clear of
Cruising Altitude requirement). Let us also assume the control zone due to JFR and possibly other SVFR
that you are going to attempt to get the best range arrivals and departures. Setting the aircraft up for
possible under the circumstances (consider the wind maximum endurance flight might be advisable in this
to be calm and the temperature to be standard). situation, especially if the possibility exists for a
By referring to the Range Profile chart (Fig. 2-19), lengthy wait for a clearance into the zone.
you find that 45 percent power will provide the best Even in situations where a delay won't be so long
range for 6,000 feet, slightly more than 420 NM. Now as to threaten your fuel reserves, it makes sense to
that you know how far you can go, you need to know slow down and save fuel.
your true airspeed in order to calculate your ground Perhaps the most important decision the piJot has
speed and ETA. To do thjs, consult the Cnuse Per­ to make is whether to set the aircraft up for endurance
formance chart (Fig. 2-20). flight and wait for the situation to improve, or take
70 Flight for Range and Endurance
CRUISE PERFORMANCE

CONDITIONS:
1,670 lbs.
Recommended Lean Mixture

20° 8ELOW STANDARD 20 ° ABOVE

STANDARD TEMP TEMPERATURE STANDARD TEMP
PRESSURE
ALTITUDE % % %
FT RPM BHP KTAS GPH BHP KTAS GPH BHP KTAS GPH
2,000 2400 - - - 75 101 6.1 70 101 5.7
2300 71 97 5.7 66 96 5.4 63 95 5.1
2200 62 92 5.1 59 91 4.8 56 90 4.6
2100 55 87 4.5 53 86 4.3 51 85 4.2
2000 49 81 4.1 47 80 3.9 46 79 3.8
4,000 2450 - - - 75 103 6.1 70 102 5.7
2400 76 102 6.1 71 101 5.7 67 100 5.4
2300 67 96 5.4 63 95 5.1 60 95 4.9
2200 60 91 4.8 56 90 4.6 54 89 4.4
2100 53 86 4.4 51 85 4.2 49 84 4.0
2000 48 81 3.9 46 80 3.8 45 78 3.7
6,000 2500 - - - 75 105 6.1 71 104 5.7
2400 72 101 5.8 67 100 5.4 64 99 5.2
2300 64 96 5.2 60 95 4.9 57 94 4.7
2200 57 90 4.6 54 89 4.4 52 88 4.3
2100 51 85 4.2 49 84 4.0 4a 83 3.9
2000 46 80 3.8 45 79 3.7 44 n 3.6
8,000 2550 - - - 75 107 6.1 71 106 5.7
2500 76 105 6.2 71 104 5.8 67 103 5.4
2400 68 100 5.5 64 99 5.2 61 98 4.9
2300 61 95 5.0 58 94 4.7 55 93 4.5
2200 55 90 4.5 52 89 4.3 51 87 4.2
2100 49 84 4.1 48 83 3.9 46 82 3.8
10,000 2500 72 105 5.8 68 103 5.5 64 103 5.2
2400 65 99 5.3 61 98 5.0 58 97 4.8
2300 58 94 4.7 56 93 4.5 53 92 4.4
2200 53 89 4.3 51 88 4.2 49 86 4.0
2100 4a 83 4.0 46 82 3.9 45 81 3.8
12,000 2450 65 101 5.3 62 100 5.0 59 99 4.8
2400 62 99 5.0 59 97 4.8 56 96 4.6
2300 56 93 4.6 54 92 4.4 52 91 4.3
2200 51 88 4.2 49 87 4.1 48 85 4.0
2100 47 82 3.9 45 81 3.8 44 79 3.7
Figure 2-20 Cruise Performance

other action. Proceeding to an alternate may be the achieved at sea level. That is not to say that you must
most prudent course of action in many cases. fly at sea level each time you set the aircraft up for
endurance flight. However, the best endurance per­
formance will be achieved at the lowest practicable
Altitude altitude commensurate with safety, which includes
considerations such as traffic, ATC instructions or
For reciprocating engmes, maxlillum endurance is clearances, and obstacles.
 Flight for Range and Endurance 7I

Turbulence
Endurance Profile
Turbul nee will have a ignificant effect on the endur­ 45 minutes reserve
ance p rformance of an aircraft. Thi is due to th 24.5 gallons usable fuel
up tting effect turbulence ha on the stability of the
aircraft. Conditions;
urbulence chang the angle at which the relati e 1670lbs
airflov meets the wing. t higher angles of attack, Recommended lean mixture for cruise
more p ;wer is required to o ercome the increased Standard temperature
drag. Because the aircraft i already being operated at
the minimum power etting to maintain level flight
Notes:
there will not be sufficient p wer to both overcom
th increa ed drag and maintain altitude. 1. This chart allows lor !he fuel used for engine
Therefore, if the pilot i to maintain level flight, it start, taxi, takeott and climb, and the distance
will be necessary to con tantly change the power set­ during climb.
ting resulting in a con iderable increa e in fuel con­ 2. Reserve fuel is based on 45 minutes at 45% BHP
and is 2.8 gallons.
umption. In this case the pilot would be better off
u ing a lightly higher c ntinuou power setting.

Flaps
Flap are not generally used when the aircraft is being
12,000
I ,
fl wn for endurance. While increasing the coefficient .JP
of lift flap will aJ o incr, the c fficient of drag
-s[J
I
10,000
:;
r uJtiog in more pow r being required to maintain

I
1 el fl igbt thus defeating the purpo e.

Mixture -a> 8,000

Once the minimum power etting for level flight has �

Q> 6,000
be n found, maximum enduranc may only b
a hi ed with the mixtur leaned properly. You may
<(
notice that as the mixtur is leaned, in the case of an
4,000
aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller there will be an
increa e in RPM. If thi should be the case remember a3 a3 a3 a3
to readju t the RPM.
3:,
0
a..
3:,
�
i i
CL
2,000 Q_

:al<
0 Ii" #- ,.e_
LO LO
<O LO s:r
Determining Endurance
S.L
ndurance flight may be determined by reference to 3 4 5 6
the information pro ided in tb ircraft Flight Man­ Endurance (hours)
ual usually in the form of a chart, or by experiment­
i
ing wth various power etting .
Figure 2-21 Endurance Profile

Using the Chart e of this chart i straightforward. elect an alti­

tud from the left ide of th hart and mo hori­
o t manufacturers do not pro • de a particular peed zontally to the right to th de ired power etting. From
for maximum endurance. The ndurance Profile chart the intersection of the e t\ lines mo e verticaUy
hown in Fig. 2-21 is typical of the endurance infor­ down to the figure at th bottom of the chart repre-
mation provided by one manufacturer and imply enting Endurance (hours . The incremerr betw n
gi e th endurance that can be expected at variou th e numbers repre ent .2 hour or 12 minute . For
p wer ettiog . Read the onditions a ociated with example at 4,000 feet and 5 percent power. enduranc
the chart carefully. for this aircraft i ju t under 4 hours.
72 Flight for Range and Endurance

Experimental Method Fig. 2-22, shows an actual test of an aeroplane with

a fixed pitch propeller and fixed gear with a power­
Referring to the Endurance Profile chart shown in off stall speed of 56 KT. Note that for this particular
Fig. 2-21, note that the lowest power setting provided aircraft, the minimum power setting at which level
by the chart is 45 percent, giving an endurance of 5.6 flight is possible is 2075 RPM which in this case, cor­
hours at sea level. However, 45 percent power may responds to a speed of 65 KT indicated airspeed. In
not be the lowest power setting required to maintain this manner, the power setting for maximum endur­
level flight. In fact, most light aircraft are capable of ance for any aircraft with a reciprocating engine may
maintaining level flight at much lower power settings. be determined.
Why then doesn't the manufacturer provide a spe­ RPM Indicated Airspeed (KT)
cific power setting or airspeed for maximum endur­
ance? As with range, it is impossible to do so due to 2700 101
the number of variable factors, such as altitude, tem­ 2600 96
perature, and gross weight, that may affect the endur­ 2500 90
ance performance of an aircraft on a given flight. 2400 86
1n the absence of any specific information in the 2300 78
2200 74
Aircraft Flight Manual, it is left to the pilot to deter­ 2150 70
mine the power setting for maximum endurance for a 2075 65
given set of circumstances. You may find the approx­ 2250 61
imate maximum endurance speed for your aeroplane 2300 57
experimentally by flying at various power settings Figure 2-22 Endurance Power and Resultant
while maintaining level flight. Airspeed
For example, commencing at a power setting in the
mid-cruise range for your aeroplane, decrease power The power setting for endurance flight determined
in 100 RPM increments while retrimming for level in this manner, will be adequate for straight-and-level
flight and allowing the airspeed to stabilize at a con­ flight. However, if turns are to be made, and this is
stant value. You will eventually arrive at a point where usually the case when you are "holding;• it will be
further reductions of power will result in a stall if you necessary to increase power slightly to maintain alti­
attempt to maintain altitude, or in a loss of altitude if tude and compensate for the forces acting on the air­
you attempt to prevent the stall. In fact, the only way craft in the tum. Leaving the power constant at this
you can prevent either of these events from occurring setting will result in Jess fuel being used than if the
is to increase power so that you will now find yourself power is changed each time you turn.
flying at an airspeed requiring a somewhat higher Remember, the decision to fly for maximum endur­
power setting to maintain level flight. You have now ance while waiting for a particular situation to
entered slow flight. (See Fig. 2-18, Power/Drag improve must be an informed one based on the knowl­
Curves.) edge that all of the factors that influence good deci­
lt is now a matter of adjusting power to the lowest sion making have been considered and that reasonable
setting that enables you to maintain level flight, and options exist to provide an out if things don't go as
you will be flying for endurance. Remember to retrirn planned. If in doubt, don't hesitate to proceed to an
the aircraft. alternate.
EXERCISE ELEVEN

Slow Flight

Slow flight for the purposes of thjs manual may be aircraft, especially the control of altitude airspeed,
defined as "that range of airspeeds between the max­ and yaw.
imum endurance speed for a particular aircraft and the To enter slow flight, first establish the aircraft in
point just above its stalJing speed for the existing straight-and-level flight for maximum endurance.
flight condjtions." Training in slow flight has four main Once established, raise the nose beyond the normal
purposes: nose-up limjts for maximum endurance. The airspeed
will decrease due to increased drag, and a lo s of
1. To learn to recognize the symptoms when approach­ height will become apparent. To offset the loss of
ing the slow flight speed range to avoid inadvertent height and to maintain altitude, an increase in power
entry into this speed range. will be required. The aircraft is now in slow flight
2. To maintain afe flight control in all configurations (Fig. 2-23).
within the slow flight speed range. This will aid in With the aircraft estabJished in slow flight, a further
development of co-ordmation and instill confidence decrease in airspeed without a change in power setting
in the handling of the aircraft. will result in a loss of height. Therefore, you must
3. To acquaint the student with the possible conse­ increase power to majntain a constant altitude. Con­
quences of failing to take prompt corrective action, versely, an increase in airspeed without a change in
particularly when flying at airspeeds close to min­ power setting will result in a decrease in induced drag.
imum control speed. You must then reduce power to maintain a constant
4. To learn to recover to normal airspeeds promptly altitude at the higher airspeed. There may be a slight
with a minimum loss of altitude. loss of altitude during the transition period.
Slow flight at minimum airspeeds should be prac­
There are several conditions where an aircraft may tised in straight-and-level flight, climbing and descend­
encounter slow flight. Some of these conditions are: ing, level turns, and climbing and descending turns.
take-offs landings, recovering from a mi Judged land­ Should it be necessary to manoeuvre in slow flight in
ing, and an approach to a stall. Of prime importance gusty wind conditions, the airspeed must be adjusted
is your awareness of the effect of controls .in low upward to allow for the gust factor.
flight. Dual flight instruction should include exposure to
During slow flight, control and management of the slow flight in a climb to simulate the conditions that
aircraft require the fuJI attention of the pilot. Further­ may be experienced during an overshoot at a high
more, operation in slow flight is not necessarily eco­ density altitude, or when affected by obstacles to
nomical: fuel consumption is higher and engine demonstrate the need for prompt and proper transition
damage can result from overheating during prolonged from slow flight.
flight at these airspeeds, particularly while attempting When you are established in a constant rate of
to climb. An aircraft should not be operated in slow descent in slow flight, a reduction in airspeed will
flight while waiting for weather to clear, while inspect­ result in an increased rate of descent, thereby necessi­
ing a potential landing area, or while searching for tating an increase in power to maintain the former rate
ground fixes when lost. of descent.
When operating within the slow flight speed range It should be remembered that slow flight should be
you must know and understand the characteristics of hort duration because of the insufficient airflow
as ociated with the performance and control of the for engine cooling.

73
74 Slow Flight

Figure 2-23 Transition from Cruise to Minimum Controllable Airspeed

Flaps It is very important to note that during slow flight

the engine and propeller produce slipstream and
Straight-and-level flight, climbs descents, and turns asymmetric thrust, which tend to yaw the aeroplane
in slow flight should be practised at various flap set­ to the left. Remember that this yaw must be controlled
tings. Your instructor will show you how certain flap by rudder. Depending upon the power and speed com­
settings may afford better forward visibility due to a bination, a firm right rudder pressure may be required
lower nose attitude. You will also see how flap exten­ to maintain direction. As well, because of the high
sion will decrease the stall speed; thus, allowing you power low airspeed combination, torque will tend to
to fly safely at lower speeds. Flaps will often be roll the aeroplane to the left. This rolling is not as
extended when it is necessary to transition from slow noticeable as the yaw, but nevertheless must be com­
flight to level flight or a climb: examples are recov­ pensated for with aileron.
ering from a bad landing and an overshoot. Therefore,
you should become proficient in controlling the air­
craft in slow flight at different flap settings.
Encountering A Stall

As speed is further reduced, more power is required

Control Responses to maintain the desired height ( or rate of descent), but
when the nose pitches down with full power applied,
The control responses in slow flight will be different the airspeed has gone below the minimum control­
from those experienced when flying in the normal lable airspeed. At this point the aircraft has entered a
speed range. Lack of aileron response will be the most stalled flight condition. Near the stalling speed, factors
noticeable, and the lower the airspeed the less effec­ such as air density, aircraft weight, and the drag .from
tive the ailerons will be. In fact aileron drag on most flaps and landing gear (when applicable) may produce
aeroplanes will become quite prominent in slow flight a condition in which it becomes impossible to maintain
and produce a noticeable yaw opposite to the direction height. This may happen in attempting a turn after
of intended turn. When entering a tum during slow take-off with a high all-up weight and a critical density
flight, you will have to compensate for aileron drag altitude.
by use of rudder in the direction of the desired turn. The slow flight speed range does not automaticaUy
Elevators and rudder will be influenced by the in1ply serious control difficulties or hazardous con­
propeller slipstream and these controls will continue ditions. However, it does amplify any errors of basic
to be effective. Any alteration in power or speed will flying technique. Hence, proper technique and precise
affect all the controls and changes in response may be control of the aircraft are essential.
noticed.
EXERCISE TWELVE

Stalls

A tall is a loss of lift and increas in drag that occurs of attack increases the turbulent air progresses for­
when an aircraft is flown at an angle of attack greater ward toward the leading edge of the wing until the
than the angle for maximum lift. Stall training will stalling angle is reached. At that point, the downwash
allow you to recognize the symptoms of an approach­ and the pressure differential are greatly reduced, and
ing stall early enough to take action to prevent a staU a lo s of lift results. Due to the loss of lift and increa e
from happening. You will al o learn how to recover in drag, the remaining lift i insufficient to upport
po itively and smoothly with a minimum loss of alti­ the aeroplane and the wing talls. The four parts of
tud should a tall occur. Fig. 2-24 show the airflow over the aerofoil at various
stages leading to the tall.
Why Does a Wing Stall? It i basfo in recognizing stalls to remember that,
unlike angle of incidence angle of attack is a relati e
factor. Therefore you cannot rely upon aircraft attitude
The lift generated by a wing i dependent upon a entirely to indicate the po ibiJity of a stall. Angl of
mooth accelerated airflo er the ing. At moder- attack may be simply defined as the angle between
ate angles of attack the airflo near the trailing edge the mean chord of an aerofoil and its direction of
of the wing becomes mildly turbulent. As the angle motion relative to the airflow (relative airflow . In thi

- C
=--=-----=----� Al angle of attack 16°:
A ----====�
� airflow over wing is turbulent
At angle of attack 8": airflow
and breaking away. Lift is no
over wing is smooth.
longer increasing.

D
B At angle of attack 20°:
A angle of attack 12": airflow airflow over wing has
over wing is becoming slightly turbulent broken away. Lift is
near the trailing edge. Still more lift decreasing.
is being produced.
Figure 2-24 Angles of Attack

75
76 Stalls

manual, the term "relative airflow," is used to describe varies from aircraft to aircraft, but generally in the
the direction of the airflow with respect to an aerofoil classic wings level nose-up attitude a slightly lower
in flight. An aircraft may be stalled in practically any stalling speed will be noted, especially in the power­
attitude and at practically any airspeed. on configuration.
With altitude, the density of the air in which an
aircraft is flying decreases. Although the true airspeed
Stalling Speeds at which the aeroplane stalls is higher at altitude, the
airspeed indicator, which itself functions by the effect
Regardless of airspeed, an aircraft always stalls when of the air density, will record the same speed when
the wings reach the same angle of attack. Remember, the aircraft stalls at altitude as it did at or near ground
angle of attack and aircraft attitude are not consis­ level. Therefore, indicated stalling speeds will remain
tently related. Although stalling speeds may be given the same at all altitudes.
for a specific type of aircraft, the stalling speed for
each aircraft may vary with the following factors:

Weight. Since weight opposes lift, a lightly loaded, Symptoms of an Approaching Stall
properly balanced aircraft will have a lower stalling
speed than a similar aircraft operating at its maximum As most aircraft do not have an angle of attack indi­
permissible weight. cator, the airspeed must be used as a guide to iden­
tifying the approach to a stall. Other symptoms of an
Balance. The position of the Centre of Gravity will approaching stall are:
also affect the stalling speed of an aircraft. A forward
Centre of Gravity location will cause the stalling angle l . A decrease in the effectiveness of the controls,
of attack to be reached at a higher airspeed while a especially elevator and aileron control: the "live"
rearward Centre of Gravity will cause the stalling resistance to pressures on the controls becomes
angle of attack to be reached at a lower airspeed. progressively less and less as speed decreases.
An improperly loaded aircraft may display Wlde­ 2. Audible or visual stall warning devices fitted in
sirable stalling characteristics. This is particularly true most aircraft are activated prior to the stall.
of an aircraft loaded beyond the aft Centre of Gravity 3. Buffeting (the beating effect of turbulent airflow
limits. on the aircraft's structure, which can be heard and/
or felt) varies in intensity with different types of
Power. Because of the additional upward thrust and aircraft.
other lift contributing factors of a power-on stall, the 4. Loss of height, despite rearward movement of the
stalling speed will be lower than with power off. elevator control.
Flaps. When flaps are extended the camber of the
Always remember that should the approach to stall
wing is effectively increased. This deflects more of
symptoms begin when a stall is not intended, move­
the airflow downward for a given airspeed, thereby
ment of the controls should be smooth and prompt.
increasing lift. This factor allows the aircraft to be
Most aerofoils stall at about 17 degrees angle of
flown at a lower speed before the stall occurs.
attack; therefore, the stall symptoms occur at 15 to 16
Pitch. When an aircraft is pitched upward abruptly, degrees. The alert pilot will be able to recognize the
the load factor is increased correspondingly and a stall since it normally occurs gradually. Because of
higher staHing speed is introduced for the duration the wash-out of the wings, the stall begins at the wing
of change in pitch attitude (see Chapter 1, "Load roots, and, as the angle of attack is increased, moves
Factor"). progressively toward the wing tips. When the first
symptoms of a stall occur, move the elevator control
Angle of Barile. The greater the bank angle, in co­ forward smoothly and promptly to reduce the angle of
ordinated flight, the higher the stalling speed. attack and to return the aircraft to stabiLized flight. If
additional power is available you may effectively
Aircraft Condition. A clean, well-maintained, prop­ reduce the angle of attack by applying appropriate
erly rigged aircraft will invariably have better stalling power, without any change in the aircraft's pitch atti­
characteristics and lower stalling speeds than a similar tude. However, under normal conditions you should
aircraft in poor general condition. eliminate stall symptoms by adding available power
and lowering the nose to reduce the angle of attack.
Retractable Landing Gear. Extending the ]anding Approaching close to the stall but not fully stalling is
gear increases drag. The effect on stalling speed referred to as an imminent stall (Fig. 2-25).
 Stalls 77

�
Begin recovery by reducing angle of attack and applying power as needed.

Figure 2-25 Recovery from an Imminent Stall

Power-Off Stall Entry and Recovery

'
Practise stalls only over an unpopulated area and at
an operationally safe altitude. Practice stall recoveries
should be completed at or above the height recom­
mended by the manufacturer, or no less than 2,000 feet
above ground, whichever is the greater. During train­ Excessive � _
ing your instructor will emphasize repeatedly that the nose-up attitude •�
objective is not how to stall an aircraft but how to
recognize the onset of a stall condition and take prompt Add climb power
Cruise speed
corrective action.
Intentional stalls must be preceded by:

I. The cockpit check. Check for such things as car­

burettor ice seat-belts secure windows shut loose Figure 2-26 Improper Stall Entry from Cruise
articles secured� etc.
2. The look around. Do a very careful look around in 1. Immediately reduce the angle of attack.
all directions, especially below. 2. Regain a correct flight attitude with co-ordinated
use of flight controls. Not every situation demands
Power-off stalls are generally entered from straight­ the application of power, but its use must become
and-level flight. Apply carburettor heat if required an integral part of the recovery procedure
close the throttle smoothly, control yaw with rudder, (Fig. 2-27).
:.... and hold the aircraft in level flight by continued back
pressure on the control column. The airspeed will First, at the indications of a stall lower the nose
gradually decrease through endurance speed and enter positively and immediately. The amount of forward
the slow flight range. As the airspeed decreases, con­ control movement required varies from aircraft to air­
trol response diminishes and greater displacement of craft - in most cases only moderate pressure to about
the controls will be required to produce a desired the neutral position is needed. The objective is to
result. You will also notice a change in tone and inten­ reduce the angle of attack sufficiently to smooth the
sity of the slipstream noise. Maintain the back pres­ airflow over the wing. Keep straight with rudder. Use
sure to hold the nose in the attitude used in a normal ailerons if permitted by the Aircraft Flight Manual.
climb until the stall occurs. Keep straight with rudder Second, apply full power promptly and smoothly.
control Rough or abrupt throttle operation may result in
When practicing stalls, avoid raising the nose of the delayed engine response or a complete loss of power
aircraft too far above the horizon to produce the stall at a most crucial moment, especially if it has cooled
r (Fig. 2-26). This will ensure you experience more off during a glide. At altitude a cruise power setting
I
realistic symptoms of an accidental stall. is normally sufficient, but at low altitudes application
A simplified explanation of the procedure for of full power is necessary to minimize loss of altitude.
recovering from a stall is: Due to the low airspeed there is very little risk of
78 Stalls

Nose pitches down

Apply power as necessary

Decrease angle of attack

Co-ordinate rudder and ailerons

Figure 2-27 Full Stall Recovery

overspeeding the engine. It's better to use too much aircraft from a full stall with power on is much more
power at this poi nt than too Little. Resume the normal steep and rapid. The aircraft is also more difficult to
power setting as soon as recovery is accomplished, control during recovery, since in many cases there is
and you have regained cruise attitude. a tendency for one wing to drop at the same time as
Straight-and-level flight is regained by co-ordinated the nose pitches down.
use of controls. Recovery from the stall should result When you enter a stall with power on, the elevators
in regaining normal flight with the least loss of height. and rudder retain their effectiveness longer due to the
In the average light aircraft, with the use of power, propeller slipstream. However, the ailerons are less
lowering tbe nose to the cruise attitude, or slightly effective than in a power-off stall. This is partially due
below, will accomplish this end. to power causing the stalling speed to be slightly
A stall can be aggravated by yaw. As the aeroplane lower, which decreases aileron effectiveness.
yaws, a difference in lift between the two wings devel­ To enter a stall with power on, raise the nose
ops causing one wing to drop. This automatic rolling smoothly to a nose-up attitude and hold it there with
tendency is called autorotation and is described in continued aft movement of the control column as nec­
detail in Chapter 13. essary until the stall occurs. Because of the additional
Should the aircraft yaw and a wing drop, carry out thrust the nose must be raised higher to accomplish a
the full stall recovery procedure: unstaU the aircraft, stall. During a power on entry, yaw due to slipstream
keep straight by controlling yaw, and level the wings and asymmetric thrust will make directional control
with. co-ordinated use of flight controls (Fig. 2-28). more difficult.
Recovery from a power-on stall with any given
Power-On Stall Entry and Recovery power setting is made in the same manner as recovery
from any other stall. However, as the stall could be
The principles that apply to power-off stalls also apply more abrupt and the loss of control more complete
to stalls entered with power, although there are some full application of any remaining power is of great
differences in the manoeuvres. The pitching of the importance.

Figure 2-28 Co-ordinated Rudder and Aileron Control is used during Stall Recovery
 Stalls 79

Acceleration Stalls Stalls During Turns

At the same gross weight, configuration, and power When an aircraft is stalled during a level or descend­
setting, an aircraft will consistently stall at the same ing tum, the inside wing normally stalls first, and the
indicated airspeed, provided no additional load factor aircraft will roll to the inside of the turn. In a level
is incurred by a manoeuvre or abrupt use of the con­ turn, the inside wing is travelling more slowly than
trols. The aircraft will, however, stall at a higher air­ the outside wing and obtains less lift, causing it to
speed when manoeuvring loads are imposed by sink and increase i. ts angle of attack. Under the proper
sudden turns, pull-ups, or abrupt changes in its flight conditions, this will produce a stall. During a descend­
path. Stalls entered from such flight situations are ing turn, the path described by the aircraft is a down­
called acceleration stalls. ward spiral; therefore, the inside wing i.s meeting the
Following an intentional stall, if the nose has been relative airflow at a steeper angle of attack and is the
allowed to pitch down at a large angle the airspeed one to stall first and drop lower.
will increase rapidly. Should the elevator control be However, during a climbing turn, the path described
brought back too rapidly to recover from the dive the by the aircraft is an upward spiral; therefore, the out­
aircraft will enter a "secondary stall" at a much side wing is meeting the relative airflow at a steeper
greater speed than that experienced in a normal stall. angle of attack than the lower wing. As a result, the
Regardless of airspeed trend, any movement of the higher wing will normally stall first and drop abruptly
controls which increases the "G" factor produces an when the stalled condition occurs.
acceleration.
In a tum, the aircraft is accelerated toward the cen­
tre of the turn; the steeper the tum, the greater the
acceleration, hence the greater the load factor and the Departure Stalls
higher the stalling speed. An aircraft that might nor­
During take-off and the initial stage of departure, an
mally stall at 50 KT may stall at a speed well in excess
aircraft enters into and passes through a critical con­
of l 00 KT in a steep turn when the angle of bank
dition of flight. After leaving the ground and accel­
exceeds 60 degrees. Therefore, acceleration forces erating to climbing airspeed, the aircraft passes
generated by turns or abrupt changes in upward pitch, through a period of low airspeed at low altitude. Any
regardless of airspeed, will always increase the stalling abrupt pull-up or reduction in engine power could
speed. This holds true in climbing turns, level turns, cause the aircraft to stall. Should a mishap occur at
gliding turns, steep turns - in fact any turn, regardless this point and good airmanship has prevailed, the
of power. A manoeuvre which requires special atten­ throttle can be closed and a landing safely made
tion to airspeed and angle of bank is the power-off straight ahead with only smaU changes in direction to
(gliding) tum, especially when conducted close to the avoid obstructions. However, should an aircraft atti­
ground. tude become too nose high after rotation, a stall may
Turbulence can cause a significant increase in stall­ occur from which a successful recovery cannot be
ing speed. An upward gust causes an abrupt change made, or if the aircraft is in a near stalled conditi.on,
in the relative airflow, which results in an equally it will not climb sufficiently to clear obstacles in the
abrupt increase in angle of attack. All stalls are caused flight path (Fig. 2-29). Therefore, establishing the cor­
by exceeding the critical angle of attack, and the base rect nose-up attitude for a climb after take-off is
from which this angle is measured is the direction of imperative. As part of the departure procedure, take
motion of the relative airflow. This is why an airspeed great care to establish the correct nose-up attitude
slightly higher than normal is usually recommended when executing a climbing turn, especially if the turn
when approaching to land in turbulent conditions. must be carried out before a safe height is reached.
That an aircraft may be stalled at any airspeed, does Another critical departure procedure is the "over­
not imply that it is permissible to do so. The lower shoot" resulting from a missed approach. More often
the airspeed when a stall occurs the less the possibility than not, when a decision is reached to discontinue an
,--
of structural damage, as the load factors are minimal. approach, the airspeed is low and the flaps are
However, the higher the airspeed the higher the load extended. In addition, it may be necessary to turn very
factor, and correspondingly the greater the chance of shortly after initiating the missed approach (for traffic
inflicting structural damage. This is why Aircraft pattern purposes). To avoid conditions that may lead
Flight Manuals include "manoeuvring speed" as an to a stall or near stall, pay particular attention to the
operating limitation. Manoeuvring speed is the max­ following:
imum speed at which the application of full aerody­
namic control will not overstress the aircraft. l . Apply full power. Remember, this is a form of
80 Stalls

Decrease angle of attack and apply full power

��
�
� �
Co-ordinate rudder and aileron

Figure 2-29 Departure Stall

take-off under adverse conditions so nothing less flaps fulJy extended. Retract the flaps smoothly in
than full power is adequate. accordance with the instructions in the Aircraft
2. Application of power plus the nose-up trim used Flight Manual. Should the Aircraft Flight Manual
during the approach will tend to force the aircraft not indicate bow to raise the flaps, it is recom­
into a nose-high attitude. Anticipate this and com­ mended that they be raised in stages. When the
pensate by holding the correct pitch attitude until flaps are fully retracted immediately, a sudden loss
the trim can be readjusted. of height can occur. Attempts to arrest this descent
3. Very few aircraft are able to sustain a climb with by raising the nose suddenly may induce a stall.
EXERCISE THIRTEEN

Spinning

The spin has no practical application in normal flight.

You are trained in spins to learn recognition, avoi.d­ Auto rotation
ance, and recovery.
It is imperative tbat only aircraft certified for inten­ An automatic rolling tendency, or autorotation, will
tional spinning be used for any form of spin training. develop following a stall that has been aggravated by
The type certificate, Aircraft Flight Manual, or cock­ yaw. If allowed to continue, autorotation will develop
pit placards must be consulted to determine under into a spin.
what conditions, if any spin practice may be under­ If for some reason one wing of an aircraft produces
taken in a particular aircraft. The pilot of an aircraft more lift than the other, the aircraft will rolJ and the
placarded against intentional spins should assume that downgoing wing will meet the relative airflow at a
it might become uncontrollable in a spin. Entry and greater angle of attack. At ordinary angles of attack,
recovery techniques recommended in this text apply this increase in angle will cause an increase in lift,
to the average light training aircraft. Should the Air­ which tends to restore the aircraft to its previous
craft Flight Manual dictate different techniques, they attitude. When a downgoing wing experiences an
must be followed. increased angle of attack at or near the stalling angle,

Movement about the yw axis Movement about the roll axis

Figure 2-30 Angles of Attack and Forces Acting in a Spin

81
82 Spinning

it loses lift, becomes mor stalled, and automatically The Incipient Stage
continu s to drop. The upgoing wing, because of its
relative upward movement meet the airflow at a The incipient tage occurs from the time the aircraft
reduced angle of attack. become less stalled, and pro­ talls and rotation starts until the spin axis becomes
duce more lift which ace ntuate the roll. Also drag vertical or nearly vertical. During thi time the flight
on the downgoing wing increa e harply adding to path change from horizontal to vertical and spin
l
the existing yaw force which effecti ely increases the rotation incr a from zero to the fuly developed
angle of attack of th downgoing wing, stalling it fur­ rate. Th incipient tage usually occurs rapidly in light
ther (Fig. 2-30 . The no e drops owing to the loss of aircraft, ome 4 to 6 conds, and consi ts of appro -
Lift, and autorotation or pinning ets in. imat ly the first two turns. Model and actual tests
The pinning m tion i complicated and involves how that th typical in ipient stage motion starts dur­
simuJtaneou rolling yawing and pitching. The air­
ing the tall with a wing drop. the nose drop the
craft follows a helical or corkscrew dow nward path,
yawing motion begins to increase. bout the half-turn
rotating about a vertical a.xis. Pitch attitudes may vary
point th aircraft i pointed almost straight down but
from flat to e p bile forward and ertical speeds
the angle of atta k i usually in e cess of that of the
are both comparatively lo . Forces are somewhat
tall because of the inclined flight path (Fig. 2-31 .
abo e normal but are relatively teady.
The pin con i of the three tages illustrated in ear ompletion of the fir t tum the nose may come
Fig. 2-31: back up and the an le of attack continues to increase.
the aircraft continu to rotate into the second tum
l. The incipient tage. the flight path become mor nearly ertical and the
2. The full d elop d tage. three pinning motions become more repeatable and
3. The reco ery. approach tho of the fully de eloped stage.

Stall

The Fully Developed Stage

In the fully de eloped tage, the attitude angles, and
Incipient motion of the aircraft are somewhat repetitious and

I
stage tabiliz d from tum to turn with a nearly vertical
descent. The pin i maintained by a balance between
the aerodynamic and in rtia forces and moment
(Fig. 2-32).

Fully
developed
stage
Entry
A pin whether deliberate or inadvertent may be
Spin radlus
entered in many way . It i not necessary for an air­
craft to have a relatively high pitch attitude for it to
l stall and pin. The angle of attack i the key factor,
not th attitude. It is po ible to enter a spin with the
aircraft in a descending le el or climbing attitude. A
pin can also be entered from an accelerated stall.
Recovery Many type of aircraft require special techniques to
Manufacturer's
get th pin properly tarted trangely enough th e
recommended recovery
altitude, or a minimum of rune air raft ha e b n known to pin accidentally,
2,000' AGL due to mi handling in routine turns or in slow flight.
The primary requirem nt i that the aircraft be fully
talled, otherwi e it might not spin, and the result
would likely be a kidding spiral of increasing air­
pe d. If thi occurs immediately reco er from the
Figure 2-31 The Three Stages of a Spin iral dive and tart o er.
 Spinning 83

Aerodynamic moments Inertia moments

Spin Spin
axis axis

Aerodynamic
pitching moment,
nose down

D
Airflow

Figure 2-32 Balance of Aerodynamic and Inertia Pitching Moments in a Spin

One method of inducing a pin is outlined below. 1. Power to idle, neutralize ailerons.
2. Apply and hold full rudder opposite to the direc­
1. Complete safety precaution - cockpit checks,
tion of rotation.
minimum altitude, suitable area, look-out, etc. All 3. Just after the rudder reaches the stop, move the
practice spin recoveries should be completed no
control column positively forward far enough
less than 2,000 feet above ground, or at a height to break the stall. Full down elevator might be
recommended by the manufacturer, whichever is required.
the greater. 4. Hold these control inputs until rotation stops.
2. Reduce power to a minimum and stall the aircraft
5. As the rotation stops, neutralize rudder, level the
by gradually applying full aft control column whiJe
wings and recover smoothly from the resuJting
maintaining a near normal climb attitude. At or
slightly before the stall, apply full rudder m the
dive.
direction of the desired spin.
3. Allow autorotation to occur by maintaining foll
rudder and holding the control column fully back Factors Affecting Recovery
as at this point there may be an instinctive tendency
to release pressure. The most important difference between the fuJJy
4. Allow the spin to progress through the desired developed stage and the incipient stage is an increase
number of t urns but never through more than six. in recovery time, for some aircraft, and to a lesser
Approved aircraft are not tested beyond these lim­ extent the amount of control ·input needed. From the
its. Normally two complete turns of a developed fully developed stage it is not unusual for a full turn
spin should be sufficient. or more to occur after the application of recovery con­
trols before rotation stops. Therefore, it is very impor­
Recovery tant to apply the recovery controls in the proper
sequence and hold them until rotation stops. Prema­
The aim in recovery is to upset the balance between ture relaxation may extend the recovery time.
the aerodynamic and inertia moments. Because air­ Some of the factors likely to affect spin behaviour
craft spin characteristics differ recovery techniques and recovery characteristics are: aircraft loading (dis­
specified in the Aircraft Flight Manual must be fol­ tribution Centre of Gravity, and weight); altitude;
lowed. The procedures outlined below are suitable for power; flaps; and rigging.
most small aircraft and may be used in the absence Distribution of the weight in the aircraft can have
of manufacturer's data. a significant effect on spin behaviour. The addition of
84 Spinning

weight at any distance from the Centre of Gravity of 2. Reduce the effectiveness of the rudder, due to
the aircraft will increase its moment of inertia about deflected air flow.
two axes (Fig. 2-32). This increased inertia, independ­ 3. Incur damage from high speed or high loading, or
ent of the Centre of Gravity location or weight, will both, in recovery from the dive.
tend to promote a less steep spin attitude and more
sluggish recoveries. Forward location of the Centre of With power on, the attitude of the aircraft might be
Gravity will usually make it more difficult to obtain less nose down, and the propeller will tend to add
a pure spin, due to the reduced elevator effectiveness. some gyroscopic inputs which will be reversed
The farther back the Centre of Gravity is, and the between left and right spins. The effect of leaving
more masses distributed along the length of the fuse­ power on during a spin is to lengthen recoveries on
lage, the flatter and faster the spin tends to become. some aircraft. Additionally, a power-on recovery will
Changes in gross weight as well as in its distribution likely result in increased airspeed and height loss dar­
can have an effect on spin behaviour, since increases ing the dive recovery.
in gross weight will increase inertia. Higher weights If disorientation prevents determining the direction
may extend recoveries slightly. of rotation, refer to the tum needle or turn co-ordi­
High altitudes wfll tend to lengthen recoveries since nator to establi h the direction of rotation. For exam­
the less dense air provides less "bite" for the controls ple, if the tum needle or turn co-ordinator indicates a
to oppose the spin. However, this does not suggest you tum to the left, the aircraft is spinning to the left. Do
should use low altitudes for spin practice. not refer to the ball indicator because the ball does
The effect of the use of ailerons either with or not remain in a constant position due to transient yaw.
against the rotation, apparently follows no set rule for
all aircraft. As application of ailerons might increase Secondary Spin
the rotation rate and delay recovery, there must be no
tendency to use ailerons, particu1arly in a cross-con­ A secondary spin may result from mishandling the
trol manner. controls following recovery from the initial spin. An
If a spin occurs with flaps extended, retract them, abrupt or premature pull-up from the dive recovery
as extended flap might: could cause a secondary stall (Fig. 2-33). If yaw is
present - for example, from inadvertent retention of
l. Prolong the spin, because it induces a flatter spin an�i-spin rudder-the aircraft might enter a secondary
attitude and lower spin rate. spm.

,,, '"��
Pull-up too abrupt,
causing secondary stall

--- �
--.:::.:::� ........
..... ,,.......... ....
,, .... --------
..... .......... , _,
� _ .,,,,.

-- --�----�
.
' ...., Dive recovery started
...., , Correct recovery flight path
,._,,

Figure 2-33 Secondary Stall Resulting from Improper Spin Recovery

EXERCISE FOURTEEN

Spiral

A spiral may be informally described as "a steep 1. Close the throttle.

descencting tum in which airspeed, rate of descent, 2. Roll the wings level. {Avoid rolling and pulling up
and wing loading increase rapidly." The spiral is not at the same time.)
usually considered a normal or useful manoeuvre, and 3. Ease out of the dive.
in its accidental form it can become very hazardous. 4. Apply power only after the airspeed has decreased
It can be readily seen why this manoeuvre is con­ to within the normal range.
sidered hazardous especially if it occurs at a low alti­
tude. A high-speed stall could result from incorrect
use of elevator in an attempt to check the rapid rate The spiral is a manoeuvre that should not be practised
of descent. If airspeed is permitted to increase beyond solo but for recognition and recovery action purposes,
normal limits, the aircraft can be structurally damaged the flight instructor will demonstrate it in various
during the spiral or during the pull-up from the ctive ways, such as from an incorrectly entered spin or a
if loading becomes excessive. poorly executed steep tum. During this demonstration,
In a way, a spiral resembles a spin. Therefore, when the sudden increase in airspeed and wing loading will
executing practice spins it is possible to become tem­ be very evident. You wilJ also see how any attempt to
porarily ctisoriented, so that what appears to be a spin pull out of the ctive without first levelling the wings
is actually a spiral. Under these conctitions, always further tightens and aggravates the manoeuvre.
remember that the main ctifference between the two Resist the temptation to roll the wings and pull out
manoeuvres is airspeed. In a spin the airspeed is con­ of the dive simultaneously, because there will be a
stant and low - at or about the stalling speed; in a much greater load imposed on the aircraft.
spiral the airspeed will be well above stalling speed In carrying out intentional spirals the following
and increasing rapidly. A piral may result from points are stressed so that you can take adequate
attempting to force an aircraft into a spin too soon precautions:
before a stall occurs or from relaxing the elevator con­
trols once a spin has started.
A spiral may also result from mismanagement of 1. Considerable height may be lost. Recovery should
controls during manoeuvres in which adctitional be completed at a height recommended by the
engine power is used, such as steep turns. In these manufacturer, or no less than 2 000 feet above
circumstances be sure that the throttle is closed, to ground, whichever is the greater.
bring the rapidly increasing airspeed under more 2. Airspeed increases rapidly; take care not to exceed
effective control and to reduce the load factor build the speed limitations of the aircraft.
up when recovering from the dive. 3. An attempt to recover from the ensuing ctive too
Once recognized, it is not difficult to recover from abruptly could result in an excessive load factor,
a spiral dive. The following action must be taken with the danger of a pilot black-out, structural
promptly and in this order: damage, or a high-speed stall.

85
EXERCISE FIFTEEN

Slipping

Slipping is a manoeuvre in wh.icb the aircraft is placed adjusting the pitch attitude to re ume normal descent
in a banked attitude but i tendency to turn is either and airspeed.
reduced or prevented by th u e f rudder. A ide-slip is a slip in which the aircrafts longi­
lipping is used for two purp e . One purpo e i tudinal axis remains parallel t the original flight path.
to i ncreas rate of descent without increasing airspeed. Thi is e ential in a cro -wind landing when the air­
For air raft without flap thi technique known a a raft i lipped into the wind th right amount t
for ward lip is e ential in ontr lling the angle of counter the effect of drill. Th d ired flight path in
lh approach. E en for aircraft equipped with flap thi cas i the centre of th runwa . The aircraft must
lipping can still be used t correct the approach
angle pro ided that the ircraft Flight anual allo
lipping , bile flap are e tend d. oreo er flap
b e been known to fail. Another purpo e of a lip is
t counteract the effect of drift when landing in a
cro -wind. This i call d a id - lip.
Th forward lip i one in which the longitudinal
axi i at an angle to the d ired de cent path. If there
i any cro -wind, the lip i m re ffective if made
into the wind. As the aim i to increa e the rate of
de cent th lip bould b done with the engine
idling.
To enter a slip, use aileron to lower the wing on
the ide toward which the lip i to be made. At the
am time, use rudder to move the no e in the oppo­
i t direction. Bank applied one way i balanced by
rudder applied the oppo it way. The re ult is a con­
taot direction of flight during th Up. U e elevator
to maintain the desired airspeed. ote howe er, that
b caus of the location of the pitot tube and the tatic
en , Upping can cau e airsp ed rrors. Pilots must
learn to recognize a properly p rformed lip by the
aircraft attitude and the fi I of th flight control .
ti ipate control p ur when maintaining a
Lip. lf full rudder is u ed. o iderable aileron pre -
ure may be needed to maintain th bank. There will
a] o b a tendency for th no e to pitch up as a result
of the banked attitud and rudder input. Thi must be
c unteracted by the u e of ele ators to maintain the
pr p r pitch attitude.
Reco ery from a lip i ach.i ed by imultaneou ly
relea ing rudder pres ure, 1 veiling the wings and Figure 2-34 Forward Slip

86
 Slipping 87

remain positioned over the centre of the runway while

the longitudinal axis is held in alignment with it. This
is a highly developed skill as control inputs must
change as airspeed reduces and, if the wind is gusting,
as the wind changes in speed and direction.
A slipping turn achieves the same aim as a fotward
slip- increased rate of descent without increasing air-
peed - but does this in a turn. The turn is slowed
but not prevented, by the use of opposite rudder. The
slipping turn can be useful during the turn to final
approach, especially in the case of a forced landing in
which excess altitude must be lost.

Figure 2-35 Side-Slip

EXERCISE SIXTEEN

Take-off

Taking off as defined in the Canadian Aviation A

Regulations in relation to an aircraft, means "the act No wind
of leaving a supporting urface and includes the
immediately preceding and following acts." In a
normally executed take-off the aircraft becomes
airborne smoothly and efficiently, with the minimum
take-off run consistent with positive control and good
climb performance. It is a requirement of the
Canadian Aviation Regulations that take-offs at
aerodromes be executed into wind, insofar as prac­
ticable, unless otherwise authorized by an appropriate B
Air Traffic Control unit. It makes good sense to take Head wind
off into the wind since it:

1. Permits a shorter run and a lower ground speed at

the moment of take-off.
2. Eliminates drift, so that there is no additional strain
on the landing gear.
3. Affords best directional control, especiaUy at the
beginning of the run.
4. Results in better obstacle clearance owing both to a
shorter run and a steeper angle of climb (Fig. 2-36). C
Tail wind
5. Establishes circuit pattern direction for all aircraft
in the case of an uncontrolled airport.

The safety, and very frequently the quality, of a take­

off can depend on the proper execution of the pre­
take-off check. You must consider carrying out this
check in the sequential manner prescribed by the
authority responsible for the operation of the aircraft,
or as laid down in the Aircraft Flight Manual, as a
compulsory action at all times.
The first few yards (metres) of any take-off are very Figure 2-36 The Effect of Wind on an Obstacle
important. If a good, straight, we11-controlled start is Clearance Climb
made, the success of the take-off is fairly well assured.
Avoid the use of brakes if possible since any use of increases during the take-off run. Therefore, there is
brake will cause an undesirable increase in the take-off a tendency to move the controls through a wide range,
distance. seeking the pressures expected, and as a consequence,
At first it is difficult to appreciate the varying con­ to overcontrol badly. This will be aggravated by the
trol pressures required as the speed of an aircraft initial sluggish reaction of the aircraft to the control
88
 Take-off 89
movements. It is necessary that you develop a feel for Tail Wheel Aircraft. At the outset of the take-off
control resistance and accomplish the desired results run, keep the tail wheel on the ground so that direc­
by pressing against them. With increased practice and tional control may be maintained by means of tail
experience, you will be able to sense also when suf­ wheel steering. When speed has reached the point
ficient speed has been attained for rotation so that you where both the elevators and rudder become effective,
do not have to direct your attention to the airspeed lower the nose to the take-off attitude.
indicator too soon. Achieving the recommended air­ As take-off speed is attained, ease the control col­
speed before beginning rotation is important, but until umn back to assist the aircraft into the air. It should
that time you must give full attention to outside not be forced into the air prematurely.
references. There may be a tendency for the aircraft to yaw to
the left during the take-off run. The main reason for
Nose Wheel Aircraft. For normal take-offs in nose this is undoubtedly the propeller, but which of its
wheel aircraft, the aircraft should be carefully aligned effects is the chief cause is not so easy to determine.
with the runway centre line. Ensure that the nose For example:
wheel is centred. Power should be applied by opening
the throttle smoothly but positively. Keep the ailerons
and elevator in the neutral position. As the take-off l . The torque reaction of the clockwise rotating pro­
roll commences, gradually move the elevator control peller being anti-clockwise, the left main wheel
back to lighten the weight on the nose wheel. As the will be pressed on the ground and the extra friction
speed of the aircraft approaches that required for take­ at that point should tend to yaw the aircraft to the
off, raise the nose to the take-off attitude. Premature left. (This is similar to having a partially flat tire
or excessive raising of the nose wi.11 delay take-off on the left front wheel of an automobile.)
because of the increased drag. Keep straight by con­ 2. The slipstream will strike the fin and rudder on the
centrating on a reference point at the far end of the left side, tending to yaw the aircraft to the left.
runway and maintain directional control with smooth 3. Gyroscopic effect will enter the picture when the
rudder pressures. Keep the wings level with aileron tail is being raised, and will tend to yaw the aircraft
control. to the left.
Nose wheel aircraft are not ordinarily subject to 4. Asymmetric thrust. In the case of a tail wheel air­
gyroscopic effect or asymmetric thrust during the craft, since the right side of the propeller's plane
take-off run since, until rotation for lift-off is exe­ of rotation is developing more thrust than the left
cuted, the thrust-line remains constantly parallel to the side, it will cause the aircraft to yaw to the left,
ground. The exception would be the nose-up attitude while the tail wheel is on the ground.
required in a soft field take-off.
When the aircraft lifts off the ground, it should be
at approximately the attitude for its best rate of climb Cross-Wind Take-offs
airspeed and allowed to accelerate to this airspeed
before any attempt is made to reset the throttle for the The strength and direction of the wind is an important
climb. Some pressure is normally required on the ele­ consideration for take-offs. It is not always practical
vator control to hold this attitude until the proper to take off directly into the wind. As a result, cross­
climb speed is established. If back pressure on the wind take-offs must be practised until the skill has
control column is relaxed before a climb has been been mastered.
established, the aircraft may "settle," even to the point For alJ take-offs, the aircraft must maintain a
of dropping down onto the runway again. straight path along the centre of the runway. During a
The best rate of climb speed should be maintained cross-wind take-off, the wind blowing across the run­
until a safe height is reached, except when there are way makes directional control more difficult and must
obstacles in the flight path, in which case the best be counteracted. There is a tendency for the into wind
angle of climb speed should be used. Unless the Air­ wing to rise causing the aircraft to roll. Wind moving
craft Flight Manual states otherwise, light aircraft across the runway may also make the aircraft turn into
should maintain fu1J power until at least 500 feet the wind or drift sideways.
above the ground. The combination of full power and At least four factors account for the aircraft's reac­
best rate of climb speed gives an additional margin of tions to a cross-wind (Fig. 2-37):
safety in that altitude is gained, in a minimum of time,
from which the aircraft can be safely manoeuvred
should there be an engine failure. Also, in many light I . The aircraft has more keel surface behind the main
aircraft, fuJI throttle provides a richer mixture for wheels than ahead of them. As a result, the wind
additional engine cooling during the climb. exerts a greater sideways force on the rear portion
90 Take-off
3. The into wind wing is exposed to more wind
because the fuselage shelters the other wing some­
what. The wing that receives the greater effect
from the wind will produce more lift.
4. With positive dihedral, the angle of attack on the
into wind wing is larger than the angle of attack
on the other wing. Again, the wing that receives
the greater effect from the wind will produce more
lift than the other wing.

During a cross-wind take-off. directional control is

maintained with rudder. Depending on the strength of
the wind and the aircraft type, much greater rudder
pressure than normal may be required to maintain a
straight path along the runway.
During a cross-wind take-off ailerons are deflected
as though turning into the wind. This counteracts the
tendency for the into wind wing to rise. Full aileron
should be deflected as the take-off roll begins. As the
aircraft gains speed along the runway, aiJeron deflec­
tion win be reduced. Whenever a cross-wind is pres­
ent, some into wind aileron deflection will be required
at the point of lift-off to counteract the tendency for
the aircraft to roll.
The aircraft must leave the runway surface cleanJy
and positively. Once the aircraft is airborne, it must
not be allowed to settle back onto the runway. If the
aircraft were to drift sideways after take-off and settle
back onto the runway the sideways movement would
C create a considerable side loading on the landing gear.
Should the runway be quite narrow the aeroplane
could drift completely off the runway onto the unpre­
pared surface along the side.
As soon as the aircraft is airborne and there is no
possibility of settling back on the runway, a co-ordi­
nated turn is made into wind. The tum is stopped and
the wings levelJed when the new heading compensates
adequately for drift. A steady climb is maintained on
this heading, which should result in a ground track
aligned with the centre line of the runway. From time
to time the term crab or crabbing may be used to
describe an alteration to the heading of an aircraft to
compensate for drift. Crabbing is a very descriptive
and convenient term but always bear in mind that the
activity being described is relative to the ground only.
Except in the case of a direct head wind or a 90
degree cross-wind, a wind from any forward angle
Figure 2-37 Effects of a Cross-Wind during contains both a cross-wind component and a head­
Take-off wind component. A wind blowing at a 90 degree
angle contains only a cross-wind component. One of
the simpler methods for determining acceptability of
of the aeroplane which causes the nose to tum into crosswinds uses this principle as a basis for
wind. This is referred to as 'weather cocking." calcuJation.
2. The wind blowing across the runway tends to push It is a certification requirement that an aircraft be
the entire aircraft sideways creating a sideways capable of safe operation in a 90 degree cross-wind
strain on the landing gear. provided the speed of the wind does not exceed 20
 Take-off 91

percent of the stalling speed of the aircraft in question. When you have determined that a strong cross­
This information, in conjunction with the known stall­ wind is within acceptable limits it is often important
ing speed of a particular aircraft makes it possible to to know the value of the head-wind and cross-wind
use the cross-wind component graph (Fig. 2-38) to components. Both of these values may be determined
derive a general rule for most light aircraft. This by using the graph in Fig. 2-38. Say, as an exaggerated
method must be used as a guide only, since accepta­ example, the wind is 30 degrees off the runway at
bility of winds of any angle or strength depends on 40 KT (Example 3). The point where the 40 KT' speed
all circumstances involved, including the pilot-in­ curve" intersects the 30 degree "wind degrees off run­
command's level of competence. Examples of the way" line becomes the datum. Draw a vertical line
method used in this interpolation are shown below: down from the datum, and where it intersects the "KT/
mph" line read off the cross-wind component (20 KT).
Draw a horizontal line from the datum to the 'runway
Example 1 Aircraft with a CAS Stalling Speed of edge;' then from this point parallel the "speed curves"
60KT to a point on the "KT/mph" line and read off the head
wind component (34 KT).
Wind Permissible
(Degrees off Runway) Wind Speeds

90 degrees (0. 2 X 60 KT stalling speed) = 12 KT

60 degrees Using cross-wind component = 14 KT Special Considerations
graph
30 degrees Using cross-wind component = 24 KT
graph Most flight training occurs at aerodromes with firm
15 degrees Using cross-wind component = 45 KT surfaces that are of adequate length and free from
graph obstacles, which allows for normal take-offs. How­
ever, many take-offs must be made under less than
Example 2 Aircraft with a CAS Stalling Speed of
ideal conditions. You may have to carry out take-offs
50KT
from locations with:
Wind Permissible
(Degrees off Runway) Wind Speeds 1. Reduced overall runway length.
90 degrees (0.2 X 50 KT stalling speed) = 10 KT 2. Snowdrifts, puddles of water, or other hazards lim­
60 degrees Using cross-wind component = 12 KT iting available runway length.
graph 3. Obstacles (Fig. 2-39).
30 degrees Using cross-wnd component = 20 KT 4. Soft or rough surfaces (Fig. 2-40).
i
graph
15 degrees Using cross-wind component = 38 KT Whenever special take-off conditions exist, consult
graph the Aircraft Flight Manual for essential information.
The manual may provide special procedures to follow
or indicate the configuration that will provide opti­
mum performance as weU as graphs, charts, or other
methods to determine take-off performance such as
distance required to lift off or the distance required to
climb over obstacles. When you calculate the take-off
and climb distance required you may decide against
a take-off until more favourable conditions exist.

Take-offs From Firm Surfaces With

Reduced Field Length
50 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 q To maximize aircraft performance in these situations

J
J
KT/mph l KT/mph you will need to configure the aircraft to allow a afe
Example 1 Example3 lift-off at a slow speed. You will also have to accel­
Example 2
erate as quickly as possible to this lift-off speed. The
Aircraft Flight Manual will help you determine how
Figure 2-38 Cross-Wind Component Graph to proceed.
92 Take-off

Depending on the aircraft being used, the config­ ensure that the aircraft is not forced back onto the
uration that allows the slowest safe lift-off speed may runway.
involve flaps up or extended only partly. Consult the Aside from maximizing acceleration, any steps that
Aircraft Flight Manual to determine the flap setting for will reduce minimum flying speed can lead to reduced
your aircraft. take-off distance. In some light aircraft, the use of
Maximum acceleration is accomplished by ensur­ small -flap extensions w:iJl allow a safe lift-off at a
ing before the take-off begins that maximum power is lower than normal speed. The use of large flap exten­
being produced. With brakes applied on a firm sur­ sions generally causes excessive amounts of drag.
face, the maximum power you can obtain should be Check the Aircraft Flight Manual to determine the
compared with figures provided by the aircraft man­ flap settings recommended for take-off.
ufacturer. Failure to obtain the power readings speci­ Tricycle gear aircraft present an additional imped­
fied in the manual is an indication that the engine is iment to take-offs from soft surfaces. The nose gear
not delivering maximum power. This means that take­ may rug into the soft surface unless elevator frces
o
are
off performance wiII not be what you expect, there­ used to raise the nose wheel above the surface. While
fore, you should not attempt the take-off. If full power this increase in angle of attack causes additional drag,
is available, you should begin the take-off roll with the drag is less than the resistance encountered by the
full power. Most manufacturers suggest that, when nose wheel on a soft runway surface.
possible, you should apply power against the brakes
until the engine is developing full power and then
release the brakes.
Normally, the take-off roll is completed with the Obstacle Clearance Take-offs
aircraft in the attitude that provides tbe least drag. This
attitude is similar to the nonnal cruise attitude. Allow Whether taking off from a solid surface or from a soft
the aircraft to reach the correct lift-off speed before or rough one, it is possible that a further take-off prob­
raising the nose for the take-off. Lifting off the ground lem exists in the form of obstacles over which the
at too slow a speed will result in control difficulties aircraft must climb. Whenever obstacles are of con­
or even a stall. cern, the take-off must begin with the procedure dic­
Once airborne, allow the aircraft to accelerate to the tated by the surface conditions. Soft fields still require
desired speed and climb away. soft field techniques; short fields still require short
field techniques.
Once airborne, the aircraft must be operated so as
to provide the greatest gain in height when compared
Take-offs From Soft or Rough Surfaces
to the distance travelled over the ground. When taking
Soft and rough surfaces require more distance for an off and climbing over an obstacle the best angle of
aircraft to accelerate to flying speed. Take-offs from climb speed (Vx), as provided in the Aircraft Flight
soft or rough surfaces are normally accomplished by Manual, should be used. After lift-off at the recom­
completing all required check-lists on whatever solid mended speed, the aircraft should accelerate to the
surface is available and then taxiing and taking off best angle of climb speed and should be transitioned
without stopping on the soft or rough surface. Stop­ into a climb at this speed. This speed should be main­
ping may mean getting stuck and will require large tained until the obstacle has been cleared or until it is
amounts of power to get the aircraft moving. The air­ obvious that a normal climb would be appropriate.
craft is configured in accordance with the Aircraft When the top of the obstacle appears to be below the
Flight Manual. level of the horizon, the ajrcraft is higher than th.e
A nose-high attitude is maintained during the take­ obstacle. At this point a normal climb should be
off roll. This procedure will result in the aircraft established to improve forward visibility and safety.
becoming airborne at a slower speed than that asso­ For some aircraft, partial flap settings are recom­
ciated with normal take-offs. This speed will be mended to reduce take-off distance. In some cases,
slower than required for a safe climb. In some cases, the use of partial flaps improves climb performance,
due to ground effect, the lift-off speed may be close in other cases it reduces climb performance. Check
to the speed normally associated with a stall. Imme­ the Aircraft Flight Manual for the aircraft you are
diately after lift-off, the aircraft must be transitioned flying to determine the procedure and flap setting
into level flight with the wheels just clear of the sur­ recommended.
face until the desired climb speed is achieved. Care Aircraft weight affects climb performance. Many
must be taken to prevent climbing until the proper aircraft use slightly different speeds for the climb over
climb speed is attained. Care must also be taken to an obstacle, depending upon the aircraft weight.
 Take-off 93

gain con ult the Aircraft Flight anual for the air­ ineffective making ootrol of the aircraft difficult at
craft you are flying. critical points during th take-off. When raindrop
appear to bounce on the runway the po ibility of
b droplaning should b u pected. Depres ions in the
Tail Wind After Take-off runway that cause e t: p ling to occur during
bea rain or spring tha ma also cause an aircraft
u to urfa e friction and oth r cau it is po sible to hydroplane during the take-off run. If a take-off
to ha e a condition of no wind at ground le el, bu must be made under u pected hydroplaning condi­
at eral feet abo e th ground, u:fficient wind to tions b prepared to contr I th aircraft without th
affe t climb performanc . bould thi phenomenon aid of brake after an timated ground speed of O KT
d elop into a tail wind aloft th re i a risk of the has been achie ed.
aircraft not being abl to cl ar ob ta les adequately in
th climb out. When the wind i alm or light and
ariabl at the surfa e carry out a take-off procedure Ground Effect
that make adequate allowance for the possibility of a
tail wind shortly after the aircraft has left the ground. Anything that will imp de th acceleration of the air­
craft during its take-off run, ucb as mud, slush snow
urface irregularities, grass (or other vegetation)
Hydroplaning grade, etc., must be fully con idered in respect to th
take-off distance penalty lhat these factor may
The heel of an aircraft rolling on a wet paved run­ impo e. Under the e ircumstances it would be wi
way pre a bow wave ahead of them. This can to us the oft field take-off technique which make
u e a film of water to d clop between the tire and u e of a phenomenon calJed ground effect. This i du
th runway of sufficient trengtb to float' an aircraft to th effect of the ground on the airflow patt ms
during the take-off run. nder th e conditions the bout a wing in flight. Ground effect re ult in
air raft may drift idewa and brak. can be ome d crea ed induced drag· thus making it po ible for

© Bes angle-of-climb speed

maintained over obstacle

@ '\
Lift oft slightly
CD
Level attitude
2
Accelerate
before best
angle-of-climb speed

I
Figure 2-39 Rotation and Lift-off During Obstacle Clearance Take-off

Acceleration Nose wheel clear Lift off Reduction in Acceleration in

or surface angle of attack ground effect

Figure 2-40 Soft Field Take-off

94 Take-off

an aircraft to become airborne at Jess than normal air­

speeds. As a general rule the results of ground effect
can be detected up to a height equal to one wing span
(of the aircraft being used) above the surface
(Fig. 2-41). The phenomenon of ground effect has two
important aspects which, if not recognized, can be
extremely hazardous. Any attempt to climb out of
ground effect prior to reaching the best angle of climb
airspeed may result in the aircraft settling back to the
surface of the runway. Secondly, it is possible to lift
an aircraft off the ground into ground effect with
insufficient power or too great a load to permit the
aircraft to climb out of ground effect.

Performance Ground effect diminishes with altitude

Many of the finer points associated with other than

normal take-offs vary as to aircraft type and existing
conditions. Aspects of these procedures are continu­
ally open to discussion and the apparent solutions will
vary with the background and experience of the indi­ Figure 2-41 Ground Effect
vidual pilot. Such points include whether to apply
take-off power before releasing brakes or as the The density of the air plays an important part in
aircraft moves forward, when commencing a take­ the take-off perfom1ance of an aircraft. Cold, dry air
off' whether to use flaps or not to use flaps; whether is denser than hot, moist air, and the denser tbe air,
to extend flaps before the take-off run commences or the better the performance. Factors to remember about
as the take-off roll progresses. The answers to these air density at airports are:
questions are generally outlined in the procedures rec­
ommended in the Aircraft Flight Manual, which 1. Airport elevation high, air less dense = reduced
should be carefully followed. Other points of judge­ performance.
ment arise as to the advisability of commencing to 2. Ambient air temperature high air Jess dense =
build up speed for take-off while moving from the reduced performance.
run-up position to the runway centre line on a short 3. Relative humidity high, air less dense = reduced
field or obstacle take-off. The decision to follow this performance.
technique must be governed by the manufacturer's 4. Combination of l, 2, and 3 = poor performance
recommendations. Some types of aircraft may suffer (Fig. 2-42).
an engine failure on the take-off roll following the so­
called "rolling take-off" because the fuel will flow to Good take-off performance can be expected from an
one side of the tank, due to centrifugal force, leaving aircraft at an airport with a field elevation, say, of 150
the outlet momentarily dry. This exposes the engine feet above mean sea level on a cold day whereas a
to fuel starvation and the possibility of failure at a poorer performance can be expected from the same
critical point of the take-off. The amount of fuel in aircraft at the same airp ort on a hot day.
the tanks is another governing factor. The worst possible take-off (and climb) perform­
During a soft field take-off the taxiways and pro­ ance can be expected when the following four con­
posed take-off surface must be carefully inspected for ditions are combined:
extra soft spots. Provided the surfaces are deemed usa­
ble the inertia of the aircraft and perhaps extra power 1. Air temperature - High (above l5 ° C).
must be used to carry it through these areas. 2. Airport elevation - High.
The base measurement for development of the per­ 3. Atmospheric pressure - Low (below 29.92).
formance data for a particular aircraft is customarily 4. Relative humidity - High.
the performance achieved by the aircraft in a standard
atmosphere, or as it is sometimes called, standard air (The above combination represents a high density
density. The standard atmosphere is the air density altitude.)
when the barometric pressure is 29.92 inches of mer­ Density altitude is the altitude corresponding to
cury and the temperature is 15 °C (59° F). a given density in a standard atmosphere. It is a
 Take-off 95

Aircraft performance
at sea level Aircraft
performance
at 5000' airport
elevation

Effect of airport elevation on

take-off run and rate-of-climb

Hot
summer day

Effect of temperature on
take-off run and rate-of-climb

Moist air

Effect of moisture on
take-off run and rate-of-climb

Hot, humid day

Combined effect of a ltitude, at 5000' elevation
temperature and moisture on
take-off run and rate-of-climb zzzip

=====::::::::....--------�
Figure 2-42 Effects of Elevation, Temperature, and Moisture on Take-off Run and Rate of Climb

"condition;' not a level of flight. Unless density alti­ tables in the Aircraft Flight Manual, which show the
tude is known it is difficult to determine the perfor m­ changes in performance resulting from various airport
ance of an aircraft accurately, and this can be a very elevations and air temperatures. The aircraft manufac­
important factor under certain take-off conditions. turer's recommendations are always the best source for
Density altitude can be calculated very quickly on the this information but should these recommendations
pilot's flight computer. not be available, useful take-off performance data may
Full use should be made of the take-off distance be calculated by using the Koch chart (Fig. 2-43).
96 Take-off

To find the effect of altitude and temperature,

connect the temperature and airport altitude by
49 a straight line. Read the increase in take-off
distance and the decrease In rate of climb here:
43
38
Percentage decrease

I
32
in rate of climb
27
(J) 16
21
·oo
() 16
10
0)
Q)
"O
4
.!:: 0
-6
-12.
_,,,,..40
-18 / 20
o
t:::
Add this percentage to your
� -24 normal take-off distance

-28 Note: The Koch Chart indicates typical

representative values only; therefore, if it is 0
-34 available, the take-off distance chart in the aircraft
flight manual must be used. In addition, the Koch -2
-40 Chart may be conservative when used to calculate
the take-off and climb performance of aircraft with
turbocharged engines.

Figure 2-43 The Koch Chart for Temperature and Altitude Effects

Koch Chart in the Aircraft Flight Manual must be used. In addi­

tion, the Koch Chart may be conservative when used
When using the Koch Chart remember that the airport to calculate the take-off and climb performance of air­
altitude factor is pressure altitude. To determine the craft with turbocharged engines.
pressure altitude of an airport upon which the aircraft
is standing set the altimeter barometric pressure scale
to 29.92, then read off the altitude in the normal man­ Wheelbarrowing
ner. After determining the pressure altitude of the air­
port, do not forget to reset the altimeter to the actual Wheelbarrowing may be described as a condition in
field elevation or altimeter setting. nose wheel equipped aircraft that is encountered when
The straight Line ( 1) used as an example in the the nose wheel is firmly on the runway and the main
Koch Chart (Fig. 2-43) shows that an aircraft at an wheels are lightly loaded or clear of the runway dur­
airport with a pressure altitude of 6,000 feet with an ing take-off or landing. This causes the nose gear to
outside (ambient) air temperature of 38 ° C (100°F) support a percentage of weight greater than normal
requires 220 percent more take-off distance than the while providing the only means of steering.
same aircraft would require at sea level in standard During take-off, wheelbarrowing may occur at rel­
atmosphere. Even at a common airport pressure alti­ atively low speeds due to the slipstream increasing the
tude of 1,000 feet, 30 percent more take-off distance lifting effect of the horizontal stabilizer, and excessive
is required if the ambient air temperature is 27 °C forward elevator control pressure being applied during
(80° F) (line 2). take-off to hold the aircraft on the ground to speeds
The Koch Chart indicates representative values only. above those normal for take-off. When taking off in
Therefore, if it is available the take-off distance chart a cross-wind, or if any other yaw force is introduced
 Take-off 91
al thi time an aircraft in thi flight condition ten take off. An aircraft flying into the core of a wing tip
to pivot about the no e be I and if not brought ortex will tend to roll ith that vortex. It i entirely
under ontrol quickly may e e ut a manoeuvre im­ p ibl that this induced roll will be at a greater rate
ilar to a ground loop in a tail \ he I rype aircraft. than a light aircraft' ca abiljty to counteract it.
orre tive action must b b d on a number of ake turbulence fr m an preceding aircraft wiU
facto - degree of d elopmcnt f th heelbarro - be maximum just befo th point of touchdown for
ing the pilot proficien . remaining runway length, a landing aircraft, and just after the point of ake-off
and aircraft performan rsu air raft configuration. for a departing aircraft. On lake-off, wake turbulen e
Only after considering at 1 t the e factors should can b t be avoided:
you initiate on of the foll wing
I. lf following an aircraft that has ju t departed, by
I. If the aircraft i not pivotin ea back on the con­ planning the take-off a to become airborne
trol colu.mn to take weight ff tbe nose wheel and prior to the point of take- ff of Lhe preceding air­
c ntinue with the tak -off and climb procedure. craft. A oid pas ing through the flight path of the
2. If pivoting has begun relax forward elevator con­ preceding aircraft.
trol to lighten tbe load on the nose wheel and 2. If following an aircraft that has just landed, by
return steering to nonnal. 1 f pivoting stops, resume planning the take-off a to become airborne
the take-off; if pi oting c ntinues reject the take­ beyond the point of touchdown of the preceding
off. aircraft (Fig. 2-45

h uld you have the lighl doubt or indecision con­

Wake Turbulence e ming ,; ake turbul nc on take-off delay th take­
off for op to two minute t allo the ortice of a
ake turbulence (Fig. 2-44 cau ed b wing tip or­ landing aircrfat to dis ipat and up to four minu in
ti e of departing or arri ing air raft. espe ially large the case of a preceding take-off. Tb larger the pre­
h :a aircraft, must be a oid d b aircraft about to ceding aircraft. the long r the delay. Remember that

A B C D

, ..,.
,,,. ,•_,, ·

-
,. ,.,,,,,.,.e ,I

-:·
,;

Vortices drift with the wind.

When the vortices' A cross-wind component of
downward movement takes approximately 5 KT can
them near the ground they move one vortex right over Vortices may drift over a An intersection take-off can
tend to spread outward. the runway. parallel runway. put you closer to the vortices.
Figure 2-44 Wake Turbulence
9 Take-off

When taking off behind a large aircraft

which has just taken off. use
the "dose" end of the runway.

Calm ·nd �

======:::::::=--------fll1'(((fjllllllJJlff�
If the large aircraft has ;.ist landed.
use the 'far' end of the runway.

Figure 2-45 Wake Turbulence Avoidance Procedures

although the strength of the wind i a vortex di i­ landing aircraft i from the landing area i a matter
pation factor a cross-wind may mo e or hold a vortex of good judgement and c urte y. ever pr urn
dir tly in the propo ed tak -off path. that a landing aircraft can al y abort its landing
lt i unlikely that a c ntr I tower would clear a light in fa our of a pil t ho ha e ercised poor judg -
air raft for an immediate tak -off in the wake of a ment in timing the tak -off.
larg bea aircraft_ but in any c there bould b
no be itation ha oe er on th part of the light air­ 2. o pe on hall take off or attempt to take off in
craft pil t in requesting a ta� -off d lay, hould cb an aircraft until u h tim as there • no apparent
a cl arance be gi en. ri k of collision ith an ther aircraft.
•
E en though a clearan e for take-off has been
u d, if ou consid r it afer to wait or alter your earch the entir ky for other aircraft that may
intended operation in any wa in the interest of safety c nflict with our tak - ff. Another aircraft ma
or go d ainnansbip ask the control tower for a re • d be landing with a tailwind on th runway; thi ma be
clearance. The air traffic controller' chief interest i in conflict with the Canadian Aviation Regulation
afi ty of a iation, but th ontr II r may not be aware but uch an aircraft till ha priority over aircraft
all circumstances, e pecially a pilot' level of com­ proposing take-off. The aircraft landing with a
petency when unusuaJ ondition prevail. tailwind may have rea on compelling it to do o. Do
At an uncontrolled airport an airport without a not take off, or position your aircraft for take-off, until
control tower), the pilot-in-command is responsible for a landing aircraft has cleared the runway. When
making decisions that are con ·i tent with safety, good po itionedfortake-off the pilot no longer ha a view
airman hip, and the Canadian Aviation Regulations. of the runway approach and p sible landing traffic.
ln thi regard, two of the m t important Canadian
A iation Regulations indicate that: It i an indication of po r airmanship and la k of
ourte on your part to pro eed onto the active run­
I. re an aircraft· in flight r man uvringon the ay if you are a t full prepar d to take off as n
groundorwater tbepilot-in-command hallgi ewa a th runway is clear. Remain clear of the acti e run­
to otb r aircraft landing or ab ut to land. a until you ha e car full completed all pre-take­
off heck . Do not d lay air raft taxiing behind ou
landing aircraft bas priority in th use of the by carrying out cockpit pr edur that should ha e
landing area and an air raft proposing take-off be n ompleted at the apron or ramp. 1f there i ome
mu t not usurp this pri in any way. Whether a difficulty that ma dela your take-off. po ition your
take-off may b mad of the distanc a aircraft o that otbe may p
EXERCISE SEVENTEEN

The Circuit

The lntemational ivil A iation Organization I o After tak -off there ·11 a traight climb into
terminology for the circuit • ' a r drome traffic ir- wind, normally to a height of feet, and th n a 0
uit.' It i defined a : The p cified path to be degree turn cro -wind. The cro -wind leg i a con­
flown by aircraft operating in the vicinity of an aer­ tinuou climb to circuit height where the aircraft i
odrome.' The circuit is often erron ously referred to a levelled ff. Then a 90 deg!' turn brings the aircraft
the traffic pattern:· Although the latter doe in ol e onto the d wnwind leg. The downwind leg i fl wn
the circuit, th correct definition of traffic pattern i : so as to track parallel with th intended landing path.
The geographical path flown by an aircraft after it On the downwind leg any necessary pre-landing
enters a control zone and until it enters the downwind checks are made. When pa t the downwind boundary
leg of the aer dr me traffic cir uit. an appropriate di tance anoth r 90 degree turn i
The prime purpo e of an orderly and well defined made onto the ba e leg. When within gliding di tan
ircuit i safety. Howe er circuit pr cedures are al of the landing area and a gliding approach i d ired
fundamentaJ to the execution of g d approache and the throttle i clo ed and the aircraft is put into a glide.
landing. Just before reaching the int nd d line of the finaJ
The ba ic patt rn of th cir uit remain fixed. but approach anoth r 90 degree rum i made onto final
it orientation i d ter mined by th beading of th approach and the aircraft i k pt in line with the entre
runwa io use at the time. plan i of the circuit of the rum until th landing is completed
Fig. 2-46 b w that it is re tangular in hap and Fig. 2-46).
has the following componen The trength of the wind will affect the heading to
be steered on th cro -wind and base legs of the cir­
l . Take-off. cuit. Maintain a track over the ground, which i at
2. The cross-wind leg (not to be confused with circuit right angle to the landing path. Thu , during the ba e
joining cro -wind). leg, an aircraft in a very strong wind will be heading
3. The downwind leg. well io toward the aerodrome although its path o er
4. The ba e leg. the ground will be at right angle to the landing
5. The final approach. path.
On all leg of the circuit it i e ential to maintain
lo actual practic at controlled airp rts it i a good look- ut on both id abo e and below.
ary for pil t and controller to omit th ord The latter part of the circuit i usually called th
leg' hen r ferring to the cir wt omponent e.g.: approach. 'Ii hnicaDy the approa b to landing com­
'Burton tower / FOXTROT ALPH , BRA O CHARLI mence on th downwind le at th turning point
/ downwind; "FO TROT ALPHA BRA O CHARLJ • / from down ind to base leg. a tly , here or when
Burton tower / report turning ba e.' It i r com­ the turn nt th base leg i mad will depend largely
mended that the downwind call be when the aircraft on the trength of the wind. The tronger the wind,
.is abeam th control tower. the steeper the angle of de cent will be during the
Unless special conditions exi t and there is author­ final straight approach· therefore, the sooner tb turn
ized advice to th contrary all circuits are left hand· onto the ba e leg hould be made.
therefore all turn . within the circuit are left turn . When on th ba e leg, adju t the heading to allow
In addition unle otherwise authorized., all normal for drift and judge when to art the gljde (or de c nt
circuit heigh are I 000 feet abo e a rodrome elevation. by the an 1 at which th run a i observed - the

99
100 The Circuit

Base leg

Key position

Cross-wind leg

Figure 2-46 Aerodrome Traffic Circuit

tronger the wind the great r thi angle hould be. nece itate the adoption of a right-band pattern for an
Once th descent ha b gun you can judge whetb r ntire airport or for p cific runway . The exception
the air raft is going to b too high or oo Jow on the are Ii t d in the Canada Fli ht upplemenl.
final approach and correct by appropriate use of flap
r p \l r.
Judge th hole circuit in r lation to th run ay, Spacing
not in relation to otb r p in nth ground. Thi will
rapidly impro e your judg m nt of approacbe: and ft i e tremely imp rtant that you be onstantl a ar
change of runway landin dire tion. or aerodrome of th p ition of oth r air raft in the circuit, parti -
will not be up tting. IL 'I: ill aJ help you consid r­ ularl tho that are ahead f ou in the pattern. B
ably in judging other types of appr, ach car fu1 not to ··cut off a preceding aircraft b tumin
nto the base or fmaJ I ut of proper equen e.
aintain uitable pacing b t\ o our aircraft and
Right Hand Circuits the one ahead to aUo-. that aircraft time to land and
taxi clear of the runway. If you crowd the preceding
Th tandard direction of any aer drome traffic circuit aircraft it may be nece ary for you to execute a
i left band. Howe er exception occur where traffic mi ed approach and 'go around which in the e ir-
confli t with other aiTport , or hazardous terrain um tance is an unoece ary wa te of flight time. At
 The Circuit 101

the same time, overspacing in a busy circuit will without two-way radio communication should remain
inconvenience aircraft that are following you. Correct clear of control zones.
spacing is a judgement skill you must develop as Automatic Terminal Information Service (Ans) i.s
quickly as possible. It takes into account such matters provided at many larger airports. The recorded broad­
as wind direction and strength, and the circuit speeds cast includes weather, runway, and NOTAM information
of other aircraft. Correct spacing may be accom­ affecting the airport. Where it is provided, you should
plished by widening or narrowing your circuit and/or monitor the ATTS broadcast prior to calling the ATC
increasing or decreasing airspeed. facility, and inform ATC on first contact that you have
received the pertinent information.
Controlled Airports
Joining the Circuit
A control zone is control1ed airspace about an airport
or military aerodrome of defined dimensions extend­ When returning to an airport for landing, advise the
ing upward from the surface to a specified height control tower of your identification, geographical
above ground level Civilian control zones with con­ location, or estimated distance in miles and direction
trol towers are normally designated as Class "B," "C" from the airport, and altitude. Then request landing
and "D," within which special regulations apply. instructions. If you are outside the control zone you
Control zones without operating control towers are us­ must do this prior to entering the zone. When the con­
ually designated Class "E?' For information conceringn trol tower gives you clearance "to the circuit" you are
airspace classification, refer to the RAC section of the expected to join the circuit on the downwind leg at
Aeronautical Information Publication (A.LP.) Canada. circuit height. The descent to circuit height must be
made outside of the area occupied by the circuit.
"Cleared to the circuit" authorizes you to make a
Leaving the Circuit - Controlled Airports right turn, if required, to join cross-wind, or to join
the downwind leg provided the right turn is only a
When an aircraft leaves the circuit after take-off, it partial turn that can be carried out safely (Fig. 2-4 7).
does one of two things. It either operates outside the When cleared by the control tower for a "straight in"
circuit while remaining within the control zone, or it approach, you are authorized to join the circuit on the
leaves the control zone. When an aircraft remains final approach leg without having executed any other
within the control zone, the control tower will most
part of the circuit. The same ruling applies to being
likely ask that it: ( 1) remain on the control tower fre­
authorized to join on base leg.
quency; (2) advise the type of exercise; (3) advise the
When an aircraft has been cleared to land by a con­
altitude at which the aircraft will be flown; and trol tower it does not mean the runway is clear of all
(4) advise where the flying will be carried out. When
hazards. Any known hazards will be mentioned at the
an aircraft intends to leave the control zone, permis­ time of the clearance; however, at times of restricted
sion to cease monitoring the control tower frequency
visibility or at night, when a view of the runway from
must be granted by the control tower so long as the
the tower may be limited, unauthorized vehicles or
aircraft is in that tower's control zone. The control
animals may have moved onto the runway without the
tower exercises jurisdiction over all VFR traffic within
controller's knowledge. As the pilot, it is your final
its control zone. A VFR aircraft may not operate within
responsibility to keep a look-out for hazards on the
a control zone without permission from the appropri­
landing and manoeuvring area. You alone must decide
ate control tower, even though the aircraft may be
whether it is acceptable to land considering your air­
using another airport within the control zone.
craft and level of flying skill.
When leaving the circuit, if the aerodrome traffic
circuit is left hand you may execute a right-hand turn
after take-off only with permission from the control
tower. If this permission cannot be granted, you must Uncontrolled Aerodromes
follow the tower controller's instructions until clear of
the zone. An uncontrolled aerodrome is an aerodrome without
After leaving the circuit it may be necessary to fly a control tower or one where the tower is not in oper­
through the control zone of another airport at which ation. An airport which is a certified aerodrome (see
you do not intend to land. It is compulsory that you Chapter 5) can also be uncontrolled. There may be no
make radio contact with the control tower in this zone air-to-ground radio communication at an uncontrolled
and remain under its control until out of the zone aerodrome. However, at many sites there is a man­
again. Unless some special prior arrangement is made datory or aerodrome traffic frequency on which com­
with the appropriate Air Traffic Control unit, aircraft munication can be established with a Flight Service
I 02 The Circuit

Departures

� +-
Final approach

£ +I
+------

Base leg

-+��-- --- ��-+-�

� Crosswind leg

i
►
Downwind leg

Figure 2-47 Standard Left-Hand Traffic Circuit at Controlled Airports

Station or a locally based aircraft operator. These Where no mandatory frequency procedures are in
facilities exercise no control over aircraft, but they can effect, aircraft should approach the traffic circuit from
be very helpful in advising of surface winds, the the upwind side, or, if no conflict exists with other
runway being used by others, known air and ground traffic, the aircraft may join the circuit on the down­
traffic, runway conditions, weather, etc. Pilots are wind leg (Fig. 2-48).
encouraged, and in many cases, required to monitor Where mandatory frequency procedures are in
and make use of any radio or unicorn communications effect and airport and traffic advisory information is
that may be available at uncontrolled aerodromes, and available, aircraft may join the circuit pattern straight
to transmit position reports and broadcast their in or at 45 degrees to the downwind leg, or straight
intentions before joining and while in the circuit. in to the base or final approach legs. Be alert for other
VFR aircraft entering the circuit at these positions and
for Instrument Flight Rules (!FR) aircraft on straight
Leaving the Circuit in or circling approaches. The pilot of an aircraft
inbound on an IFR or practice instrument approach_
After take-off, climb straight ahead on the runway may give a position report that you do not understand.
heading until reaching the circuit traffic altitude Do not hesitate to request clarification in order to gain
before commencing a turn in any direction to an en a clear understanding of that aircraft's position and
route heading. Turns back toward the circuit or airport intentions.
should not be initiated until at least 500 feet above Normally the runway to use for landing is the one
the circuit altitude. most nearly aligned into wind. However, the pilot has
final authority; therefore, for the safe operation of the
Joining the Circuit aircraft another runway may be used if the pilot deems
it necessary.
When returning to the airport for landing take full
advantage of air-to-ground communications for Taxiing on a Runway in Use
advice. Many conditions can change at an airport after
even a short absence. If you cross the airport to make It is sometimes necessary to tum 180 degrees and taxi
observations, the cross-over must be done at least 500 back down the runway to position the aircraft for take­
feet above the circuit altitude. The descent to circuit off, or after landing in order to clear the runway. Do
height should be made on the upwind side so as to this as quickly as possible consistent with safety.
join the circuit at circuit altitude in level flight. Under Remember after landing, until the runway is cleared
normal circumstances, circuit height is 1,000 feet above no other traffic has landing priority.
aerodrome elevation.
 The Circuit 103

Departures

(
+ Base leg

--+--
____...,.. e Crosswind leg

Downwind leg

Aircraft may join if no conflict exists.

Rgure 2-48 Traffic Circuit Procedures at an Uncontrolled AJrport

 Approach and Landing 105

4I Wind direction

Starting to level off: Level at two to Attempting to hold same Landing: all flying
15 to 30 feet altitude three feet altitude altitude by increasing angle speed is lost
(5 to 9 metres) (1 metre) as speed is lost

Figure 2-49 Landing

about the same distance as you would in a car trav­ back and the throttle closed. This requires the devel­
elling at the same speed. The distance at which the opment of fine timing technique and judgement of
vision is focused should be proportionate to the peed height and distance.
of the aircraft. Thu , as speed decreases the clistance The point at which the aircraft is flared makes all
ahead of the aircraft at which it is possible to focus the difference to the subsequent landing. Much research
sharply becomes closer therefore, the focus should be has been done with a view to finding out how an
brought closer accordingly. However, if yow· vision is experienced pilot judges this point. Here are some
focused too closely or straight down, objects become suggestions which may be helpful:
blurred and reactions will be either too abrupt or
delayed too long. 1 . Try to judge the height of the afrcraft above the
At the very outset, form the habit of keeping one landing surface using the height of known objects.
hand on the throttle control throughout the landing. If 2. Try to judge that point at which the ground seems
a situation suddenly arises that requires an immediate to be coming up so rapidly that something must be
application of power, the time necessary for recogniz­ done about it.
ing the problem, moving the band to the throttle, open­ 3. Watch the ground where touchdown is expected.
ing it, and having the engine respond is too great. When it appears to start to approach rapidly check
Bounce are common at the initial stages of training the rate of descent by easing the control column
and proper use of the throttle at the exact instant is back.
imperative. 4. Note the point at which the whole area of the
In addition to practising power assisted approaches, landing swface seems to expand.
at every opportunity you should practise landings from 5. Note the point at which movement of ground
full glides, with the engine throttled back to idling. suddenly becomes apparent.
This type of approach is very necessary to develop the
judgement and planning required for forced landing Once the actual process of landing is started, the
procedures. elevators should not be pushed forward to offset any
When the aircraft is within 15 to 30 feet (5 to 9 ordinary en-or in backward movement of the controls.
metres) from the ground, the flare (round-out) should If too much back pressure bas been exerted, this pres­
begin. Once started, it should progress continuously sure may be either slightly relaxed or held constant,
until the aircraft is on the ground. If your speed is depending on the degree of error. [n some cases it
correct, as back pressure is applied to the control may be necessary to advance the throttle slightly to
column the aircraft wilJ begin to lose speed and start compensate for a loss of speed.
to settle. As the ground "comes up;' continue to ease When the aircraft has come to within 2 or 3 feet
the control column back. This movement of the eleva­ (1 metre) of the ground, check its descent by further
tor control is timed so that the slow, smooth, contim:.i.­ back pressure on the elevator control. At this point the
ous backward movement holds the aircraft just above aircraft will be very close to its stalling speed· there­
the surface until the desired landing attitude is attained. fore backward pressure does not increase or maintain
Nose wheel aircraft should contact the ground on the height as might be expected. Instead, it slows up the
main wheels first, with no weight on the nose wheel. In settling phase, so that the aircraft will touch the
tail wheel aircraft all wheels should touch the ground ground gently in the desired landing attitude. Remem­
simultaneously, with the elevator control all the way ber, as was evident in your slow flight training, as
EXERCISE EIGHTEEN

Approach and Landing

It is common for the student to believe that landing landing involves some degree of cross-wind, and other
an aircraft is the sum total of flying, and that once landings may involve a combination of all three clas­
this is learned, about all there is to know has been ses. For example, a short field landing will very likely
accomplished. This belief, if allowed to persist, pro­ involve the techniques required for cross-wind land­
duces two unfortunate results: first, mental hazards ings and those for landing over an obstacle. The tech­
based on attaching undue importance to the landing niques for each class of landing will be treated
procedure, which may hinder progress in learning the separately in the sequence shown, beginning with the
procedure; and second, slacking off once reasonable normal landing.
proficiency in executing landings has been attained.
Actually the landing is just another manoeuvre,
Normal Landings
representing the logical result of all the preparation up
to this point, and only one of a serie of extensions
of principles by which 1earning has progressed and
will continue to progress toward the goal of pilot com­ A normal landing is a slow tran ition from the normal
petency. A landing is the last of a sequence of major glide attitude to the landing attitude. This transition is
manoeuvres, during which the altitude must be con­ referred to as the flare, or the round-out. rt is started
trolled, air traffic observed, and the whole process approximately 15 to 30 feet above the ground, and
performed safely with an acceptable degree of progressively increased and continued as altitude is
proficiency. lost until, in tail wheel aircraft the main landing gear
Landing an aircraft consists of permitting it to con­ and the tail wheel touch the ground imultaneously.
tact the ground at the lowest possible vertical speed, Aircraft with tricycle landing gear shouJd contact the
and under normal circwnstances, at the lowest possi­ runway on the main landing gear with no weight on
ble horizontal speed consistent with adequate control. the nose wheel (Fig. 2-49).
The first step toward reducing the horizontal velocity Your body's sense of motion will not have devel­
relative to the ground is to land into the wind· the
oped enough at this stage to be of primary assistance
second step is to obtain the desired airspeed and atti­
in landings, although it wiU be a factor. Vision is
tude at the appropriate momenl
Although the approach to landing and the landing therefore the most important sense you use and you
itself may be considered two separate manoeuvres, will operate the controls in accordance with it. Reac­
one is usually an integral part of the other. The suc­ tions on the controls to prevent the aircraft from flying
cess of a landing depends on the type of approach into the ground will be instinctive, but some reactions
technique used to meet the operational requirements are likely to be wrong particularly as to degree and
of a specific landing procedure. Landings may be often as to type as well.
classed as follows: Accurate estimation of distance and depth, besides
being a matter of practice, depends on how clearly
1. Normal landing. objects are seen. It requires that your vision be
2. Cross-wind landing. focused properly so that important objects stand out
3. Short field landing. as clearly as possible. Speed blurs objects at close
4. Soft and unprepared field landing. range· nearby objects seem to run together while
objects farther away stand out clearly. At the time of
Except under the most ideal conditions even a normal landing you should focus ahead of the aircraft, at
104
I 06 Approach and Landing

airspeed decreases more control movement will be plane, which affects the trim requirements. Thus, cor­
needed to gain the desired effecl rective control and trim is often required to maintain
The completion of the touchdown should be judged the desired rate of descent and airspeed.
by the change in attitude of the aircraft rather than by A good landing is invariably the result of a well­
movements of the control column. The attitude should executed approach, which in tum depends upon the
be changed by reference to the landing horizon (edge maintenance of the desired approach slope at a con­
of the aerodrome) and the front of the aircraft. stant angle. One method of achieving this is by using
Once a tail wheel aircraft is on the gro� the the perspective phenomenon. A runway appears to
control column should be held as far back as possible change its shape as the pilot's observation point
until the aircraft comes to a stop. This will shorten the changes. For example, seen from final approach a run­
landing roU and tend to prevent bouncing and skip­ way will appear wider at the approach end than at the
ping of the tail, together with improving directional opposite end. When a constant approach angle is
control. maintained, the apparent configuration of a runway
In the case of a nose wheel aircraft, aUow the nose will also remain constant. The pilot sees the runway
wheel to lower gently to the runway of its own accord as a four-sided figure with the approach width much
as the forward speed decreases and the elevators lose greater than that of the far end and the runway sides
their effectiveness. Do not relax your attention at tbis of equal length but converging toward the horizon. If
point. Keep straight. This type of aircraft should not the approach angle is made steeper, the runway will
normally be "flown on" and held on the runway witb appear to grow longer and narrower. If the approach
excessive speed, since this may impose excessive angle is made more shallow the runway appears to
stress on the nose wheel and possibly cause the unde­ grow shorter and wider.
sirable condjtion known as wheelbarrowing ( discussed Although the runway area steadily grows larger as
in Exercise 16). the approach progresses, as long as the relationship of
As training progresses, you will be required to plan the sides of the runway configuration remain the same
the approach and landing while the aircraft is on the the approach angle is remaining constant and touch­
downwind leg of the traffic circuit. This may be done down will be near the threshold (fig. 2-50).
by visualizing the flight path and estimating where
you will reduce power and make the turn onto final
approach to land. As practice progresses, the descent
should be initiated by reducing the power and airspeed
Cross-Wind Landings
to produce the desired flight path on the base leg, and
then making a 90 degree descending tum onto final Jt is not always possible or practical to land directly
approach. When the descent has been started, make into the wind. Consequently, the principles involved
drift corrections on the base leg to follow a ground in cross-wind landings must be learned and practised
track that will approximate a right angle to the run­ until they present no difficulty. A significant change
way. The base leg should be nown to the point where in wind direction is possible between the time an air­
a gentle tum will bring the aircraft to the final craft takes off and the time it lands, even during one
approach directly in line with the landing runway. c.ircuit, so it is important that you are able to cope
This tum must be completed at a safe altitude, which with crosswinds before your first solo.
will depend on the elevation of the terrain at this point An aircraft landing directly into the wind tends to
and the height of any obstructions. Make the final maintain a straight beading while it is rolling on (or
approach l.ong enough to estimate the point of touch­ about to touch down on) the runway, with minimum
down and allow for any necessary reductions of power control assistance from the pilot. However, in a cross­
and airspeed in preparation for the landing. wind, which is any wind affecting the aircraft at an
angle to its longitudinal axis, a more complex situa­
tion exists, which if not properly attended to can cause
Flaps and Trim a loss of control The landing beading of an aircraft
is normally determined by the direction in which the
To avoid undershooting a runway, there is often a nat­ runway is oriented, rather than by the actual wind
ural tendency to be too high on the normal approach direction. Therefore, an aircraft landing .in a cross­
,vith the result that height must be lost It is c-0nsid­ wind has the wind striking it from one side or the
ered that the last 500 feet (152 metres) of a normal other while it is in contact with the ground, and due
approach should be straight, without any slipping or to the aircraft's inherent tendency to weathercock it is
turning, and that height should be controlled by the being forced off its intended beading. Prior to landing,
use of flap. Extending the flaps changes the airflow the aircraft will tend to drift across the runway instead
pattern over and under the wing and around the tail of running true to the centre line. If no corrective
 Approach and landing 107

Threshold Threshold Threshold

····· .•••
... .... •··1s·�···
Figure 2-50 A Runway as tt Appears from Different Angles

action j taken an undesirable ide fi rce is exerted n aircraft aligned with the centre line of the runway by
the landing-gear when it touche the surface. The use of the rudder. On touchd wn devote all po ible
sam condition will occur if the path of the aircraft i attention to keeping the aircraft rolling in a straight
held true to th centre line with compensation for line to for tall any tendency for th aircraft to gr und
drift by crabbing, and the wh el allowed to touch the loop. The aileron control h uJd be held toward the
urface while not aligned with the direction of th upwind , ing after touchdo o to pre ent it from
runway. rising.
ro -wind landings are om hat more difficult
to manage than cro -wind take-off! . This is main!
due to the difference in the difficulti presented in
maintaining control o er the aircraft hile speed i
d creasing in Lead of increa ing in the tak -off.
During � - fI a the peed of th aircraft increa
aerodynamic control of the aircraft b comes progre -
ively more po itive· a the aircraft' peed decrea
before and following touchdown, the effect of tbi
control decrea es. Before attempting a landing in a
cro -wind other than a very light one, consult the
ro -Wind omponent Chart Fig. 2-38 in E erci
16. It i us d in the rune manner a for a cros - ind
take-off.
There are o basic m thods for counteracting drift
bile e ecutin a cro -wind landing.
The first a ide- ljp or ing down method of
ounteracting drift • probably the m popular of th
two basic m thod ig. 2-51 . It afford the important
ad antage of continuity in flight control po itioning
from before touchdown to the end of the landing roll
and will compen ate adequately for acceptable cro
winds under most condition . When using thi
method, avoid initiating the lip lo far back on th
final approach uni s there are other rea ans for lip­
ping. you approach the landing area and dr i ft
becom apparent ide- lip int \I ind uffi iently to
ounteract the drift. Keep the longitudinal axi of the Figure 2-51 Landing in a Cross-Wind
108 Approach and landing

When the side-slip method is used, the upwind Power

main wheel will make contact with the surface first.
The downwind wheel of the aircraft is still airborne On a short field approach power is required to more
but under normal circumstances the upwind wheel is accurately control descent. When power is used, very
not subjected to undue weight or impact stress. little change in the aircraft's pitch attitude is required
The second method for eliminating drift when land­ to make necessary corrections in the approach slope.
ing in a cross-wind requires considerable skill, excel­ Leave power on until the landing flare is completed.
lent timing and a great deal of practice. For these A hjgh power. "drag in" approach is not recom­
reasons it is seldom used in elementary training. With mended as a landing technique for a short field. Trus
this method the aircraft is maintained on a heading method can very easily bring the aircraft into slow
(crabbed) into wind so that the flight path of the air­ flight and result in undershooting the landing area. Lt
craft is aligned with the runway centre line. This also requires that the pilot maintain skill in a second
means that the longitudinal axis of the aircrft a
is not approach method when there is an obstacle. One
aligned with the intended landjng path and if contact method can serve perfectly well in all short field
with the surface is allowed in this condition, there is gjtuations.
a risk of damaging the landing-gear or subsequent dif­
ficulty in controlling the aircraft. Therefore, just prior
to touchdown the longituclinal ax.is of the aircraft must Touchdown
be lined up with the runway by use of rudder. This
method requires prompt and accurate rudder action to The aircraft should touch down on the main wheels
line up the aircraft exactly with its direction of travel at its lowest possible airspeed. Lower the nose wheel
over the ground at the instant of contact. If contact is onto the runway as recommended in the Aircraft
made too soon the aircraft will land with crab; if con­ Flight Manual. Tail wheel types should be held in the
tact is too late, it will land with drift. Either will three-point attitude for touchdown and braking.
impose side-loads on the landing-gear and impart Retraction of the flaps after touchdown is recom­
ground looping tendencies. As welJ, as the upwind mended by some flight manuals. While leaving flaps
wing has not been lowered into the wind, a gust at the extended initially produces aerodynamic braking, it
wrong moment can easily lift it and aggravate the ten­ also produces lift that, by taking weight off the
dency to groundloop. wheels, reduces the effectiveness of the wheel brakes.
In aircraft with retractable landing gear, take care in
rajsing the flaps during the landing roll to avoid unin­
tentional gear retraction.

Short Field Landing Obstacle

Aircraft Flight Manuals usually describe the technique Whether a short field has an obstacle or not, most
to be used for landing in a short field. They also pro­ pilots prefer to use a power assisted approach. The
vide tables or charts showing what landing perform­ aim is to establish a stabilized approach configuration
ance you can expect. Compared to what you see in and speed and maintain a constant descent angle to
routine flying, this performance is impressive. If any the flare (Fig. 2-52). The steepest angle of descent
head wind is present, you might expect a very short will be achieved with Lhe throttle closed, but this can
ground roll after landing, perhaps only a few hundred also give very high rates of descent that can be hard
feet. to check in the flare.
Achieving the performance figures given in the
Aircraft: Flight Manual requires carefuJ handling of
the aircraft and good judgement. The aim is to Wind Gusts
approach at the airspeed recommended for the aircraft
weight and to touch down at the desired spot at the When approaching for a landing under strong wind
lowest possible airspeed commensurate with safety. conditions, the need for a reduced approach speed
Touching down al the required spot requires precise decreases as the wind speed increases. In gusty wind
control. of the approach so that you flare at the right conditions it is advisable to add an amount equal to
point and at the right speed. The aircraft will normally half the gust factor to the calculated approach speed.
float some distance after round-out, and this must be For example, if the wind is gusting from 15 to 25, the
considered when aiming for a particular touchdown gust factor is l O; therefore, an approach that would
point. normally be flown at 65 should be increased to 70 to
 7
Approach and landing I0

The aircraft ill decelerate quickly on a oft field.

ou might find it nece sary to hold the control 1-
g ide path "'"' obstacle
umn full b k and add power speed is reduced to
keep the aircraft from gettin tuck in the oft urface
or nosing o r.

Landing Run

The objective of any landing is to u e as short a land­

ing run a i on i tent with afi ty and good judge-
ment. eral factors that can lengthen the landing run
•
must be ccount. Id ntifying them require
kno ervation. Then good judgem nt
Figure 2·52 Approach Angle Comparison an to ate for them ade-
q o esefa .
allow for gu . An airspeed increa of 10 i nonnaU
the maximum applied; increases abo e that could r ult ro - in . The kills required for thi factor ha e
in extremely long landing runs and on ome runway been ad qual ly co ered in thi ercise· h
it may be imp ible to top before going off the end. hen contemplating a landing in a cros -wind gi
due consideration to the dimini hed head-wind com­
Decision making ponent. In fa t, in cross-wind f 70 to 90 degrees
other control factors make it nece ary to make allow­
Short field landings will challenge your deci ion­ ances in the length of the landing run as thougb a no
making kill . You have to decide whether the field wind conditi n existed.
length warrant a pecial technique. o t short fields
are turf or gra cl trip so you may ha e to in p l Ligh hifting i.nds. Under th conditions y u
the fi ld first to d cide whether landing i appropriate. may be i e to allo for a landing run length I.bat the
You wilJ have consider wind dire tion. po jble aircraft � ould perience und r no wind condition .
lope of th landing surface, b ta I and the p -
ibility of turbulen e wind hear r rising or inking Tail casions ma c ur hen you ha e no
air urrents. 1f the field is reall hort, you will ha e accepting a taiJ wind. Provided condi­
to decide ._ b th r you will be abl to take-off later tion permit u the hort fi Id landing techniqu to
a it usually tak more di tanc t take off than it reduc the ground peed at which the heel make
d e to land. ff the approach i n t going well you contact with th ground. To und r tand th effect of
will have to de ide early to over ho t and try again. a tail wind on a typical light aircraft performing a
normal landing on a hard surfaced mnway with a pilot
of average kill, consider the following.
Soft and Unprepared Field With flap extended until it come to rest, and only
moderate u e of brake toward the end of the landing
Landings run a certain aircraft touching down at 60 KT in a 20
KT bead wind requires a landing run of 800 feet 244
Landing on a oft or unprepared field also requii, a metre . Th sam aircraft in a 20 KT tail wind require
touchdown at th lowest po ible speed con i tent a landing run of 1600 feet (4 metres , with moderate
with safe . p ial approa h te hnique • needed. to hea braking tarting at th 00 foot (244 m tre
urning th length of the field i n t a problem a point. hen an aircraft must be landed in a tail wind
normal po" r-on approach ork U but care i retract the flap and place all ontrol in the n utra1
n eded on t, uchdown. U e of m power can help po ition quickly as po ible after th air raft i
achieve a mo th landing. Tb attitude on touchdm n po iti ely n the ground.
hould be no e up roughly the attitude for a power­
off stall. After touchdown, hold the nose wheel clear Runway radient. When constructing an airport the
of the surface as long as possible and use brakes with construction engineer does everything possible to pro­
care to prevent execs ive load on the nose gear. ln vide a landing area without any gradient. However
tail wheel aircraft the tail whe 1 hould touch down this i alm t impossible to do and in many ca e
with or just befi the main wheel and hould be held there may be a con iderable downgrade or upgrad t
down with th el vators throughout lh landing roll. a runway. Thi ituation ma be amplified consid rably
110 Approach and Landing

at remote airstrips or fields not primarily constructed rated from the runway surface by a thin film of water.
as aircraft manoeuvring areas. Even a relatively They will continue to hydroplane until a reduction in
imperceptible downgrade can increase the landing run speed permits the tires to regain contact with the run­
considerably. When a downgrade is readily percep­ way. This speed will be considerably below the speed
tible, all the factors must be assessed carefully and a at which hydroplaning commences. Under these con­
decision to land uphill with a slight tail wind may have ditions, tire traction drops to almost negligible values,
to be made. Some of the factors to consider are: degree and in some cases the wheel will stop rotating entirely.
of gradient, strength of wind, length of landing area, The tires will provide no braking capabiliy t and will
type and condition of surface. obstacles on approach, not contribute to the directional control of the aircraft.
condition of aircraft braking system, and the slciU and The resultant increase in stopping distance is impos­
experience of the pilot. sible lo predict accurately, but it bas been estimated
to increase as much as 700 percent. Further, it is known
Gross Weight. Operating conditions being equal, the that a l O KI cross-wind will drift an aircraft off the
heavier an aircraft is, the longer a landing run it will side of a 200 foot (61 metre) wide runway in approxi­
require. The reasons for this fact are basic, but it is mately 7 seconds under hydroplaning conditions. When
surprising how often it is ignored when a marginal hydroplaning is suspected, release the brakes immedi­
landing area is being assessed. An unbraked light air­ ately, then reapply a very slight pressure. This pressure
craft in still air [empty weight 1,000 pounds (454 may be gradually increased as the aircraft slows down,
kilograms), gross weight 1,500 pounds (680 kilograms)] but be prepared to release the brakes and reapply
will roll an additional 5.3 inches (J 35 millimetres) for pressure as often as necessary.
every pound of load between its empty weight and its
gross weight. With the pilot and half its fuel load [total Wheelbarrowing. On landing, take care not to allow
fuel 70 galJons (265 litres)] it will roJl, say, 500 feet the nose wheel of a nose wheel equipped aircraft to
(152 metres) after touching down. With a full fuel load touch the ground first, or simultaneously with the
and a passenger [260 more pounds ( l 18 kilograms)], main wheel, if compensating for drift in a cross-wind.
it wiU roll an additional 138 feet (42 metres). Under The nose wheel is aot structured to bear the landing
i impact load nor accept major surface irregularities it
normal condtions this may not be too important, but
with a short field, obstacles on the approach, a slippery may encounter at the high touchdown speed. If the
surface, and a light and variable wind, it becomes nose wheel is steerable it may be cocked to one side
increasingly significant. when compensating for drift and if it is allowed to
contact the runway at touchdown speed in this posi­
Grass Surfaces. A surtably sized, well-maintained tion, the aircraft may develop a swing and/or the nose
grass area, free of soft and rough spots, probably wheel may be damaged. Nose wheel type aircraft are
offers one of the best landing surfaces for light air­ normally landed using a procedure in which the nose
craft. A grass surface helps absorb the shock of a hard wheel is held off the ground as l.ong as practical unless
.landing and is much more tolerant of a landing made any difficulty is experienced in maintaining direction .
without sufficient compensation for cross-wind drift Nose wheel type aircraft should not be flown onto the
or imprudent sudden application of brake. In addition, runway with excess speed, but under gusty and tur­
even short clipped grass will offer significant resis­ bulent conditions the nose wheel may be lowered to
tance to the roll potential of the wheels, this resistance the ground sooner than usual to prevent the aircraft
becoming greater as the aircraft slows down. The end from skipping or lifting off again.
result is that a grassy surface which is suitable in other You may remember that wheelbarrowing is a con­
respects, will afford a much shorter landing roll than dition encountered when the main wheels are lightly
you could expect from a paved surface. However, if loaded or clear of the runway and the nose wheel is
you are making a landing into a short grassy field and finnly in contact with the runway. This causes the
you know that braking action will be required, it is nose gear to support a greater than normal percentage
also important to know that if the grass is wet, or even of weight while providing the only means of steering.
damp with dew, the wheels will skid very easily and In the extreme condition, a loss of directional control
provide up to 30 per cent less braking capability than may ensue at a very critical point in the landing pro­
a wet paved surface. One rule of thumb is: the greener cedure. Wheelbarrowing may occur if the aircraft is
the wet grass the more slippery the surface. To illus­ allowed to touch down with ljttle or no rotation and
trate this point, float planes have landed and success­ the pilot tries to hold the aircraft on the ground with
fuJJy taken off again on wet, lush grass. forward pressure on the elevator control. This often
occurs as a result of the use of excessive approach
Wet Runways Hydroplaning. When hydroplaning speeds, particularly in a full flap configuration. ln a
occurs, the tires of the aircraft are completely sepa- cross-wind the aircraft in this situation tends to pivot
 Approach and Lan.ding 111
(yaw) rapidly about the nose wheel, in a manoeuvre If the landing is doubtful, or if you are starting to
very similar to a ground loop in a tail wheel type get into trouble, open the throttle and go around again,
aircraft. Other indications of wheelbarrowing are as long as you are positive there is adequate runway
wheel skipping and/or extreme loss of braking effect or open space to do so. In gusty cross-wind condi­
when the brakes are applied. tions, retract the flaps as soon as the aircraft is firmly
Wheelbarrowing incidents have occurred during on the ground. Flaps provide more surface for a cross­
cross-wind landings in aircraft equipped with nose wind to act upon; therefore, if they are retracted there
wheel steering when the "slip" technique for cross­ will be less swing effect.
wind correction is being used. On many training air­
craft the nose wheel steers when rudder is applied; for
this reason, such landings require careful rudder oper­ Air Density
ation just prior to and during touchdown.
The Aircraft Flight Manual usually contains tables
Corrective Action (Wheelbarrowing). Corrective indicating the effect that airport elevation and ambient
action must be based on a number of factors, i.e., temperature have on the length of the lanrung run.
degree of development of the condjtion, the pilot's Density altitude is the key term in determining the
proficiency, remaining runway length, and aircraft per­ length of landing run required; it may be reviewed by
formance. After considering these factors, you should referring to Exercise 16.
initiate the following corrective measures: The required landing run length of an aircraft is
based on its performance in standard atmosphere -
1. Close the throttle, relax forward elevator pressure i.e., 29.92 inches of mercury and an ambient temper­
to aft of the neutral position to lighten the load on ature of 15°C. Rules of thumb of the effect of tem­
the nose gear, and return steering and braking to perature and pressure varying from standard are:
normal. If the flaps can be retracted safely, additional
braking will be obtained on dry runways. 1. If the air is warmer the landing run will be longer.
2. If control can be regained and adequate aircraft 2. If the aerodrome is higher the landing run will be
performance and runway are available, abort the longer.
landing and go around again. 3. If the air is warmer and the aerodrome is rugber
the landing run will be even longer.
A ground loop, generally associated with tail wheel
equipped aircraft, is defined as: "A violent uncon­
trollable tum resulting from failure to correct (or over­ Wheel Landings
correcting) a swing on landing (or take-off)!' An
undesirable turn during the ground operation of an As you gain experience, you may find that the ability
aircraft is generally referred to as a swing. A swing to carry out wheel landings in tail wheel type aircraft
may be caused by any of the following: will be beneficial to you when flying specific types
or under certain landing conditions. The approach
1. Touching down while crabbing into wind. should be normal with or without power according to
2. Touching down when the aircraft is drifting the conditions of the day, to the point where the
sideways. descent is checked. The airspeed is then decreased to
3. A cross-wind acting on the fuselage and rudder, the point at which the aircraft settles. Adjust the power
causing an aircraft to weathercock into wind. at this point so as to descend in a level attitude at a
4. AUowing the upwind wing to rise, wruch combined slow rate (approximately 100 to 300 feet per minute).
with weathercocking effects on the tail causes a You wilJ not be able to watch the vertical speed indi­
swing into wind. cator during this stage, but with practice you can eas­
5. Failing to control a wheel landing properly: when ily estimate the descent rate. A fast rate of descent
the tail. settles onto the runway, heading control could cause a hard contact with the surface, followed
changes from rudder to tail wheel and during the by a downward rotation of the tail through inertia and
transition period, a ground swing can develop. a subsequent bounce back up into the air. Small con­
6. Incorrect recovery action for drift after a bounce, trol adjustments only should be used as the aircraft
which has the same effect as landing with drift. settles to assist in descending slowly and maintain a
level attitude. As the wheels smoothly contact the sur­
To prevent a swing from developing into a ground face, apply gentle but firm forward pressure to hold
loop in a tail wheel aircraft, you must anticipate and the wheels on the ground and decrease the angle of
take firm, immediate action. Keep the control column attack. The aircraft should be held on the wheels,
fully back and apply opposite rudder. nearly level, until it has slowed sufficiently to ensure
112 Approach and Landing

fulJ control in a three-point attitude under existing However, if you sense you are somewhat higher then
conditions. apply power, maintain control and slowly ease the
As speed gradually decreases in the landing roll, a nose down in the same manner used when recovering
transition point is reached in tail wheel aircraft at from slow night. Do not overcontrol. Make minor
which the rudder ceases to provide adequate direc­ adjustments as necessary to stop the sink. Even if the
tional control. At this point the tail wheel must be aircraft lands bard, provided that it lands on the main
positively and firmly on ilie ground so that the aircraft wheels, it is unlikely that any damage will occur.
may be directionally controlled by the action of the While you are taking corrective action you must
steerable tajl wheel. Keep the control column well remember to continue to eliminate any drift.
back until the aircraft is clear of the runway and in If you aren't sure that you can continue the landing
the taxiing mode. safely, you should go around. As you may be in the
slow flight speed range, going around will have to be
done carefully. You will need immediate yet smooth
application of full power and control of yaw. Carbu­
Recovering from Bad Landings rettor heat will be set to cold and flaps will be brought
up in stages according to the procedure in the Aircraft
�t doesn't take very much to turn a promising landing Flight Manual.
mto a bad one. The sequence of events often starts
with a poor approach, then all it takes is a gust of
wind, or a tendency to overcontrol the aircraft, or Overshooting (Going Around)
touching down while the speed is too high. Even com­
binations of these are possible, and quick recognition The decision to overshoot or go around because of a
of the situation and careful handling is needed to poor approach or landing rests with the pilot. Occa­
recover. sionally, however, the control tower may ask you to go
You first have to recognize that the situation calls around. The tower will normalJy issue this instruction
for corrective action. Then you have two choices. You by saying "Pull up and go around."
can either go around or you can continue the landing. As soon as the decision to overshoot has been
Your choice will be dictated to some extent by the air­ taken, apply full power, accelerate to a safe climb
speed, the height of the aircraft, and by your own skill. speed in level flight, reduce flap extension as required
An aircraft can touch down and immediately return according to type, and raise the nose to the climbing
to flight a mere two or three feet (I metre) above the attitude. Keep straight as the throttle is opened, and
runway, or you could find yourself at ten to twenty roughly trim off the pressure on the control column.
feet (3 to 6 metres). lt can "balloon;' which means the Start the climb, and when you have firm control of
ai�cra � rises due to overeontrolling or to a gust of the airc�aft, raise the .flaps, adjust the climbing speed,
wmd m the flare. You might also round-out too high. and retnm.
All these situations result in an aircraft that is flying If a bad approach, flare, or landing is the cause of
close to d1e ground with airspeed that is very low and the overshoot, and the remaining portion of the run­
getting lower. way is clear of other aircraft, it is permissible to climb
If you see a bad landing developing, hold the ele­ straight ahead. However, if you have been forced to
vator controls steady. Do not move them for a moment go around for some reason while on the approach it
until you see what is going to happen. Whatever you is difficult lo see aJ,ead and below. Ease over to ilie
do, do not immediately apply forward pressure. This righl of the runway, tly parallel to the runway and
wiJJ only result in an immediate loss of Lift, a rapid while climbing out keep a look-out for other tr;ffic
rate of sink, and hard contact with the ground, prob­ especially aircraft taking off and climbing up besid;
ably in an attitude that could damage the nose wheel. you.
If you are tl�ing a tail wheel aircraft this will likely It is a general rule that if carburettor heat is in the
_ "on" position during the approach to landing, it
result m a senes of bounces caused by overcootrolling
with each successive landing becoming worse than the should be pJaced in the "off" position as soon as
one before. possible after power is applied on the overshoot
procedure. However, be gujded in this matter by the
. After you check the elevator controls and if you Aircraft Flight Manual and/or the rules of the Flight
Judge that the rise in altitude is not serious, perhaps
5 feet (2 metres) or less, then wait for the aircraft to Training Unit.
settle before continuing with the landing. Remem­
ber that the airspeed will continue to decrease and Wake Turbulence
when you are ready to continue holding off, larger
control movements will be needed to stop the descent. Wake turbulence, generated by preceding larger air-
 Approach and Landing I 13

craft. should be avoided by light aircraft at all times terrain aJso suggest the position of the horizon. But
but especially during approaches and landings. these cues are only accurate when the terrain and run­
Since vortices are subject to many variable factors way are level. Sloping terrain and runway can give
(size, weight, and speed of the aircraft and air con­ you a faJse sense of the horizon and mislead you into
ditions) it is not possible to forecast their presence flying an approach that may be too steep or too shal­
accurately. However, it shouJd be remembered that the low for safety.
von-ices are carried by the ambient wind and have a Even a relatively smaJl upslope of the runway can
downward movement imparted to them when they are give the ilJusion that you are higher than you shouJd
shed, and an outward movement near the ground, due be and mislead you into making a shallower than nor­
to cushion effect. mal approach. This may place you dangerously close
lo objects on the approach and may cause you to touch
l. When it is necessary to operate behind a large down before the runway threshold (Fig. 2-54).
heavy aircraft, remain above the flight path of that Similarly, when the runway slopes away from your
aircraft. landing aircraft, you may fly a steeper than normal
2. When preparing to land remember that wake tur­ approach. Sloping terrain on approach to the runway
bulence generated by a preceding aircraft will be can have the same deceptive effect as a sloping run­
maximum: way. lt would not be unusual for the approach terrain
(a) just befre o
the point of touchdown for a land­ and the runway to slope in the same direction and so
ing aircraft; and these two different effects would then be cumulative.
(b) at the point of Uft-off for a departing aircraft. If an approach is made over water, snow, or other
3. On landing, wake turbulence can best be avoided: featureless terrain, or carried out over a darkened area,
(a) if following an aircraft that just departed, by there is a tendency to fly a lower than normal
planning your approach to land near the approach. Factors that obscure visibility such as rain,
approach end of the runway so as to be down haze, or dark runway environment can have the same
before reaching the point where the preceding effecL
aircraft took off; and Bright runway and approach lights may cause you
(b) if following an aircraft that has just landed, to believe that the airport is closer than it actually
by planning your approach so as to stay above is. The result may be a premature descent, but this
the flight path of the preceding aircraft and to depends on how you perceive this situation and what
touch down beyond the point where the pre­ other illusions are present
ceding aircraft touched down (Fig. 2-53). Steep surrounding terrain can create an illusion of
4. Remember, even though a clearance for take-off or being too low and can lead 10 a steep approach.
landing has been issued, if you believe it is safer The round-out and touchdown phase of the landing
to wait, to use a different runway, or in some other require you to make important height judgements. To
way to alter your intended operation, ask the con­ do this you are likely to use a number of cues. These
troller for a revised clearance. include apparent speed, apparent ground texture, and
size of known objects. If these cues are removed
because of an approach over water, snow, featureless
Visual Illusions terrain, or darkness, you may be forced to make a
judgement based on only one cue, for example, run­
way width.
Visual illusions are frequently mentioned by accident If you are used to a runway I 00 feet (30 metres)
investigators as contributing factors in approach and \vidc and approach a narrower runway, say SO feet ( l 5
landing accidents. How do these illusions occur? metres), the smaUer target may give the illusion that
Research has thrown light on these phenomena. you are higher than you should be, influencing you to
ln approaching a runway, you will normally use descend to a lower than normal altitude before round­
several cues to adjust your glide path. One important out. If the error is not corrected in time, this could
cue is the visuaJ angle between the point you are aim­ result in a hard landing.
ing for on the runway and the horizon. This angle is Conversely, if the unfarniliar runway is significantly
equal 10 the angle of approach. wider, say 150 feet (45 metres), you may experience
ff the horizon is not visible, because of poor visi­ the illusion of being lower than you actually are. This
biJity or darkness, a number of other means may be would influence you to make a higher than normal
used to estimate your position. Your perspective of the round-out, and could aJso result in a bard landing.
shape of runway is such a cue (Fig. 2-50). The To take preventative measures against visual illu­
extended sides of the runway intersect at the horizon, sions it is important to realize that visuaJ illusions are
and tbe surface texture and objects of the surrounding normal phenomena that affect all of us. Illusions result
114 Approach and Landing

When landing behind a large aircraft which has just taken off,
plan to touch down prior to the point where the large aircraft rotated.

Calm wind

If the large aircraft has just landed, plan to land beyond

the point where the large aircraft touched down.

�COO:-OOClCO"-:)> _=::::::::======================-------.:���iiii\;�1�&�?�

Figure 2-53 Landing behind a Large Aircraft

f=-=-=-==-=-=========:::;�::::::::......---....______,..,,,,,,,,.,,..-------,

------ Normal approach path

------ Potential approach path

Figure 2-54 Illusions Caused by Sloping Runways

from the way humans process visual and other infor­ the flight. Plan to take advantage of visual aids such
mation. Therefore, you must understand the nature of as VASI lights (where available). It is often helpful to
the illusions and the situations in which they are likely overf ly an unfamiliar field before making an approach
to be encountered. to land, and ensure that you fly a normal circuit. Often
When you expect an illusion, an effective counter things such as the slope of a runway cannot be accu­
measure is to supplement visual cues with information rately judged from the air, but your awareness of sit­
from other sources. In making visual approaches to uations where you expect illusions and knowledge of
unfamiliar aerodromes, note the size and terrain con­ their effects will go a long way in helping you to make
ditions of those destination aerodromes when planning safe decisions to deal with them.
 Approach and Landing 115

Touch-and-Go instructions for leaving the runway. These instructions

will normally be given to the pilot prior to landing or
To save flight time touch-and-go landings are fre­ during the landing roll. After landing on a dead-end
quently employed during various stages of training. In runway, a pilot will normally be given instructions to
this manoeuvre a take-off is executed while the air­ "back track." After leaving the runway, unless other­
craft is still in its landing roll. This means that the wise instructed by ATC, pilots should continue forward
essential components of a pre-take-off cockpit check across the taxi holding position lines or to a point at
must be carried out while the aircraft is moving along least 200 feet (61 metres) from the edge of the runway
the runway. Before attempting the cockpit check be where a taxi holding position line is not available. The
sure that the aircraft is under complete control in the aircraft is not considered clear of the runway until all
landed mode. The essential components of touch-and­ parts of the aircraft are past the taxi holding position
go pre-takeoff actions are: line or the 200 foot (61 metre) point.

I. Flaps up ( or set for take-off).

2. Trim set for take-off. Simultaneous Intersecting Runway
3. Carburettor heat "cold�' Operations (s1Ro)
4. Power "full" (or take-off setting).
To increase the traffic capacity of an airport, ATC may
When operating at a controlled airport a standard use special procedures for simultaneous use of
landing clearance presumes that you will land and exit intersecting runways. For example, if an aircraft is
from the runway. If a touch-and-go landing is intended landing while another aircraft is either approaching to
you must obtain clearance to do so from the control land or taking off from an intersecting runway, the
tower. Their clearance will most likely be "cleared for clearance to land will include an instruction to "hold
touch-and-go." short" of the intersecting runway. If the pilot is unable
to comply with this instruction, the clearance must be
declined. Knowledge of your aircraft's performance
Clearing the Runway and your personal skill level is very important when
determining your ability to comply with these instruc­
Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, aircraft are tions. The conditions under which Simultaneous
expected to continue in the landing direction to the Intersecting Runway Operations (SIRO) may be
nearest suitable taxiway and exit the runway without approved can be found in the RAC section of the
delay. No aircraft should exit a runway onto another Aeronautical Information Publication (A.l.P.) Canada.
runway unless instructed or authorized to do so by Similar procedures are known in the USA as Land and
ATC. When required, ATC will provide the pilot with Hold Short Operations (LAHSO).
EXERCISE NINETEEN

First Solo

The first solo is a landmark in your flying career. You 10. Properly adjust your circuit pattern in the event
will never forget it, and it is quite normal to look of a change of runway in use after you take off.
forward to it, but do not exaggerate its importance. It
is not so much when you solo, but rather what you As pilot-in-command you are responsible for the oper­
know and what you can do correctly at this period of ation and safety of the aircraft when on solo flight.
training that is important. Soloing is merely another However, for this first solo your instructor will ensure
step in the orderly process of flight training bringing that suitable conditions exist and precautions are taken
you to the stage where learning really begins. by:
The amount of dual instruction required to solo
need not be a reflection on your ability. Everyone var­ 1. Ensuring that the aircraft has sufficient fuel for the
ies in capacity to learn, and very often the student intended solo flight with adequate reserve for pos­
who is a little slow to learn ultimately makes the better sible delays or overshoots.
pilot. 2. AJlowing the flight only when sufficient daylight
Before being pennitted to take your first solo flight must remain for successful completion of the antic­
you will have to satisfy your flight instructor that you ipated flight, allowing a liberal margin for possible
are able to: additional circuits due to traffic congestion over­
shooting, etc.
l. Take off and land while using the correct tech­ 3. Ensuring that the first solo is flown only if suitable
nique for runway surface and wind conditions. weather conditions exist and are forecast to
2. Fly accurate circuits while maintaining safe sep­ continue.
aration from other aircraft. 4. Selecting a time when air traffic conditions are
3. Correct a potentially poor landing, but be capable light.
of judging when it is necessary to go around 5. Ensuring that the solo flight does not follow a
again. lengthy session of dual instruction.
4. Recognize whether you are overshooting or
undershooting a predetermined touchdown zone Securely fasten the seat-belt in the empty seat.
and take early corrective action. On a solo flight, the take-off will be much quicker
5. Operate the radio competently where ai rport traf­ and the climb more rapid due to the absence of the
fic control is in effect, and in the event of com­ in.structor's weight. Many students have remarked that
munications failure know the emergency proce­ this was the outstanding feature of their first solo
dures to follow and the light signals that may be flight: they were not fully prepared for the suddenness
directed to you from a control tower. with which the aircraft became airborne.
6. Use the correct overshoot procedures. Since the aircraft is relatively lightly loaded, it wiJI
7. Realize the importance of keeping an alert look­ require less power to maintain a desired rate of
out for other aircraft now that you are the sole descent. AJso, after the flare for landing, the aircraft
occupant of the aircraft. will tend to "float" longer before touching down and
8. Conduct a forced landing from any point in the it may be more ensitive to gusts during the initial
circuit in the event of an engine failure. stage of the landing roll.
9. Handle the emergency procedures listed in the New manoeuvres and procedures will be added as
Aircraft FUght Manual. progress permits and further solo periods planned and
116
 First Solo 117

authorized Specific practice on procedures learned in cruising when flight training is finished. Perfection of
earlier stages of your training will also be included. technique as early as possible is your objective; there­
When authoi r zed solo to do specific manoeuvres, it is fore, after the first solo, subsequent solo flights must
important to practise the specific work diligently; be devoted to attaining greater precision, co-ordination,
there will be ample time for sightseeing or pleasure orientation, and judgement
EXERCISE TWENTY

Illusions Created by Drift

There are times when it may be n cessary to manoeu­ temptation to reduce air peed which if carried to
vre an aircraft relatively clos to the ground, such a extremes could lead to a tailed condition. Flying
during a forced Landing when carrying out precau­ cro -wind the sideway drift over the ground is very
tionary Landing procedur s r because of deteriorat­ apparent especially when th aircraft is aligned with
ing weather. On the e occa ion it is very jmportant a traight road or ction line.
that you recognjze and und r tand iJlu ions created by [n a tum from upwind to downwind becau e of th
drift ig. 2-55). drift o er the ground th aircraft eems to be Lipping
Once an aircraft be ome airborne, it enters a inward e en though the tum i accurate and well co-
medium of mo ement aJm t unrelated to any it rdinated. This impre ion i an illusion and you must
enc unters on the ground. n a the wheels I a not u e the rudder in Lb att mpt to correct it. qui k
th urfac there is no wind in th en e that we nor­ glan e at the centred ball of the ru m-and-bank indi­
mally associate with the ord. Instead, the aircraft cator will confirm that n Lip i occurring. Howe er
nte a body of air. and bile airbom its mo ement th drift i elf i ery real and plenty of room must
i directly related to the p ed and direction of move­ be allowed when turning from upwind to dowm ind
ment of that bod of air. if there is an obstacle n th in ide of the turn. im­
[n fUght at normal operating altitude: the mo e­ ilarly in a tum from d wnwind to upwind th aircraft
ment of the aircraft relari e to th ground appear to m to skid outward, although the ball i centr d.
be comparatively slow even when the air peed i quite Thi too is an illusion but again the drift i real and
high. However when the aircraft i flown closer to th ample room mu t b allowed b tween the aircraft and
ground movement in relation to the ground become ob tructions on the out i.de of the tum.
more apparent and in trong winds iUusions are cre­ Remember the lower th air peed, the greater the
ated. If mjsinterpreted they can develop into poten­ illusion of skid and lip with a given wind velocity.
tially dangerous flight condition
In conditions of good visibility flight below normaJ
operating altitudes can be at normal cruising p ed, Fl ing. The clo er y u are flying to the ground
but if it i necessary to fly near th ground in reduced the greater the illu ory effe t. At uch time , Httl
i ibility it i usually ad i able to reduce peed. The attention can be gi en to the flight instruments. There­
flap hould be partially e tended when flying at fore it i mo t imp rtant to understand th fals
1 w r peeds near th ground. Thi wilJ allow a lo� er impre ions that cao be reated by the d cepti e
perationaJ speed, a maJler turning radius to a oid appearance of the ground. An alert watch must
obstacl , and a bert r ie o ing to the lower po i­ maintained not onJy for other aircraft but also for high
tion of the no e. The incre ed power required with b a I on the ground, whi h under the ir um­
flap e ten ion ill al o impro e control du to th tanc add coo iderably to th hazard. Continual • -
additional slip tream o er th el valors and rudder. ilance i e ential.
To demonstrate illu ions r ated by drift, your ince the aircraft altim ter indicate the height of
instructor will choo e a day b n the wmd is trong the aircraft abo e ea le el and not its height abo e
nough for the effec to be ea ily di cerned. flying the ground, it is mo t important to atcb th ground
upwind the reduction in ground peed is noticeable. contours carefully and learn to e timate the height
Flying downwind the increa ed ground peed is ery above the ground. Height can b more easily judged
noticeable sometimes to the e tent that there is a by looking well ahead.

Jl8
 musions Created by Drift 119

Illusion of reduced airspeed Square field of

suitable size

Path in Steeper angle of

still air bank required here

t,u�!l
increased
airspeed �
Resultant
path Ground reference manoeuvre:
flying a circle, making
allowances for drift by varying
the angle of bank-constant
altitude and airspeed.

Illusions of increased and

decreased airspeeds; illusions
while turning; effect on flight
path when constant angle of
bank maintained.

Ground reference manoeuvre:

180" turns crossing a reference
line of irregularly spaced points,
maintaining a constant altitude
and airspeed. Bank angles must
be varied to obtain the radius of
the tum necessary to cross at
each successive point.
< '\.
' '\.
'\.

Low-level circuit: practical

application of the principles
Areas where balanced flight in
learned in this exercise when
the turn is most important due to
low ceiling necessitates· a low­
drift illusions at low altitude. Drift
level circuit.
in turns must be anticipated,
particularly when turning from
the base leg to line up for the
final approach.

Figure 2-55 Examples of Illusions and Effects of Drift in Turns during High Wind Conditions
120 fllusions Created by Drift
Map Reading. When an aircraft is flown at lower 2. Turn accurately in spite of the illusory effect of
than normal altitudes, map reading becomes more dif­ drift.
ficult due to the reduced area of ground visible and 3. Maintain a safe height above ground contours.
the shorter time available for identifying landmarks. 4. Keep a good look-ouL
5. Do not turn too steeply.
6. Do not annoy others or frighten livestock.
Points to Remember
Never practise this exercise unless there is a flight
When flying close to the ground: instructor on board the arcraft.
i
The heigth and suit­
ability of the area should be governed by local restric­
I . Maintain a safe airspeed. tions and Canadian Aviation Regulations.
EXERCISE TWENTY-ONE

Precautionary Landing

The aim of this exerci e i to ucce sfully carry out a A precautionary landing i an excellent opportunity
landing at a location wher there is doubt as to the to practise new and previously acquired skills. Before
suitability of the landing urface or where advance tbi exercise can be completed meaningfully the pilot
inti rmation is unavailable. Th refore, tbe area and mu t posses basic flight kill associated with circuit
urface mu t be visually insp cted to provide u:ffi­ pro edures and all type of landing .
ient information for tbe pi! t to make the best deci­ In it imple t form a precautionary landing involve
ion on circuit, approach. and landing procedure two parts (Fig. 2-56 :
acb year many landing are completed at ite
tha1 d not offer ad i ory rvic or pubLi hed infor­ I. normal circuit fl wn to a lo, approach o er th
mati n. Pilots planning flight t the e locations mu t intended landing ite to • uaUy inspect the potential
find alternate ources of information to mak, the d ci- landing area
i ns ociated with safe and effi ient landing oper- 2. Another normal ircuit ending in a safe landing.
ations. lo ome ituatio this information • available
only from aerial ob ervation ile inspe ting the landing it th following factors
Pr autionary landing ma r ult from a piano d mu t be con idered and a]uated.
landing at a location about hich information i lim­
it d, from unanticipated hange during the flight. or
from abnormal or e en emerg n y ituations. When Wind Velocity
th pr edure results from abnormal or emergency it­
moke gives a good indication of wind velocity. Du t
uations the pilot i weU advi ed to b gin the precau­
is blown by the wind. Tall gra and crops rippl in
tionary landing early. The ooner the pilot locates and
the direction of the wind. The upwind side of bodies
in pects a potential landing site the le the chance
of water usuaUy have a calmer urface and wind Lin
of additional lirnitati.on being imposed by worsening
are obvious in strong wind c nctition . Some decidu­
aircraft conditions d teriorating weather, or other ou tree often display th white or ilver coloured
fa tor . under ide of lea e on the upwind ide.
nc th deci ion ha be n made to complet a ln the ab ence of any indication of wind. you will
pr autionary landing the pilot hould consider com- ha to make the be t po ible estimate. To do thi ,
pleting o iated radio call and o kpit checks hil remember the wind condition at th point of depar­
at altitude, in order not to int rfi re ,. ith the inspection tur and th forecast for ur d tination. onsider
f th landing ite. th ground peed and in-flight drift to give an indi­
though suggested pr durc are provided later cation of the wind aloft. Th n compare the wind aloft
in thi chapter pilo mu t und rstand that no o ith hat would be e p cted on th ground.
precautionary landing ituati ns ar identical. md
ma be different Cloud conditio may vary. 1 ibil­
ity ma change. In th ca of an emergency ituation Landing Area
th urgency of the landing add its own pre ure. o
complete a ucces fuJ pr cautionary landing the pilot o sat1 ly land an aeroplan , y u need a surface that • :
mu t combine the ki1J to c ntrol the aircraft with
knowledge of procedure and terrain. l. u fficiently long.

121
122 Precautionary Landing

Legend

---- Inspection circuit

• • • • • • • • Rnal inspection
---- Flnal circuit

Figure 2-56 Precautionary Landing Procedure

2. mooth and firm. greater distances to taJce off than to land. well
3. le el as po ible. remember that changing conditions may tum a suita­
r of obstacles. bl field into an unsuitable one.
5. Into wind, if po ible. E cept in emergency ituations, pilots are no at
Liberty to use an area indi criminately for landing or
Tran portation, communication fa itjties and the need tak -off: . When contemplating a landing at a privat
for a istance may be a con ideration in the choice of a rodrome rememb r that private means pri ate
landjng areas. prop rty and that permi ion from the owner or oper­
You probably will be inter ted io departing later ator may be required before using the aerodrome. lf
o if possible you will need a field that is adequate you are proposing to land away from an aerodrome
for take-off. Remember it i not uncommon to require remember that someone own the land. The owner
 Precautionary Landing 123

may oot be enthusiastic about aircraft using the prop­ They may also suggest the use of partiaJ flaps to give
erty. Canadian AviaJion Regulations, provinciaJ la:ws, a more nose-dowo attitude than that normally asso­
municipaJ bylaws, and the rights of a property owner ciated with flight at slower speeds and to reduce the
may limit a pilot's selection of a landing site. stall speed. In the absence of a speed given by the
manufacturer, consider using a speed close to the nor­
maJ approach speed.
Detecting Obstacles
Obstacles such as wires and tOwers are difficuJt to see, Altitude
especially in conditions of poor visibility. Many obsta­
cles appear camouflaged against ground terrain. These Altitude also presents some trade-offs. The lower you
obstacles may not be readily seeo until descent below fly, the closer you are to what you are inspecting, and
their altitude makes them more visible against the sky. the greater the chance of identifying details on the
Take care to observe the sorts of things that could surface. However, remember that as an aircraft gets
present problems in the circuit area, on final approach, closer to the ground, the sensation of speed increases
and in the overshoot and departure areas. (see Exercise 20). At the same time, the lower you
Experience and observations up to this point will go, the greater the likelihood of getting too close to
help you to detect obstacles. For example, you have obstructions such as trees, power Lines, towers, or
probably noticed that power or telephone lines parallel hills. The higher you fly, there is less chance of
many roadways; trees frequently border fields and encountering obstructions, but your ability to see
laneways. As you fly or while driving through the detail on the surface decreases. A compromise is
countryside, pay attention to the location and type of required. lf the procedure is being completed at an
potential obstacles. airport, a lower inspection altitude migh.t be selected
Many hazardous obstacles look considerably dif­ than would be used in a billy, forested area Toe flight
ferent from the air than they do from the ground. training unit where you are training may have mini­
Through the course of training your instructor will mum altitude restrictions for practising these types of
show you what obstacles such as trees or power lines exercises.
look like from the air. Whatever altitude you select, take care to ensure
lt may be useful to walk or drive along an area that that the aircraft is established in level flight at that
you have inspected from the air. This ground level altitude. Trimming the aircraft for flight at the selected
observation may help to bener visualize height, dis­ speed is one way to reduce cockpit workload while
tance. and surface conditions. maintaining aircraft control.

Airspeed Inspection of the Landing Surface

The speed chosen for the inspection of the landing lf you fly directly over the landing area, you wiU be
area is the result of a trade-off. The slower you go, unable to see below. You must fly to one side. If flying
the more time you will have to inspect the )anding an aircraft with tandem seating, fly along whichever
area, but the more difficulty you will have controlling side of the landing area you like. If in the left seat of
the aircraft. The faster you go, the more ease you will a side-by-side seating aircraft, flying aJong the right
have in controlling the aircraft, but the more difficult side of the .landing area will allow the best view of
it will be to see the surface detail Every aeroplane the landing area.
bas a minimum safe operating speed. In training thus Fly close enough co the proposed landing path to
far you have explored flight characteristics at and see it plainly and far enough to the side to have a
near the stalling speed. The aircraft is controllable in clear view without having to look through wheels,
slow flight, but takes much more attention to operate struts, or other parts of the aircraft. lf flying a high
in this range. Therefore, slow flight is not a good wing aircraft., there are fewer aircraft parts to interfere
speed range to choose. As the primary objective is to with downward vision, and you may be able to fly
inspect the landing surface. you must fly the aircraft closer to the landing area than in a low wing aircraft.
in a way that requires a minimum of attention to main­ The best place to fly is along a path that gives the
tain control leaving maximum attention to inspect the best view of the potenLial landing surface.
surface. The inspection work associated with precautionary
Most manufacturers recommend a speed in the landings can be completed at low or high altitudes. ff
lower portion of the normaJ operating range but above appropriate, both high and low passes provide their
endurance to keep out of the slow flight speed range. own important information.
124 Precautiona,y Landing

Some pilots suggest that wheo both a high- and length check the time in seconds and multiply by 100.
low-level pass are planned, the hjgh pass should tell This provides another means of judging field length
you about the particular flight path to follow. It should provided your calculations are based on a reasonably
also let you identify any obvious reasons not to land accurate ground speed estimate.
at the location. Subsequent low-level passes must pro­ Use as many means of determining length as pos­
vide good reasons to land at the site. sible. If the lengths from each system are similar, you
Sometimes conditions require a number of inspec­ are justified in believing the figure. lf there is signif­
tion passes. There may be much to see, many potential icant discrepancy, additional caution is warranted.
problems with the chosen landing area, and little or
no advance information about the landing site. In sit­
uations where advance information about the landing
site is available, fewer or even abbreviated inspection Suitability of the Landing Surface
procedures may be appropriate.
When inspecting an unknown area in whlch there You must consider whether the field is smooth, level
are numerous obvious obstacles, some pilots suggest and bard enough to support the aircraft. Aside from
a number of inspection passes at progressively lower the surface itself, you must determine whether any
altitudes to prevent encountering unexpected obstacles vegetation growing on the surface will create a hazard
on an initial low pass. during landing and subsequent take-off. Some crops
During the inspection pass, speed and altitude are thick, tall or intertwined enough to cause consid­
should be stabilized so that the aircraft can be con­ erable resistance to the forward motion of an aircraft.
trolled with as little of the pilot's attention as possible. You must rely on your knowledge of what accept­
The pilot can then devote maximum attention to able surfaces look like. This is the time to look for
inspecting the field. Many pilots at some point in their features that experience tells you can indicate prob­
training determine the power setting required for level lems. For example, a dark coloured field with signs
ftigbt at the inspection pass airspeed. When reaching of having been recentJy cultivated is probably quite
the area to be inspected, the pilot merely bas to set the soft. Standing pools of water, snow-drifts and evi­
known power and trim for level ffight at the desired dence of deep snow are also signs of a soft landing
airspeed. area. Rocks, holes, or furrows in a field may indicate
Your instructor will demonstrate altitudes, speeds a surface too rougb for use by an aircraft. Shaded
and flight paths that are appropriate for the inspection. areas or areas that appear to rise above or fall below
the remainder of the surface may well indicate holes
or mounds that can cause problems. Patches of dif­
ferent coloured vegetation can inrucate hollows, wet
Length of the Landing Surface areas, or even overgrown obstructions.
Knowledge of wbat has been happening recently in
There are methods you can use to determine the the area wilJ help you in selecting a landing site. After
length of the landing surface. Jn some areas, roads are significant rain, areas at the base of hills are more
known distances apart and fields are of known length. likely to be moist and soft than areas at the top. Dur­
For example, much of Western Canada features road­ ing certain times of the year, agricultural fields may
ways that are either one or lwo miles apart and fields bave been cultivated and are probably quite soft. At
that are generally one-half miJc or one mile square. lf other times, heavy harvesting equipment may have
operating in these areas, you have a distance scale to been on the field indicating surfaces hard enough to
determine the length of the potential landing site. You support an aircraft.
may now compare ground distances in miles [approx­ During training, your instructor wilJ point out fea­
imately 5,000 feet (1500 metres)] with figures obtained tures that indicate suitable and unsuitable surfaces.
from aircraft landing performance data.
If these natural scales are not available, compare
the potential landing path with runways on which you
have landed. Exercise care when a comparison to a Touchdown Area
known runway is the only basis for determining length
because of factors such as optical illusions and the lf your chosen landing site is relatively short and nar­
indirect comparison. row, there is little choice as to wbere you touch down.
Your speed during the inspection pass can provide However, if your landing area is longer than your air­
assistance. An aircraft travelling at a ground speed of craft requires and the initial section of the runway is
60 KT covers one mile in one minute or approximately obviously too soft or there are obstacles, you may
100 feet each second. ln this case, to calculate field decide to touch down at some point farther along.
 Precautionary Landing 125

If you are landing in a large square field that Use whatever radio advisory services you can to
appears to be acceptable throughout, you will need to determine the runway condition. [f no service is avail­
decide on a landing path. Perhaps a diagonal landing able or you are still in doubt fly a normal ci:rcuit on
will allow you to land into wind. Maybe landing par­ to the final leg. Rather than land on the runway, fly
allel to the edge of the field near habitation and level beside the runway as low as is safe and neces­
accepting a slight cross-wind is better. sary to inspect the surface. If still unsure of the sur­
face condition, make as many more passes as are
needed. If satisfied with what you see, do another nor­
Approach and Landing mal circuit and complete whatever type of landing
observations tell you is appropriate. If observations
Your training to this point has included procedures for teU you that the surface is unsuitable, depart the cir­
landing on a variety of fields. This exercise involves cuit in the appropriate manner and proceed to an alter­
the practical application of that training. The infor­ nate landing site.
mation from your inspection will indicate whether or
not the selected location is suhable for a landing.
Once you have decided ro land at a particular loca­
tion and identified the precise landing path, you need Landing at an Unfamiliar Aerodrome
to decide the best approach procedure and aircraft
configuration. You will have to consider wind, sur­ Again, use whatever radio advisory services you can
face, obstacles and touchdown point to determine the to determine the runway condition. If no service is
best approach and landing technique to use. This may available or you are still in doubt, fly overhead the
be an obstacle clearance procedure, a short field pro­ airport ar least 500 feet above circuit altitude to deter­
cedure, the procedure for a soft or rough field or some mine which runway to use, circuit direction, and what
combination of these. features other than the runway could affect selection
Don't let the pressure of the situation or preoccupa­ of a landing path.
tion with the approach make you forget the pre-landing Once you have decided upon the runway and circuit
cockpit check. direction. proceed to the inactive side of the runway,
descend to circuit altitude, and join the circuit. Once
in the circuit, complete as many inspection passes as
needed to determine the suitability of the selected
Some Examples landing area and decide on the type of landing. If you
like what you see, complete one more ciruit c
and land.
If you don't like what you see, depart the circuit and
The following are examples of how these procedures go on to an alternate destination.
can be adapted to various situations. Notice that each
features both an inspection of the proposed landing
path as well as a normal circuit to prepare for a land­
ing. Compare and contrast the examples, to under­ Landing on an Unprepared Surface
stand how and why the procedures suggested differ.
Try to think of situations in which you would use Although the surface on which you propose to land is
similar procedures or modify them further. Discuss unprepared, using standard circuit procedures will
these ideas with your instructor to obtain further help you to orient yourself. As at an unfamiliar aer­
suggestions. odrome, if possible, a pass weU above circuit altitude
has considerable benefit. It provides the opportunity
to check for wind, traffic and obstacles. It also allows
Landing at a Familiar Aerodrome you to observe the general layout of the proposed
landing site and see possible approach and departure
Let's assume you are approaching a familiar airport, paths that may not be obvious from lower altitudes.
either your home airport or one from which you fly When satisfied that there is no reason to avoid the
frequently. Also, assume that there is reason to suspect landing site, descend on the inactive side of the "run­
that the runway condition may have deteriorated way" set up a normal circujt pattern, and complete as
somewhat since you last landed there. Perhaps it bas many inspection passes as required to determine the
snowed, or there is concern about recent rain, or there site's suitability.
may be uncertainty as to whether or not recent con­ As in the other situations, keep looking until sure
struction work bas been completed. Whatever the rea­ the location is acceptable. [f you like what you see,
son, you are justified in obtaining more information complete another circuit for landing. If you don't like
before you attempt to land. what you see, depart and locate another landing site.
126 Precautionary Landing

Landing with Minimum Time for the you may be able to fly parallel to the landing path and
Inspection observe the surface from that side and also from the
downwind leg. Perhaps base leg or some other portion
A good rule is to use as much time as you require to of the circuit affords an adequate look at the landing
determine the information needed to plan a landing. surface.
However, make the decision to land before such things There are many ways to shorten the procedure.
as deteriorating weather, approaching darkness, or However, take sufficient time to obtain the information
low fuel make an abbreviated inspection procedure necessary to ensure a safe landing.
necessary.
In some situations, the time required for detailed
inspection may not be available. Perhaps engine prob­
lems or illness on board dictates an immediate land­ Making the Right Decision
ing. In these cases you must find ways to abbreviate
the procedure. Build on your experience and on that of other pilots.
Perhaps the inspection passes above circuit altitude Each precautionary landing is unique in.many respects.
can be eliminated. Perhaps you can inspect the site Each situation presents an opportunity to combine
adequately while passing overhead the field on cross­ your pilot knowledge and skill with the ability to
wind. While on the inactive side of the landing area, analyse the situation and make safe decisions.
EXERCISE TWENTY-TWO

Forced Landing

Engine failures are remarkably rare but they do hap­ have established the glide and placed the carburettor
pen. This fact makes it extremely important that you heat on, trim the aeroplane. Should the aeroplane not
become proficient in the execution of forced landing be properly trimmed, variations in gliding attitude will
procedures to bring you to a safe landing. reduce gliding distance, making it difficult to judge
During earlier training you learned about gliding accurately the approach and the touchdown point.
for range and how to estimate the point of touchdown A common cause of engine failure on carburettor
by referring to the terrain ahead of you. You also learned equipped aircraft is carburettor icing. If the engine
how to determine the distance you can glide allowing fails totally, or if power decreases to a low value,
for the effect of the wind. During practice landings you engine heat will be lost rapidly. Therefore, it is imper­
learned how to choose a point from which a success­ ative that you apply carburettor beat simultaneously
ful power-off approach and landing could be made. with establishment of the g)jde to make use of the
These skills are developed further in forced landing remaining engine heat. On aircraft with fuel injected
training and practice. It is strictly a matter of practical engines the alternate air source to the engine should
and methodical appLication of what you already know. be opened at this point. These procedures may remedy
Those who believe that a successful forced landing the icing problem, if that is the cause, and prevent a
is difficult to achieve are reminded that every landing forced Landing.
made by glider pilots must be a successful forced
landing, and they develop this skill very rapidly as the
average student pilot reaches licensing standard in less
than 8 hours total flight time. Select a Landing Site
Always be on the look-out for suitable landing fields.
Before selecting the landing site, determine the
Initial Actions distance the aircraft will glide. Then look ahead, to
either side, and if time and altitude permit, bank the
Should your engine fail totally or partially, follow the aeroplane and take a look below and behind you. This
procedures recommended in the Aircraft Flight Manual. is to ensure that no potentially good landing site or
ln the absence of manufacturer's instructions the fol­ aerodrome has been overlooked. Fields may be non­
lowing steps should be taken immediately and in order: existent in mountainous or heavily forested areas.
Roads and highways may be your best choice in some
1. Control the aircraft - establish a glide, place cases, but beware of unseen hazards such as power
carburettor heat on, and trim. lines and signs. Traffic must also be considered. Natu­
2. Select a landing site. rally the best field for a forced landing is an estab­
3. Plan. the approach. lished airfield or some hard-packed, long, smooth
field with no high obstacles, at least at the approach
end. Since no guarantee can be given as to the location
Control the Aircraft - Establish a Glide, of your forced landing, you must learn to select the
Place Carburettor Heat On, and Trim best available field. Cultivated fields are good, provided
you remember to land parallel to the furrows, but
Establish the aircraft in a glide attitude at the speed fields used for pasturing animals usually harbour
recommended in the Aircraft Flight Manual. Once you boulders or tree stumps. Avoid fields with contour

127
128 Forced Landing

plowing, deep ditches, or with any other features that a little more time to assess the situation. You should
reduce the suitabiljty_ Try to pick a good field near be able to select a field straight ahead; then carry out
houses, or at least near a road. This is particularly the following steps:
important in the winter.
When choosing a field, you must take it's length 1. Close the throttle.
into account If a strong wind is blowing, the normal 2. Lower the nose to maintain the glide speed.
landing roll will be comparatively short, but if it is 3. Land straight ahead, or alter course slightly to avoid
imperative that you land downwind, the landing roll obstacles.
will be extended. Similarly, the existence of a slope 4. If time permits, complete the "Cause Check." Call
affects the length of the landing roll Normally you "Mayday." Advise your passengers.
should always attempt to land into wind. If this is 5. Secure the engine.
impossible because of lack of altitude, or the absence 6. Carry out a forced landing.
of a suitable field, carry out a crosswind landing, or
as a last resort, a downwind landing. Numerous fatal accidents have resulted from attempt­
ing to turn back and land on the run way or aerodrome
following an engine failure after take-off. As altitude
Determining the Wind Direction is at a premium, the tendency is to try to hold tl1e nose
of the- aircraft up during the tum without considera­
tion for airspeed and load factor. These actions may
Nature provides numerous methods of determining the
induce an abrupt spin entry. Experience and careful
direction of the wind. Smoke gives the best indication.
consideration of the following factors are essential to
If smoke rises and drifts off slowly, the wind is light;
making a safe decision to execute a return to the
if it rises and abruptly breaks away, the wind is prob­
aerodrome:
ably strong. Grass and grain fields ripple with the wind,
and dust blows with the wind. If it is impossible to
1. Altitude.
tell from which direction the wind is blowing, land in
2. The glide ratio of the aircraft.
the direction of the wind at the time of take-off.
3. The length of the runway.
4. Wind strength/ground speed.
5. Experience of the pilot.
Low-Altitude Engine Failures 6. Pilot currency on type.

Engine Failure on the Runway Should you have only partial power, it may be possible
to complete a circuit and execute an emergency landing.
If partial or complete failure is encountered on take­
off, while the aircraft is still on the runway, close the
throttle and apply the brakes. If it is obvious that the Engine Failure in the Circuit
aircraft cannot be stopped before it runs off the run­
way, select the battery master switch and the fuel valve When flying a normal circuit, it is highly probable that
to their "Off" positions. Try to avoid obstructions a forced landing can be completed successfully on the
such as fences or ditches, which may badly damage runway in use, or on one of the other runways more
the aircraft. suited to your position. As soon as the engine fails,
carry out a normal forced landing.

Engine Failure After Take-Off

If the engine fajls immediately after take-off, you may Forced Landing From Altitude
only have time to close the throttle, attain a recom­
mended gliding speed, pick a landing path, and concen­ Circuit Forced Landing Pattern
trate on a good landing. Do not become so engrossed
in doing checks that you jeopardize the chances of When an engine failure occurs, judge the glide to
making a good approach and landing. approach and land as you did when you were practis­
ing power-off approaches and landings at your home
base. A key position may be defined as some physical
Engine Failure Below Circuit Altitude features on the ground that are chosen to provide con­
tinuing orientation to the field selected for forced
Engine failure while climbing after take-off gives you landing purposes and to establish a near to normal base
 Forced Landing 129
flown. Plan your glide to the key position
... to correspond as closely as possible to the
familiar circuit pattern. However, depend­
ing on altitude and position, it may be
necessary to fly directly to the key posi­
tion, or fly a direct or straight in approach.

360° Forced landing Pattern

There are some situ�tions in which a 360 °
forced landing pattern (Fig. 2-57B) can be
useful, even essential. This forced land­
ing pattern is a gentle 360 ° descending
turn. The turn is started with the aircraft
heading in the direction of the intended
landing at an appropriate altitude over the
desired touchdown point. This starting
position is called the high key. The appro­
priate altitude for this high key depends
on the glide performance of the aircraft.
To calculate this altitude, take the amount
of altitude your aircraft normally loses in
Figure 2-57A Forced Landing Approach two minutes of gliding descent, add 200
feet, and you have the height above
ground that works well for high key. For
example, if your glide rate is 600 feet per
minute, the high key altitude should be
1,400 feet AGL (2 x 600 + 200).
High Key
Enter Tum The 360 ° forced landing pattern is
actually quite easy to execute, but it does
require that you estimate the elevation of
the landing area and can manoeuvre the
=
C:
0
::,
aircraft successfully to the high key posi-
tion. Once at the high key position, you
start a gentle tum to reach the low key
position, which is half-way around the
circle and abeam the touchdown point.
The aircraft at low key will be about a
one-minute glide lower than it was at the
high key, the aircraft will be heading
downwind, and you will have a good view
of the landing area on your wing-tip. From
there, the turn is continued to the final
key, where the aircraft will be around 500
feet AGL in a tight base leg position.
Like any forced landing pattern,
Figure 2-57B 360° Forced Landing Pattern
things may not always work out per­
fectly. If you find it impossible to arrive
at high key at the recommended altitude, do not panic/
leg distance from that field. Distance in this case must Instead, try to reach low key at the correct altitude. If
be well within the into-wind gliding range to the field. you are really high when you reach the high key
In a strong wind, the base leg must be flown closer to position, you can do a 360° orbiting turn down to the
the field than in a light wind. Key positions are shown correct altitude. If you are just a few hundred feet high,
in Fig. 2-57 A. The flight paths shown are a few exam­ fly upwind until you lose half the excess altitude. The
ples of how an approach to a forced landing might be remainder will be lost on the downwind as you turn
130 Forced Landing

the circle into a slight oval racetrack pattern. If you another tank known to contain fuel. The gauge may
are slightly low when you reach high key, tighten the be faulty or a line blocked.
turn slightly, but not more than a medium turn. This (b) Fuel Pumps. Place the switch in the "on" posi­
will keep you closer to the landing area and allow you tion, as there may be a failure in the regular fuel feed
to get around to low and final key more quickly. If system.
there is a strong wind, move the high key down the 2. Primer Locked. Check that it is in and locked. A
field to compensate for the way the wind will distort primer that has worked itself out through vibration can
the pattern. If there is only a light wind, use slightly cause the engine to malfunction.
less bank during the first half of the turn and slightly 3. Mixture Rich. Check that the mixture control is
more bank during the second half to maintain a good in the "full rich" position; it could have been moved
pattern. Exercise 20 explains drift control during accidently into "idJe cut-off" or left in "lean" during a
ground reference manoeuvres. descent.
One of the difficulties with the 360° forced landing 4. All Switches On as Required. Check that the
pattern is most noticeable with low-wing aircraft. It magneto switches are in the correct position. If the
can be difficult to know when you are directly over engine continues to run roughly, select left and right
the touchdown point because the wings block the view positions to determine if it will function smoothly on
below. For this reason, once you choose the landing one magneto.
area, look for roads or other landmarks that are abeam
the high key position and can be used as references
MAYDAY
once you are overhead. Fortunately, the low key posi­
tion is quite easy to identify with a low wing aircraft.
Depending upon the geographical location, altitude,
As soon as you bank to start the turn, the low key
and situation, the cause check and mayday action may
position will be the point you see on the ground when
be transposed. As an example, it may be more impor­
you look down the lowered wing.
tant in remote areas to let someone know you are in
No matter what pattern is used, you should plan to
trouble before you attempt to find a cause for the
arrive in the correct position for a normal final
engine failure. If you wait too long to make an emer­
approach but slightly high. Wben a landing can be
gency transmission, you may have descended below
made into the first third of the selected site, use flaps
the radio range of ground stations.
or side-slip to lose excess altitude so that touchdown
Communicate with someone. If already established
can be made at the most desirable point on the landing
on a specific frequency, inform that unit of your prob­
area. Remember that there are ways to lose altitude,
but there is no way to correct an undershoot. Never lem. If uncertain that you can make contact on any
selected frequency due to the time and altitude remain­
stretch a glide. Practise forced landing often and vary
the entry altitude, field, and geographical location. ing, switch immediately to the emergency frequency
This will help you to develop the confidence, skill, and of 121.5 MHz and transmit to ALL STATIONS.
judgement necessary to carry out this procedure safely Remember that those receiving an emergency radio
should a real forced landing become necessary. transmission will be anxious to help and will want to
know as much about your situation as possible. Yoa
may have very little opportunity to spend time or effort
Cause Check answering their questions; therefore, your initial call
should be organized and clearly spoken.
Many actual forced landings need not have occurred, In the case of a forced landing, the word MAYDAY
as the failure or near failure of the engine was caused should be spoken three times. This is followed by your
by something within the pilot's ability to remedy. For AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION three times and then the
this reason, forced landing training includes certain message. The message should briefly state your prob­
checks which should be carried out during the descent lem, geographic location, and intent. For example,
if time permits. engine failure over the town of "Sumwhere;' landing
The actions that follow have no set time or place in a field approximately two miles north of the town.
where they should be done. They are suitable for most Your aircraft identification should be repeated at the
light aircraft and may be used in the absence of end. As well, if your aircraft is transponder equipped,
manufacturer's data. ensure it is ON and select code 7700.

l . (a) Fuel on and amount. Check that the fuel Passenger Safety
selector is on the correct tank or has not been placed
accidentally in the "off" position. If already selected Advise passengers to remove glasses and all sharp
to a tank indicating a good quantity of fuel, select objects and stow them securely with other loose objects.
 Forced Landing 131

1n a two-place side-by-side aircraft, have the passenger Approach Height

move the seat as far back as it wil.1 go to assist in
preventing head injuries. All seat-belts and shoulder The objective in making a forced landing is to have
harnesses should be fastened snugly. On final approach, the aircraft touchdown at minimum safe speed at the
provided the aeroplane is not affected aerodynami­ most desirable point in the selected site. It is good
cally, unlatch the doors to prevent them from jamming practice to arrive on final approach with slightly more
if the aeroplane fuselage suffers damage on landing. height than necessary so that you have more freedom
of choice.
Another consideration is that in a real forced land­
Engine Shut-down ing the gliding angle with the propeBer windmilling
or stopped may be steeper than during practice with
Shut down the engine to reduce the chance of fire. the engine throttled back.
The fuel should be turned off, the mixture placed in
idle cut-off, and the magnetos turned off. As well, the
alternator or generator and master switches should be Simulated Engine Failure
turned off, but the master switch should not go to off
until the flaps are set for landing. It is important to When practising forced landings, the method used to
perform these checks in the proper sequence. There­ simulate a power failure will be outlined by your flight
fore, you should refer to the appropriate section of the instructor.
Aircraft Flight Manual for your aircraft. You must not allow the engine to get too cold or it
may fail to respond properly when power is applied.
Cruise power should periodically be applied for a few
Other Considerations seconds during descent. This keeps the temperature
normal and prevents the spark plugs from fouling due
Close the throttle. An engine with a fuel flow malfunc­ to prolonged idling of the engine. Many aircraft require
application of carburettor heat before reducing power.
tion may cease firing completely at a high throttle
Some aircraft can be configured with a specific power
setting, but deliver enough power at a lower one to be
and flap setting combination that approximates a
of considerable value. Conversely, with the throttle
still open, the engine may pick up because of a change normal power-off glide; thereby, alleviating the need
to apply power at intervals during the approach.
in aircraft attitude just as you have made the landing
With the exception of those approaches made to an
site, only to fail again when you are carried beyond a
aerodrome, all simulated forced landings should be
safe landing. You might also try adjusting the mixture
to see if a leaner setting wiU restore at least partial practised in the local practice area, and only to the
minimum altitude specified by the Canadian Aviation
power.
Regulations or the training unit when they are more
restrictive.
EXERCISE TWENTY-THREE

Pilot Navigation

One significant advantage that an aircraft has over information and chart updating data in the Canada
most surface transportation is that it is capable of pro­ Flight Supplement, and entering the direction and dis­
ceeding more or less directly to its destination at a tance of each leg of your route in the navigation log.
constant and relatively high speed. You can also anticipate your needs on the day of the
Pilot navigation is the most comprehensive of all flight, make arrangements for a weather briefing, and
the exercises you will learn, and some say the most advise passengers in advance to dress for the expected
satisfying. Piloting an aircraft cross-country requires conditions. As well give some thought to weight and
all the knowledge and flying skills that you have balance at this stage. Make sure your passenger know
acquired so far. how much baggage they can bring and if weight
Planning and preparation is the key to a safe and means you won't be able to carry full fuel then make
effective cross-country flight. Effort expended before arrangements for the correct amount of fuel to be in
the flight can save a lot of effort and reduce stress the tanks on the day of the flight.
when you are airborne. Once you take off you must Final preparation is done once you have received
be well organized and be able to perform in-flight the necessary weather forecasts and reports on the day
calculations. You must be able to recognize features of the flight.
on the ground from the symbols on the map. You must
be able to look out, listen out, carry out cockpit
checks, assess your progress, revise estimates, fly
accurately and, if necessary, divert to an alternate
destination.
The exercise abounds in decision-making itua­
tions. You must be able to find out all you can about Selecting the Chart
each situation, identify options for dealing with each,
choose an option, act on your choi.ce, and evaluate the For any cross-country flight you will need current
results of your action. You should be aware of the maps in good condition. If your route takes you close
factors that can lead to errors and apply the appropriate to the edge of a map you will want to have the adjoin­
counter measures. ing map as well.
The standard chart used for pilot navigation in Can­
ada is the I :500,000 scale VFR Navigation Chart
(VNc). The comparable chart used in the United States
is the Sectional Aeronautical Chart. World Aeronau­
Initial Preparation tical Charts, with a I: 1,000 000 scale, can be useful
for general planning of a long route, and some pilots
carry them as another aid during flight, although they
Preparation for a cross-country flight takes time, and lack the detail needed for effective navigation at low
the most important thing you can do is to make sure and medium altitudes. To satisfy special operational
you allow adequate time. Doing some of the prepa­ requirements at certain high-density traffic airports
ration before the day of the flight gives you an advan­ having complex airspace structures, VFR Terminal
tage, although this won't always be possible. Some of Area (vTA) charts are available in a scale of
the things you can do beforehand include selecting 1:250 000.
your route, preparing the chart, checking aerodrome
132
 Pilot Navigation 133

Choosing the Route Fractional Distance Marks. Dividing a leg into equal
segments such as one-quarter, one-half, and three­
Planning for a flight begins the moment you decide quarters allows easy and rapid revision of ETA without
you want to fly somewhere. Deciding where you want using a flight computer.
to go and where you will start the trip means you are
making important decisions about your route very Check Points. Although map reading proceeds con­
early in the process. Exactly how you get from one tinuously throughout a flight, many pilots like to
end to the other requires that you make more deci­ choose distinct landmarks at ten to fifteen minute
sions. A straight line from beginning to end is cer­ intervals along their track and identify them with
tainly the shortest, but compromises that result in a arrows or circles. Take care when writing on the map
longer route are sometimes needed. Choose a route to avoid obscuring detail. AJtbough the markings sug­
that offers both alternate airports and good landmarks. gested here are all useful, if they were all used on a
Note the elevation of terrain, giving particular atten­ very short leg the result would be confusing. In this
tion to hills, peaks and other obstructions. A mountain situation, draw the track line and decide which mark­
range could block a direct path, or there might be a ings would be most helpful o.n the leg.
very large body of water you would be wise to go
around. Airspace is another consideration. Restricted
areas must be avoided and entry into these areas
requires prior permission. There may be areas of busy Final Preparation
traffic you would prefer to avoid, such as an advisory
area or the airspace near a busy airport. If refuelling With the initial preparation done, the preparation on
will be required, choose a route near airports that have the day of the flight will be a lot easier.
the fuel you need at the time of day you will be there.
It may also be wise to consider a more populated
route, perhaps even a recommended VFR route such NOTAMs
as you find in mountainous regions. All in all, there
are many reasons, including weather, why your route Check NOTAMS. This is where you will find out
may often involve several legs rather than one direct important information about aerodromes you will be
leg. Safety must always be a major consideration in using. NOTAMS will tell you if certain facilities,
the choice of a route. runways, or airports will be closed. Look for notices
that wil] affect your progress along the route. You
might find that a navigation aid you were planning to
Preparing the Chart use is shut down, or there might be radio frequency
changes. You might see that a forest fire is raging at
Before you draw lines on the chart, make sure you some point on the route and restrictions may apply to
have the necessary tools at band - pen, pencil, your direction of flight or altitude. There might be
marker, protractor, dividers or chart rule, and a special areas designated for military flying or search
straight edge long enough for the sections of the route. and rescue operations might be in progress. NOTAMS
are important and they should be checked before you
Track. The first line to be drawn on the chart is your depart on a cross-country flight.
intended track. The line should be dark and neat and NOTAMS are not provided for some aerodromes. If
easily distinguishable from other lines on the map. in doubt about field conditions, call ahead by
Some pilots like to emphasize their track lines using telephone or radio to obtain current airport
a highlighting marker, taking care not to obscure information. Telephone numbers are listed in the
important detail. Canada Flig ht Supplement.
Drift Lines. These lines are drawn at 10 degrees
each side of the required track from both ends of each Weather
leg of the route. Extend the lines about two-thirds the
length of the leg and make them distinct from the Adequate weather information is required for you to
track line. One way to do this is to make them dashed make meaningful decisions regarding the cross-coun­
lines. try flight. Should the flight be delayed until the
weather is more favourable? What altitude would be
Ten-Mile Marks. A small stroke across the track line most suitable or efficient considering terrain height
at ten-mile increments can be very helpful in assess­ and obstructions? Is there a route around the weather?
ing your progress in flight. Many pilots set personal weather limits for themselves
134 Pilot Navigation

Check poin
arrow
Ten • mark

Fractional distance line

Figure 2-58 Chart Preparation

that are higher than the regulatory minima. ff the fore­ tude, remember the requirements for oxygen and
cast indicates the weather will be below these minima know the service ceiling of the aircraft. If you must
they don't go. In setting these limits, they take into cross a body of water, choose an altitude that will let
account their experience, currency, familiarity with you glide to the shoreline with some altitude to spare
the route, terrain, alternate airports, and training. in the event of engine failure. Comply with any air­
The best way to obtain weather information is by space restrictions that may limit your altitude. Trunk
a briefing from a specialist at a Flight Information of your requirements for map reading. You can see
Centre or Atmospheric Environment Service weather more detail at lower altitudes, and you can see farther
office. at high altitudes.
You should brief the briefer. This will include iden­
tifying yourself as a pilot giving your aircraft regis­
tration or pilot licence number, stating that your flight The Flight Planning Form
will be VFR, and giving the planned route, altitude
destination, departure time, and estimated time en A flight planning form is an organized plan and log
route. The weather specialist will use this information for the flight which minimizes the possibility of for­
to present an appropriate weather briefing for your getting important data and having to do computations
planned flight. in flight (Fig. 2-59). There is no correct form, as dif­
When this information has been received and con­ ferent designs reflect different needs and preferences,
sidered, the GO/NO GO decision will be yours to make. but they all have to balance the need for complete
Don't forget to check the weather trend. This is done information with the danger of clutter that can make
by comparing the current reports and two or three the log difficult to use in flight. Many pilots prefer a
preceding weather reports with the forecast. Be alert log printed on 8 l/2" by 11" paper with one-half given
for reports showing weather that is worse than what to planning the trip and the other half to in-flight rec­
is forecast. ord keeping. Some training organizations like to pro­
vide space for weather, NOTAM, and weight and
balance calculations. Others like to use separate sheets
Choosing an Altitude for this purpose.

Care should be taken in choosing an altitude for your

flight. The height of bills, peaks, and obstructions The Flight Plan, Flight Itinerary
must be considered and your altitude should be appro­
priate for the direction of each leg of your flight. Telling someone where you are planning to go, and
Weather must be considered, including ceilings, visi­ when and how you plan to get there is simply good
bility, and upper winds. Distance should affect your sense. A/light plan filed with Air Traffic Services
choice of altitude. You won't want to climb to a high is the best way to do this. Pilots can also file a
altitude if you are only going a short distance. Fuel flight itinerary, which means giving the details of
economy, passenger comfort, and the effective range your flight to a responsible person who will notify
of any navigation aids that you might be using must appropriate authorities should you fail to arrive at your
be considered. If you are considering a very high alti- destination.
 Pilot Navigation 135

FLIGHT PLANNING FORM (✓)

kts. v
Distances/speeds in
mph
- Track Hdg. Hdg. Fuel
From To Alt. IAS TAS W/V Var. G/S Dist. Time
(n (T) ,(M) Req'd

Mflf'OR!- t'.llfCk?T'J / 90 - 135 Ile 1/8 2 2

OlcCI< PT 11 - IIUM80fl}J 4500 //5 120 204 29% 214 /7E 197 117 43 22 8

24 8
Weather Forecast En Route Radio Frequencies Destination Information
and Navigation Aids
rYc/YPA Yx'f SCT 040 OCNL 6 SM -SI/RA
SC/ 050 01/C 070 6-8 SM -SI/RA )1)A JI0R /13.0 Forecast lfl/1/ 275/20625
0C'AI.:'. 0tl5TS 30 YXE VOR //6.2
3-280/75 /0 T/.1/R /18.3
6-.300/25 6 Runway 09-271 1900' TL/RF
/865 //SL
En Route Station Reports Cross-wind component 10 ° 6kl
III/M!30Ll>J- 072°RAl)/Al We //l2R
3/5 1 TOWER I MILE- N Of" ,P#ONt' WE ,COR M'306-665-4265
)/{IM80LO/ j"LIGI/T ,PL.4# Y,Yc 306-242-8227

Figure 2-59 Sample Flight Planning Form

Whether you use a flight plan or a flight itinerary, concerned about setting heading. It is often used when
the aim is to have someone find you as quickly as departing from busy airports or those where airspace
possible if something goes wrong, and you are forced restrictions apply. Be careful to choose a geographic
down. point that is distinct and easy to find. The last type
of departure is the en route climb, in which you take
off and at a safe altitude turn to intercept track and
Departure climb en route. This is quick and direct, but you can
become very busy and it is sometimes difficult to
determine when you are estabJished on track.
There are three basic departure procedures you can
use when starting a cross-country flight. One is the
overhead departure where you climb in the vicinity Level-off Procedure
of the airport to reach cruising altitude and then set
heading overhead the airport. This takes time and fuel Level the aircraft at the altitude you want and at the
and can conflict with other traffic, but it does give speed you planned and trim carefully. Check the out­
you a known fix for starting. It is often used when side air temperature to confirm that it is what you
the airport is surrounded by miles of relatively fea­ expected. If it isn't, and you planned to fly a particular
tureless terrain or the visibility is limited. Another indicated airspeed, your planned true airspeed won't be
departure is the geographic point procedure in which correct.
you choose to set heading at a distinct landmark a Lean the mixture if required and set the heading
short distance away. This method allows you to con­ indicator. Scan your aircraft engine and systems instru­
centrate on departure procedures before you become ments and check your fuel selector and quantity.
136 Pilot Navigation

Setting Heading Pin-pointing means identifying your position relative

to a time and place and noting this on your map. Many
It is useful to have a routine or procedure you can use pilots like to mark a dot at their precise position, circle
at the beginning of any leg of a cross-country flight. the dot and write the time beside it.
When established over a set-beading point on the
desired compass heading, record the time as this is
the basis for all your estimates and ETAS. Maintain Ground Speed Check
your beading and check the visual angle of departure,
compare the heading indicator and compass and check For a ground speed check to be accurate, you should
major features on the map to confirm that the aircraft be established at your cruise altitude, heading and air­
is in fact heading in the correct direction. Finally, cal­ speed for the entire distance of the check. A ground
culate an estimate for the first check-point and an ETA speed check should be done at the first positive pin­
for the end of the leg. point, ideally between 10 and 25 miles from the
departure point. Use the flight computer unless the
values permit easy mental calClllation. Further ground­
speed checks and ETA revisions should be made at any
En Route time when conditions such as track, wind, and airspeed
change.

Map Reading
Cockpit Checks
Arrange charts so that both the charts and the controls
of the aircraft may be easily managed at the same Cockpit checks should be carried out at regular inter­
time. A chart should be folded so that the section vals. Include such items as setting the heading indi­
being used is readily available, with a minimum of cator, checking aircraft engine and systems instru­
refolding or handling in the air. If more than one chart ments, and confirming that fuel is being consumed at
is to be used, they should be pre-arranged in the order the rate you expected.
in which they will be required.
Effective map reading can be broken down into
four steps: orientation, anticipation, confirmation, and Position Reports
pin-pointing.
VFR position reports are easy to give and should be a
routine part of every cross-country flight. Updating
Orientation of the map means holding it so that your your position lets others know where you are at a
map track parallels your ground track. This makes given time, and should your aircraft become overdue,
features on. the map easier to compare with features on it can significantly reduce the time it takes Search and
the ground, which is far more important than holding Rescue to locate you.
the map so you can read place names.

Anticipation means using the one instrument that Pilot Weather Report (PIREP)
equals the compass in importance in navigation - the
watch. The expression "watch to map to ground" Reporting weather conditions you encounter en route
means to first look at your watch to anticipate features can be very helpful to other pilots. Any conditions
that should come into view in the next few minutes. differing substantially from those indicated in fore­
By anticipating where you are going to be you can casts or reports will be important. Pilots will be par­
study the map to familiarize yourself with the features ticular1y interested to hear about any turbulence, icing,
that will enable you to positively identify a place on thunderstorms, strong winds, heavy precipitation, or
the ground. This technique can change to "watch to reduced ceilings and visibility. PJREPS can be
ground to map" if you are uncertain of your position. passed to any Air Traffic Services facility, such as a
Flight Service Station.

Confirmation means taking care to positively identify

a landmark. For example, if it is a town, make sure all Track Errors and Corrections
the features around it - roads, railroads, streams,
lakes, power lines, and other details - relate correctly Owing to inaccuracies in. the forecast wind, in navi­
to confirm your identification. gational technique, and in flying the aircraft, errors
 Pilot Navigation 137
often occur that require aJterations of heading to bring point C to destination indicates a closing angle of 4
the aircraft back on track. Before corrections are degrees.
discussed, the following terms must be defined:

Required Track. The proposed path of the aircraft

over the ground. Heading Corrections

Once you have established the position of the aircraft

Track Made Good. The actual path of the aircraft accurately and provided it is not on the required track,
over the ground. decide upon the best course of action. Normally 10 to
25 miles should be flown before attempting to esti­
Track Error. The angle between the required track mate any track error, because errors over a short dis­
and the track made good, measured in degrees, and tance are magnified considerably. The heading of the
always expressed as being left or right of the required aircraft can be changed to either return to the required
track. track or fly directly to the destination. Your choice
will depend on the position of the aircraft. Tt is usually
Opening Angle. The angle between the required more desirable to return to the required track, as that
track and the track made good. is the track you have studied and, in addition, a line
already drawn on a chart is much easier to follow.
Closing Angle. The angle between the old required Provided the aircraft has not passed the half-way
track and the new required track to arrive at the point, the double the track error method or the visual
destination. alteration method can be used. If the aircraft is beyond
the half-way point, you can still use the visual alter­
ation method or alternatively, the sum of the opening
Ten Degree Drift Lines and closing angles method. Each method will be dis­
cussed in detail later in this text but first some basic
In Fig. 2-60, l O degree drift lines are shown opening geometry may help.
from the set-heading point and closing to the desti­ The key to understanding how these various meth­
nation. These lines enable the pilot to estimate track ods work lies in the fact that if the aircraft heading is
errors and required heading changes with reasonable altered in the direction of the required track by a num­
accuracy. ber of degrees equal to the track error or opening
Point A in Fig. 2-60 indicates a point on the track angle, the resulting heading will produce a track par­
made good that is 7 degrees left of the required track, allel to the required track. Using the IO degree drift
indicating an opening angle of 7 degrees. The angle lines in Fig. 2-61, it can be seen that the track made
can be estimated more accurately by physically mak­ good is widening from the required track by an angle
ing a mark at mid-angle (line B) and establishing the of 7 degrees. By altering the heading 7 degrees to the
pin-point in relation to that mark. Closing angles may right you now have the beading that produces a track
be determined in the same manner, using the l 0 paraJlel to the required track and is approximately the
degree drift lines that converge on the destination. The heading to steer when the required track is regained.
angle between the required track and a line joining What you now want is to regain the required track

Set heading point Destination

Track etTor and opening angle (7j Closing angle (4°)

Figure 2-60 Track Errors and Opening and Closing Angles

138 Pilot Navigation

Set heading point Parallel to required track

\��========- 1.:..:__:_____./--� - - -
-

I
-- �L==========-r--T�o�d�e�s�
tin ati on
����._

track here: alter heading

Figure 2-61 Double Track Error Method

using an orderly method. Once this is accomplished degrees (090 degrees -6 degrees) should be flown to
you can fly a corrected heading to maintain track. remain on the required track. This method works best
Alternatively, you have the choice of flying direct from if there are good landmarks, and you are very sure
the position off track to the destination. that the chosen point is, in fact, on your required
As mentioned above, there are several methods track.
used by pilots to correct track errors. When choosing
one of the following, consideration should be given to
visibility, availability of good landmarks, distance to The Double the Track Error Method
destination, and pilot experience.
Should lack of landmarks or some other reason pre­
clude use of the visual alteration method, you should
The Visual Alteration Method use the double the track error method. Simply double
the amount of track error or opening angle, and apply
From time to time, a pin-point will show you to be thjs to the original heading in the direction of the
left or right of your required track, and one way to required track: the aircraft will regain track in approx­
regain track is by visual alteration. Using Fig. 2-62 imately the same period of time as it took to drift off
as an example, you establish your position at point A track. The re.quired track will be intercepted again at
and note that the track error is 6 degrees right of your a distance along the track equal to twice the distance
required track. Fly visually from point A to the pos­ from the set-heading point to the point where the
itively identified pin-point on your required track. heading change is made (point D in Fig. 2-63). On
Upon reaching that point a compass beading of 084 regaining track it is necessary to subtract half the

Required track 90°

New heading (084°) to maintain

required track.
Track error and opening angle (6°)

Identify pin-point and turn to establish

track just prior to pin-point.
Visual alteration

Figure 2-62 Visual Alterations

 Pilot Navigation 139

Reference
Angles 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are identical
AC=CD
The principle of 10° lines AE= ED

Track made good while steering 272°

(heading change 12° right) for 9 minutes, 12° right heading 6° left track error
or until desired track is regained. change

Track made good while

steering 260° , resulting
in a 6 ° track error.

B
Alter 6 ° left to a heading Pin-point at C after
of 266° to maintain 9 minutes.
required track.

Use of 10° drift lines to regain track.

Destination Departure point

Required track i
Closing angle Opening angle
(interior angle) (interior angle)

Sum of opening
and closing angles
(exterior angle) Present position

The principle of opening and closing angles.

Figure 2-63 Method of Making Track Corrections

140 Pilot Navigation

Figure 2-64 Tracking by Double Track Error Method and Visual Alterations

correction appli ed to the original heading to obtain The Opening and Closing Angle Method
the head ing to keep the aircraft over the required
track. Doubling the track error doesn't work once you are
Now let's look at a practical example using Fig. 2- beyond the half-way point of a leg. Because it takes
64. Take-off is from Scott airport and you set heading just as far to regain track as it did to get off in the
at I 000 hours over the point where the railway Line first place, you would only regain track somewhere
crosses the King River, at the town of Cadenhead. Cal­ past your destination or turning point. The vi ·ual
culations indicate that you mu t steer a compass head­ alteration or opening and closing angle methods will
ing 065 degrees on the trip to Penner Airport 148 work in this case. As we have already discussed the
miles distant. After 14 minutes (1014 hours) you pin­ visual alteration method, let's have a look at the prin­
point yourself at the north end of Lac Labrie and ciple behind the opening and closing angle method.
using the l 0 degree drift lines determine that you are Go back a few pages and study the definitions of
7 degrees right of track. A beading change of 7 opening angle and closing angle. By going back to
degrees (058 degrees) left would result in a beading basic geometry again and consulting Fig. 2-65, it can
whereby you would parallel the required track. But as be seen that by altering the heading by an amount
you wi h to regain track using the double the track equal to the sum of the opening and closing angles,
error method, you alter heading to 051 degrees (065 we hould track to destination.
degrees -14 degrees = 051 degrees). This new head­ In Fig. 2-66 the 1:ine A-B passes through point C,
ing is held for an additional 14 minutes and you regain where the heading change is made and is parallel to
track just south of the bend in the Mayer River at the required track. At point C, which is 4 degrees left
1028. At this time you alter heading 7 degrees right of track, a 4 degree right heading change would par­
and steer 058 degrees. Any physical features near or allel the track. Angle X equals angle Y (the closing
along the track line that will confirm that the track has angle and using the IO degree drift lines we can
been regained will be helpful but if none are avail­ determine that ang.le Y equals 7 degrees. Therefore, at
able, the heading should be altered at the calculated point C, an l l degree right heading change (4 degrees
time. Revised ETAS can be made while flying toward + 7 degrees = 11 degrees) should permit the aircraft
the required track. to track directly to destination.
 Pilot avigation 141

=6"

8 Closing angle between desired

.....__.,__________ rack and fine joining
checkpoint to destination = 8°

Required heading change to

fly direct to destination = 14°

The principle of opening and closing angles

Figure 2-65 The Principle of Opening and Closing Angles

Figure 2-66 Tracking

ow I t' look at a practical application. 1n the clo ing angle to be 6 degr . Therefore to fly
Fig. 2-67 the calculated heading to fly from Speer Air­ directly to Hemming Airport, a IO degree right head­
port to Hemming Airport was found to be 105 degrees ing change 4 degrees+ 6 degree = 10 degrees) to a
compass. et-heading time was 0900. No reliable pin­ beading of J 1 5 degrees ( l 05 + IO degree ) i
point was available until 35 minute later, clo e to required. A the ground peed i found to be 141 KT,
where the north- outh railway cro es Highway 10 and there are 49 miles to go the revised ETA would
82 mile along the track. U ing the l O degree drift be 0956. It hou.ld be understood at this time that the
lines, we find the opening ang] to be 4 degree and opening and lo ing method can be employed at any
142 Pilot Navigation
isnicki
ake l w
I 40
Ranger Lake

Heading change
Opening angle 4°
Closing angle 6° = 10°
J
':J.� Newtrack
,1, Hemming
,/
Scott Swamp �--=� 265 LH30
� Destination

it

Figure 2-67 Tracking: A Practical Application

distance along the required track and is not limited to culate ground speed by time and distance between
use after passing the half-way point. Alternatively, a check-points to keep ETAS accurate.
visual correction could have been made to the point
where the original required track meets the curve in
the railway line at Rogers Mines, where a heading of Log Keeping
109 degrees ( I 05 degrees + 4 degrees opening angle)
taken up at the time would have kept the aircraft on The pilot navigator bas little time for log keeping in
the track to Hemming Airport. the air, but the following are some of the items that
should be recorded:

l. Time off and flight plan opening time.

The Drift Compensation Method 2. Set heading time.
3. Each compass heading (use 3 digits - e.g. 037).
Experienced pilots often establish heading by con­ 4. The time setting each new compass heading.
stantly compensating for drift. as the flight progresses. 5. ETA at planned turning points and destination.
This is called the drift compensation method. When 6. Time over or by check-points and turning points.
the heading to maintain a desired track is established 7. New ground speeds and revised ETAs.
by this method, drift angle can be easily computed if
required. Visibility must be such that enough check­
points are visible to maintain an accurate track.
Select at least two prominent check-points a suffi­ Other Considerations
cient distance apart (5 to IO miles or more, depending
on the terrain), on the desired track ahead of the air­ Avoiding a Collision
craft. Maintain a heading that keeps the nearer check­
point aligned with the farther one. When the aircraft The foJlowing are some of the simple strategies you
and the check-points remain on the same line, the can use to minimize the risk of collision with another
heading indicated on the compass will be the heading aircraft. Check your physical, mental, and emotional
that, provided there is no wind change, should keep condition and be on guard for absent-mindedness and
the aircraft on the desired track for the remainder of distraction - two enemies of concentration during
the flight. To continually compensate for wind effect, flight. Study your route carefully, looking particularly
select another check-point on track in the distance for areas of greater air traffic activity. Be particularly
before the nearer check-point is reached; then repeat careful when you cross airways or enter areas where
the alignment and drift compensation procedure. Cal- traffic is concentrated, such as advisory areas, and
 Pilot Navigation 143
radio navigation aid sites. Keep the windows clean Scanning is made up of two parts: the slow move­
and clear of obstructions. Maintain proper separation ment of the eyes across the field allows peripheral
from cloud. Follow the correct procedures for depart­ vision to detect a target or movement; then central
ing and joining the circuit. Minimize the time spent vision is used for identification. There are different
with your head in the cockpit by being well organized ways to scan but a common method is sector scan­
prior to the flight. ning. For example, the pilot divides the sky into
All aircraft have blind spots. A high wing aircraft approximately 30 degree segments and, starting in the
bas a critical one in the direction of the tum as soon middle of the windshield, scans slowly across each
as bank is applied. A low wing obscures the area segment, pausing in the centre of each. The scan is
beneath the aircraft. The most dangerous combination carried over the two segments on the left and then
of events that could result in a collision arises when brought back sharply to begin scanning the right-hand
a low wing aircraft descends from the rear toward a segments. Remember, the scan must not only be across
high wing aircraft, or a high wing aircraft climbs from a full field of vision (approximately 150 degrees) but
the rear toward a low wing aircraft. Therefore, in pro­ must also cover an area IO degrees above and below
longed climbs and descents you should make small the horizontal plane. This will cover the areas most
turns to ensure the area above and below is clear of likely to contain significant traffic.
aircraft. The most important tool for avoiding collision is
Use your equipment. Aircraft exterior lights can your scan. Watch where you are going, and watch for
help avoid collisions. Anti-collision, navigation, land­ other traffic. Use your scan constantly.
ing, and high intensity strobe lights will make your A good scanning technique takes time and effort to
aircraft more visible by day and much more so by develop and must become a habit in all your flying.
night. Transponders allow controllers to identify your Keep in mind that it is an activity shared with other
aircraft's position in relation to other traffic. piloting tasks, and it can be degraded by fatigue, bore­
Be sure to monitor appropriate radio frequencies dom, illness, anxiety, or preoccupation.
when you are en route. This will help keep you Two light aircraft approaching head on, with an air­
informed about other traffic and weather. The Canada speed of 120 KT each, have a closing speed of 240
Flight Supplement specifies the frequency to use KT. If they become visible to each other at the 3 mile
depending on the airspace in which you are flying. If range, they will have only 45 seconds to determine
you have two radios, consider listening out on the and execute the appropriate avoiding action. With a
emergency frequency 121.5 as well. visibility of only 1 mile, the period of time in which
Listen carefully to all radio transmissions. Monitor decision an. d action must be ta.ken is only 15 seconds.
transmissions from pilots reporting their position to These times are based on a pilot-in-command actually
the tower, Flight Service Stations, and on published sighting another aircraft at the exact point of visibility;
traffic frequencies. It will help you form a mental pic­ in normal practice another aircraft may not be sighted
ture of traffic in the vicinity. Call at appropriate points until weU into visibility range, which further reduces
to report your position, altitude, and intentions. As the time available for whatever action may be
well, keep a good look-out as there may be aircraft necessary.
nearby without radios or operating on a different
frequency.
You must be able to scan a large area of sky in an Advice of Conflicting Traffic
organized way without missing small objects. Even
the most perfect eye will not detect other aircraft In controlled airspace where air traffic is monitored
unless the piJot is alert, expectant, and knows how to by radar, Air Traffic Control (ATC) may advise when
scan the sky. Identifying a target requires picking it aircraft appear to be getting too close to each other
up, locking on, and recognition. Moving targets are by using the clock position system outlined in the Aer­
onautical Information Publication. When advised of
easier to see than stationary targets, and there may be
other clues such as reflection and flashing lights. other traffic, acknowledge and advise the controller
Unfortunately, aircraft on a collision course appear to whether or not it has been sighted. ATC may continue
remain stationary on the windshield until the last few with advice until the traffic is sighted or a risk of
seconds and so are more difficult to detect. Once you collision no longer exists.
do sight the other traffic, don't forget the rest of the
sky. If the traffic seems to be moving on the wind­
shield, you're probably not on a collision course but Arrival
continue to monitor its position. If the aircraft does
not appear to have motion, then you should watch it Preparation for arrival at an airport should begin in
carefully and be prepared to get out of the way. the planning stages of the flight. Review the infor-
144 Pilot Navigation

mation given in the Canada Flight Supplement to Choose a suitable destination within a suitable dis­
familiarize yourself with the airport elevation, circuit tance over suitable terrain. If there is a line feature
procedures, frequencies, runway layout, and anything such as a road, powerline, railroad, river or shoreline
else you might need for a safe arrival. that leads to the new destination then use it. This
Anticipate the destination information you will method is the simplest and recommended if it is avail­
need as the arrival phase of your flight can be very able. If there is no convenient line feature then draw
busy, and it happens at the end of the flight when you a free-band track line. If the diversion is particularly
might be tired. Details such as weather, altimeter set­ long, break it into shorter, more manageable legs.
ting, surface wind, runway in use, and other traffic
will be important. If there is a control tower or a
Flight Service Station then a radio call will be
required. If ATIS is available, use it. Listening to other Estimate Track
aircraft can tell you a lot, so tune in the destination
frequency early and pay attention. Anticipate the type Estimating the magnetic direction of the track line is
of circuit joining you will do and don't hesitate to the next step, and there are various ways to do this
position the aircraft directly overhead or ask for help without a protractor. You can compare your track line
if you are unfamiliar with the local land.marks. to other lines on the map, such as airways or track
Be sure to plan your descent For example, if you lines that you have used before, or you can hold a
have to lose 6,000 feet and you want to descend at pencil over your line and move the pencil at the same
500 feet per minute for passenger comfort this will angle to a VOR compass rose. These will give mag­
take you 12 minutes. If you descend at 120 KT (2 netic track. True di.rection can be obtained by esti­
miles a minute), the descent will have to be started mating the angle at which your track line intersects
24 NM early. Jines of latitude and longitude. You must then apply
Be sure to file an arrival report, or if you have filed variation to obtain magnetic track.
a flight itinerary, notify the chosen responsible per­
son that you have arrived safely. You should also sign
the arrival and departure register at uncontrolled Reciprocal Track
aerodromes.
One very common type of diversion is to return to
your departure point. Estimating the heading that will
maintain this reciprocal track is not difficult. First
work out tbe reciprocal of your outbound track by
adding or subtracting 180 degrees. If this is difficult,
Diverting to an Alternate then either add 200 and subtract 20 or subtract 200
Destination and add 20. Drift will be the same amount as you
encountered outbound, but it will act in the opposite
direction. Ten degrees left drift outbound will mean
Knowing how to divert to an alternate destination is ten degrees right drift on the return flight.
an essential skill. There are many reasons why a diver­
sion may be necessary, for example, deteriorating
weather, a sick passenger, or problems with the air­
craft. Sometimes, of course, you may just decide you Estimate Distance
want to go elsewhere.
Making the decision to divert is often the most dif­ There are a number of ways to estimate distance. The
ficult step. You started with a particular destination lines of latitude shown on your map are a convenient
in mind, and it may be difficult to accept the fact that refe.rence, since one minute of latitude equals one NM.
you must now go elsewhere. It is a decision some lf you prepared your original track line with 10 mile
pilots make too late. marks, you will also have these as a reference. As
Once you do make the decision, planning the flight well, some pilots use the thumb and index finger as
to the alternate destination while continuing to fly the "dividers" and measure this span against a known scale.
aircraft is a challenge that calls on skills you have Others use the span of their knuckles and some use a
already acquired. It may help to slow down while pencil marked in 10 mile increments. It's surprising
doing your in-flight planning, but keep in mind safe bow accurate you can be using these methods.
minimum operating speeds for your aircraft. Don't
get so absorbed in planning that you forget your first
task- fly the aircraft!
 Pilot Navigation 145

Estimate Ground Speed Set Heading

To estimate ground speed, you must have some idea Start from a known fix and note the time you set
of the wind velocity. If you received a weather brief­ heading. Turn to an accurate compass heading to
ing before your flight then you should have this infor­ maintain track, reset the heading indicator, check your
mation. Otherwise, you will have to estimate the wind departure angle, and work out an estimated time of
by observing drift and ground speed. If there is no arrival for the end of the leg.
wind then ground speed and TAS may be assumed to
be the same. If there is a direct tail wind or a direct
head wind then the wind speed can be applied directly
to the TAS, either adding or subtracting the amount. Advise Others
For example, if you fly at 100 KT TAS into a 20 KT
head wind then your ground speed wi II be 80 KT. If Once you have made the decision to go to an alternate
the wind is coming from your wing tip position, destination and worked out the details, be sure to let
assume no appreciable effect on ground speed. If it is others know. If you were on a flight plan, Air Traffic
coming from around 45 degrees to your direction of Control will need to know. Otherwise, you may find
ilight, assume a head or tail wind component of a search and rescue effort mounted when you are
approximately two-thirds the wind speed. safely on the ground at some place other than where
you said you would be. Worse, should a precautionary
or forced landing become necessary, search efforts
will be concentrated along your flight planned route,
Estimate Time not your alternate route.

Ground speed is used to calculate time en route to the

destination and any intermediate points you may find
useful. This time estimate must be done mentally and Low Level Navigation
is less difficult when put in the simplest possible
terms. For example, a ground speed of 60 KT means If a diversion is necessary because of deteriorating
time equals distance (one mile per minute) - 30 NM weather, you may have to navigate at lower altitudes
flown at 60 KT will take 30 minutes. If you fly at than normal. The greatest difference in navigating at
120 KT (two miles per minute) time will be one-half cross-country altitudes lower than normal is the
the distance - 15 minutes in the above examp.le. At restricted field of view at low level, especially when
90 KT (1.5 miles per minute) then time will be two­ flying over rough or hilly terrain. This, combined with
thirds the distance or 20 minutes. You'll likely be the greater attention that must be given to handling
close to one of these speeds and you can add or the aircraft, reduces the time you have to positively
subtract a few minutes as required. identify your landmarks and check-points as they
Another way to calculate a time estimate involves come up. As it is difficult to continually compare your
even less mental arithmetic. Divide the leg into equal check-points with the chart to assist identification,
parts and the time to fly the first segment is multiplied you must pick unique, easily recognizable features.
by the number of remaining segments. For example, Line features such as railway Lines or roads that cross
if you divide the leg into four parts and fly the first the track may be used as check-points, or followed if
part in six minutes, the remaining three parts of the they parallel your track and lead to a turning point or
leg will take 6 X 3 = 18 minutes. to your destination.
Some landmarks that are easy to see at higher alti­
tudes can be very difficult to recognize from low aJti­
tudes. For example, a lake might be hidden by a low
Estimate Heading hill. However, provided the visibility is not too lim­
ited, some features such as a radio tower might be
Many pilots prefer to assume that track and heading easier to see against the horizon.
are equal and upon setting heading they use the drift W hen flying over water, take special care to remain
compensation method to establish a drift correction. witllin gliding distance of land. It may also be a good
This is quick, easy, and reliable. Alternately, if you idea to follow shorelines in winter, to reduce the risk
know the wind is strong and anticipate a certain of losing visual orientation because of white-out con­
amount of drift, you can estimate and apply a drift ditions (see Chapter 6, Weather Considerations).
correction at the outset and make adjustments if Be alert and keep your head out of the cockpit as
necessary. much as possible. Be on guard for rising terrain. Pay
146 Pilot Navigation

close attention to contour lines, spot heights, and changes to "watch to ground to map" which means
obstacles along your track. Log keeping should be you look for something recognizable on the ground
kept to essential items. When making log entries, and try to find it on the map. A circle of uncertainty
check outside frequently if altitude is critical, to avoid will help narrow your search. The centre of the circle
flying into the ground. If you become uncertain of will be on your intended track line (unless you know
your position, cHmb as high as possible to give your­ your track made good) with the radius of the circle
self an extended field of view and try to identify a being 10 percent of the estimated distance flown since
landmark. the last confirmed position. For example, if you have
Despite your best efforts you can find yourself in flown l 0 minutes at J 20 KT since your last known
the middle of a diversion that isn't going well. Be position, you will have covered 20 NM (2 miles a min­
prepared to re-evaluate your situation and consider ute). Draw a circle 20 miles along the track from the
another course of action. If, for example, the weather last known position and make the radius 2 NM. Look
is getting much worse, it may be necessary to abandon in this area for landmarks. Remember, positive iden­
all thought of continuing a diversion and carry out a tification of a distinctive landmark is the only way to
precautionary landing. get back on track.
When approaching your destination, take care not
to interfere with other traffic. If your destination is
within a Control Zone, remember the requirements
and procedures to enter a zone. If it is an uncontrolled
airport, use the correct circuit joining procedure. Manage Your Resources
If a circle of uncertainty doesn't fix your pos1t10n,
work your way step-by-step through a process
If You Are Uncertain of Your designed to resolve the uncertainty. Do not exhaust
Position your fuel in aimless wandering from one heading to
another trying to pick up a landmark, and don't be
afraid to admit to yourself and to others that you are
There are times when you will be uncertain of your lost.
position. It can be unsettling to look around and not Fly toward a major feature, such as a coastline, a
recognize any landmarks, but it certainly is no cause railroad, or a highway. As you proceed toward it
for alarm. It is a situation every pilot encounters, and remember that once you get there you will have to
such moments require calm reasoning and a recog­ decide which way to turn.
nized procedure. Taking slow, deep breaths may help Climb if possible. This will help you to see farther
you to think clearly. and it will also increase your radio range. If radio
Hold a steady heading and check the heading indi­ contact is estabHshed, transmit your general position,
cator against the compass. An error here can put you amount of fuel remaining, request whatever assistance
off track very quickly. Check your navigation log for you need, and indicate the action you propose to take.
possible errors such as drift correction or variation Radar assistance or DF steers are available from ATC
applied the wrong way. Make sure you are not using in many areas, and a heading to fly will be offered.
true heading or magnetic heading instead of compass If you have ADF or VOR and know how to use them,
heading. Check for a possible wind shift. Your log get a line of position or a position fix.
may show left drift when you can plainly see the air­ In an extreme emergency you should broadcast a
craft is drifting right. If you do find an error, you can MAYDAY message on 121.5 MHz. and listen out on the
estimate where the error would likely have taken you same frequency for instructions. If you have no idea
and take steps to identify your position. If you are still of the direction to fly, set up a triangular pattern at
close to your last known position, consider returning endurance power settings, at the highest practical alti­
to this point. To do this you want to have very good tude, to alert the radar network (see Aeronautical
Landmarks behind you. If, after checking your heading Information Publication A.LP Canada, RAC). As well,
and reviewing your navigation you still can't deter­ if your aircraft is transponder equipped, ensure it is
mine your position, try drawing a circle of uncertainty. on and select code 7700.
Weather is often a factor in situations where pilots
become .lost, and flying aimlessly about in poor
Circle of Uncertainty weather is a recipe for disaster. If you can't resolve
the uncertainty, you must consider the possibil.ity of a
When you are uncertain of your position, the normal precautionary landing. You certainly don't want to fly
map reading technique of "watch to map to ground" until you run out of fuel or risk flying into an obstacle.
EXERCISE TWENTY-FOUR

Instrument Flying

Instrument fl ight training i s a part of pri vate and com­ side world. Despite what your senses teU you when
mercial pilot training in Canada. An increasing number the turn needle of a tum co-ordi nator or tum-and-bank
of general aviation aircraft have a full panel of fl i ght indicator shows a tum in a certain direction, the air­
instruments. More and more licensed pilots are choos­ craft is turni ng in that direction- when the nose of the
ing to broaden their competence by l earning to control miniature aircraft is bel ow the horizon bar of the atti­
an aeroplane by reference to fl i ght i nstruments alone. tude indicato r, the nose of the a ircraft is bel ow the
While flying with reference to instruments the con­ real horizon. When the airspeed indicator shows a
trol inputs required to produce a given movement are steady increase in speed during crui se fl i ght, speed is
the same as those used in visual flight. The aircraft increasing and the aircraft is most l ike]y in a nose­
responds to the controls exactly as it ha a1ways done. down attitude. Therefore, during i nstrument fli ght you
There is a need to relax and apply control p re sures must h ave fai th in the ins trum ent indications and
smoothly, making s mal l corrections and waiting for never react to an unconfirmed p hysical sensation, no
the results. The need for power and attitude changes matter how strong it is. The sooner you become com­
must be anticipated to ar rive at desired airspeeds and fortab]e with this, the more q uickly the learning proc­
al titudes while accel erati ng, decelerating, c l i mbing ess develops.
descending l evelling off, and turning. As wel l, it is important to l earn to relax wh ile fly­
When you started flight traini ng, you became ing by in trurnents . First, bold the controls li ghtly as
fami liar with the fl i ght instrum ent indicatio ns asso­ you cannot fee l contro l pressure ch anges with a tight
cia ted w i th vari ous attitudes and movemen ts and saw grip. Second make smooth , small changes with a pos­
how these indications compared to outside visual re f­ itive pres s u re . Th ird, w ith th e airc raft p roperly
erences. You learned to recognize in strument indica­ trimmed, momentari ly release aU pressure on the con­
tions that related to the vari ous atti tudes and power trols when you become aware of tenseness. This w ill
settings used to control the aircraft. As wel l you remind you that, if properly trimmed, the ai rcraft wil l
became aware of the fact that changes to attitude and rema in in stable flight by itsel f.
power resu lted in predictable changes to t he instr u­ It may also help if you visualize the attitude of the
ment indicati ons . aircraft, as weU as any movements taking place. If nec­
Of al l the senses, v i sion is the one we rely upon essary, it may hel p to lower the pilot 's seat for a better
most. However, if our normal v is ual fl ight references view of the instruments. If the aircraft is equipped with
are taken away, we sudden ly become prone to believ­ arm rests, use them. Thi s alJows more selective appl i­
ing other en es that cant cause confusion. Not being cation of control pressures without having to constan tly
able to see the aircraf 's position in relati on to the make all owances for the weight of your arm . The seat­
ground may cause you to lose track of direction and belt should be fastened snugly; when the body is too
attitude . This can lead to one of a n umber of illusions free to move about in the seat, false sensory ill usions
such as the feeling o f turning while the aircraft i s become more acute and bel ievable.
f lying straight. You may respond to thi s sensation and
app ly control inputs for the perceived condition· thus
causing an undesired attitude. You may also lose track
of which way is up un l ess a reliable visual reference
Air craft I nstruments
is available.
Instrument fl i ght is the skiJ I used to overcome Throughout this chapter, we refer to three main
human limitations when you are unable to see the out- group of aircraft instruments . These are control

1 47
1 48 In trument Flying

instruments performance instruments and navigation I nstrument Scan

instruments.
Scanning, or cross-checking as it is sometimes known,
is the continuous and logical observation of the flight
The Contro l and instruments. A methodical and meaningful instrument
Performance Instruments scan is necessary to make appropriate changes in air­
craft attitude and performance.
The two essential control instruments are the attitude
indicator and the tachometer or man ifold pressure
gauge. The attitude indicator gives direct and imme­
diate pitch and bank information. The tachometer ( or The Selective Radial Scan
manifold pressure gauge) gives direct power infor­
mation. To set the attitude and power, refer directly to To obtain information from the flight instruments,
these instruments. attention must be focused on each instrument long
The performance instruments provide information enough to read it. A split second is often long enough,
that enables you to determine how the aircraft is and then the scan moves on to the next instrument.
behaving. For example, you may need to know if the The attitude indicator is the central instrument, and it
altitude and heading are being correctly maintained. becomes the hub of the scan so that your attention
Two of the performance instruments, the altimeter and usually returns to it after looking at a particular per­
the heading indicator can provide this information. formance instrument. A diagram depicting the view­
When the performance instruments show unwanted ing pattern would show 1.ines between the attitude
change in performance, you r attention must be indicator and the other instruments, just as spokes
directed to the con tro l i nstruments to allow you to radiate from the hub of a wheel . This pattern of view­
make the required changes. For example, if the per­ ing the instruments is cal led a radial scan.
formance instruments indicate that the heading or the When using a radial scan the instruments that pro­
altitude has changed attention is directed to the con­ vide the information most needed, given the task at
trol instruments (attitude indicator and/or tachometer) hand should be scanned more frequently. The other
while adjusting attitude and power sufficiently to i nstruments are scanned less frequently for backup
make a correction. You then confirm that the required information. A radial scan that uses particular instru­
correction is in progress by referring again to the per­ ments to obtain the information nec�ssary to carry out
formance instruments (Fig. 2-68). a particular task i s called a selective radial scan . For
The perfonnance instruments give both direct and example, when the task is to fly straight and level, the
indirect information as shown in the following table: most important performance instruments are the head­
ing indicator and the altimeter. Therefore, you would
use the selective radial scan to focus on these two
Indirect instruments more frequently. As shown in Fig . 2-69,
I nstrument Direct I nformation •irometio11 the viewing pattern moves from the attitude indicator
to the heading indicator, back to the attitude indicator,
Airspeed Indicator Ai rspeed Pitch altitude
Altimeter Altitude Pitch attitude
and from there to the altimeter and back to the attitude
Vertical Speed I n dicator Cl i m b/descen t rate Pitch attitu d e indicator.
H eadi ng I n dicato r Heading Bank att itude Of the remaining performance instruments, the ai r­
Turn-and-Bank I ndicator Yaw, Co-ordination Bank attitude speed indicator and the vertical speed indicator give
Turn Co-ord inator Yaw, Roll , Co-ordi nation Bank attitude information to confirm the pitch attitude, and the turn
Magnetic Compass Heading Bank a ttitude co-ordinator and magnetic compass give i nformation
to confirm direction. These instruments are included
in the scan but are scanned less frequently than the
others .
Fundamental Skills
Three fundamental ski l l s are invol ved in all instru­
ment flight manoeuvres: instrument scan , instrument Applying the Scanning Pattern
interpretation and aircraft control. A measure of your
proficiency .in instrument flying will be your abil ity to To develop the technique of always referring to the
integrate these ski lls into unified, smooth, positive correct instrument at the appropriate tjme, you must
control responses to maintain a prescribed fl ight path . continual ly ask yourself the questions :
 In trument Flying 149

+ -- • •
Control instruments
••• Performance instruments

Figure 2-68 Control and Performance Instruments

Magnetic
compass

•
Figure 2-69 Straight-and-Level Flight

l. What information do I need? In all four diagrams, the col ured arrows depict th.e
2. Which instruments give me th needed information? canning pattern that you u e mo t frequently to get
3. I the information reliable? the needed information. The bJa k arrows incti ate a
le frequently ri peated can f th upporting instru­
Fig. 2-69 2-70 2-71 and 2-72 ho amples of pat­ ments. The can confirms that the main instrument
tern that ma be us d for parti ular flight conctitions. incticatio are reliable and d termine .if there • any
U ing Fig. 2-69 which d pi r a electi radial trend toward an und ired flight onctition. Th up­
can pattern for traight-and-le I flight, the answer to porting instruments that are more relevant to the ta k
the que tion - What information do I need to fl are viewed more frequently than th others. ing alti­
traight and le I - is heading and altitude. The tude control a an example the vertical p d indi­
answer to the n t que tion - hich in trument giv cator would l gicaJly be viewed more frequently than
m the needed information? - i 'the heading indi­ the turn c -ordinator.
cator and the altimeter.' To an wer the question - I Fig. 2-70 bow the correct can pattern for a
the information r liable?-you mu t first confirm th straight climb. The coloured arrows show that most
reliability of the heading incticator by referring to th attention is given to heading and airspeed while
turn co-ordinat r and the magneti compass, and ec- climbing. The black arrow depict the le fre­
nd. confirm the reliability of th altimeter by refer­ quent scan u ed to confirm heading and attitude
ring to the erti al peed indicator and the airspeed information.
indicator.
150 In trument Flying

Magnetic
compass

•
Figure 2-70 Straight Climb

ln a traight climb, you can u e the turn co-ordi­ hown by the coloured arrow in Fig. 2-72 as
nator or rum-and-bank indicator and magnetic com­ the aircraft approach the crui e attitude airspeed
p to confirm the beading. The ertical peed information become more important. The airspeed
iodjcator and altimeter can confirm that the aircraft i indicator is canned mor oft o along with the attitud
performing as expected in the climb and can deter­ indicator. the crui artitud i established, allow
min if lb attitude indicator i reLiabl . th aircraft co accelerate ro cru • peed before tting
Fig. 2-71 how the m t appropriate scan as the rui e power. Scan th heading indicator and altimet r
air raft nears the as igoed altitude. t this point afr- often to e tabli h and maintain traight-and-le el
pe d iofoanation becom I important and altitud flight.
information become m r important. During th Be sure to include all r I ant instruments in y ur
tran iti n from climbing to traight-and-le el fljght an. There can be a teoden y to fixate on one instru­
u e a can pattern that give more frequent attention m nt when you becom n erned about the inf, r­
to th attitude indicator with upp rt from the beading mation it gives you. For xampl you might tare at
indicator and altimeter. an altimeter that read 200 feet below as igned

Magnetic
compass

Figure 2-71 Approaching Desired Altitude

•
 Jnshilment Flying 151

Magnetic
compass

•
Figure 2- 72 Level, Approaching Desired Airspeed

altitude and wonder how the needle got there. Mean­ capabilities can vary greatly from aircraft to aircraft
while a heading change or other errors may occur. as shown in Fig. 2- 73. The combination of power and
Anticipate significant instrument indication attitude is used in a light aircraft for a five-minute
changes following attitude changes. For example, climb from near sea level. The attitude indicator
when ro.lling out of a 180 degree turn using the att i­ shows the miniature aircraft two bar widths (twice the
tude inclicator, be sure to check the altimeter for alti­ thickness of the miniature aircraft wings) above the
tude information. horizon bar. With the power available in this particular
U e all the instruments available for attitude infor­ aircraft and a selected attitude, the performance is
mation. You can maintain reasonably accurate altitude shown on the instruments. That is, a climb of 500 feet
control with the attitude indicator but the altitude per minute at 90 KT, and an altitude gain of 2,500
cannot be held with precision without including the feet.
altimeter in the scan. Now set up the identical picture in a jet aircraft.
With the same aircraft attitude as in the first example,
the vertical speed inclicator in the jet reads 2,000 feet
Instrument Interpretation per minute, the airspeed inclicates 300 KT and the alti­
tude gain is 10,000 feet. As you learn the performance
Instrument interpretation begins with the understand­
capabilities of an aircraft, you will interpret the instru­
ing of each instrument's operating principles. Then
ment indications in terms of the attitude of the
comes the application of this knowledge to the per­
aircraft.
formance of the aircraft, and the flight conclition in
The phrase "Attitude plus power equals perform­
which it is operating. If the pitch attitude is to be
ance" summarizes the philosophy behind instrument
determined, the attitude indicator, airspeed indicator
flying. In other words, an aircraft's performance is the
altimeter, and vertical speed indicator are used
product of attitude and power. Performance is
together to provide the necessary information. If the
expressed in terms of airspeed, altitude, rate of climb
bank attitude is to be determined, the attitude, turn i
or descent, or other criteria. If either att tude or power
co-ordinator or tum-and-bank and heading indicator
is changed, a change in performance will resuJt.
must each be interpreted.
For each manoeuvre, a combination of instruments
must be interpreted to control afrcraft attitude during
the manoeuvre. Aircraft Control

With the instruments substituted for outside refer­

Attitude Plus Power Equals Performance ences the necessary control responses and thought
processes are the same as those for controlling the
You must also interpret the instruments in relation to aircraft in visual flight. Control pressures should be
the performance capabilities of your aircraft. These smooth making small corrections and waiting for the
152 Instrument Flying

10,000'------

5 minute climb

00 kts.

2,000'

7 1/2 _J,-4--------------­
miles

Figure 2-73 Attitude Plus Power Equals Performance

results. Anticipate the need to change power and atti­ turn, and this will be shown on the attitude indicator,
tude to arrive at desired airspeeds and altitudes when heading indicator: and turn co-ordinator or turn-and­
accelerating, decelerating, turning, climbing, descend- bank indicator. To level the wings apply co-ordinated
ing and levelling off. aileron and rudder control inputs.
The instrument scanning techniques described in The attitude indicator gives a direct indication of
the preceding examples are used in the following bank. On the tandard attitude indicator, the angle of
flight exercises, which are considered essential to con­ bank is shown pictorially by the relationship of the
trolling an aeroplane in instrument flight conditions. miniature aircraft to the attitude indicator bar and by
the alignment of the pointer with the banking scale at
the top of the instrument. One advantage of the atti­
Straight-and-Level Flight tude indicator is that it offers at a glance an inlIIlediate
indication of both pitch and bank attitude.
The performance instruments related to straight
Straight-and-level flight is accomplished by flying in flight are the heading indicator and tum co-ordinator
a constant direction at a constant altitude. Although or turn-and-bank indicator. They display an indirect
the most common application of straight-and-level indication of bank becau e a banked aircraft bas a
flight is cruising, it can be achieved through a great natural tendency to turn. A rapid movement of the
range of pitch attitudes, power settings, and airspeeds. heading indicator in co-ordinated flight indicates a
large angle of bank, whereas a slow movement reflects
a small angle of bank, assuming the same airspeed in
Straight Flight both instances.
The heading indicator gives accurate magnetic
An afrcraft is in straight flight wbeo it is flying a heading infonnation only if it is set to correspond to
constant heading. To maintain straight flight, the the magnetic compass. An accurate reading can be
wings must be kept level with the horizon. If the taken from the basic magnetic compass only during
wings are not level with the horizon, the aircraft will unaccelerated flight. This means while flying straight-
 Instrument Flying 1 53
an d-level or d u ring straight, stable climbs and
descents. lo turbulent air it may be necessary to take
two or more readings from the compass and average
the readings to determine the heading to set on the
heading ind icator.
The turn needJe of the tum -and-bank ind icator
responds to yaw in such a way that a rapid yawing
movement causes a l arge disp lacemen t o f the turn
needle, and a slow rate of yaw causes a small dis­ Slip Skidding Slippi ng
placement. The tum co-ordinator responds to yaw in turn turn
the same way, but it also responds to roll. You must
Figure 2-74 Slipping and Skidding
keep this in mind when interpreting its indications. L f
the bal l is centred and the needle o f either o f these
instruments is deflected from the central position, you Skid. If the ball is displaced to one s ide and the
may logically conclude that the aircraft is banked in needle i s displaced to the opposite side, the aircraft is
the direction of the needle deflection. Return to in a skidding turn . Fig. 2-74 centre shows a skidding
straight flight is accomplished through co-ordinated turn to the left.
ai leron and rudder pressures.
Abrupt use of aileron and rudder causes oscillation When the needle of a tum-and-bank indicator or tum
of the tum needle making it difficult to interpret. co-ordinator is displaced from centre, the aircraft is
When using the i nstrument to maintain straight flight, yawing in the direction indicated. Wben the ball is
apply smooth control pressures. In turbulent air the kept centred, the needle shows the direction of bank
turn needle osci l lates from side to side. Therefore, you and the direction of tum. However, if the ball is left
must average the fl uctuations. When the deflection is or right of centre, the direction the needle is deflected
greater on one side of centre than the other and the from centre may not necessarily be the dfrection in
baJ I is centred, the aircraft is turning in the direction which the aircraft is banked.
of the greater deflection. A tum will then be required Under most instrument fl ight conditions the bal l
to regain the desired heading. should be centred. If the ball is displaced to the left
Adverse yaw can be defined as any ya11{ regardless it may be centred by right ai leron pressure but this
of origin, having an effect contraty to the interests of may introduce an undesirable bank angle or turn. TI1e
the pilot. As the turn needl.e responds to yaw, pre­ ball may also be centred by left rudder pressure, but
venting or controll ing adverse yaw with rudder will this too may introduce unwanted yaw and subsequent
bring the needle back to the desired position . turni ng. The correct response is to co-ordi nate the
The ball of the turn-and-bank indicator or turn co­ appl i cation of rudder and a i l e ron to produce the
ordinator is actually a separate iostrwnent conven­ desi red fl ight path with the ball centred.
iently located u nder the tum needle because the two
instruments are used together. It is affected by cen­
trifugal force and gravity and indicates whether or not Level Flight
the aircraft is flying with some angle of side-slip.
When these forces are balanced, the ball is centred An aircraft i s in level flight when it is flying at a
within its gla s tube and the manoeuvre being exe­ constant altitude. At a con tant cruise power setting
cuted is said to be co-ordinated . However, if the bal l a deviation from level flight will result if the nose is
is not in the centre the aircraft is either slipping o r pitched up or down. The instruments that will respond
skjdding, and the side to which the bal l has rol led to this are the attitude indicator altimeter, vertical
indicates the direction of the slip or skid. To differ­ speed indicator and airspeed indicator. The attitude
entiate between a slip and a skid consider the indicator gives a direct indication of p.itch attitude. A
following: desired pitch attitude is attained using the elevator
control to rai se or lower the miniature ai rcraft in rela­
tion to the horizon bar. This corresponds to the way
the pitch attitude i s adjusted in visual fl i ght by raising
Sl ip. ff the needle i centred and the bal l is displaced or lowering the nose of the aircraft in relation to the
in either direction from centre, the aircraft is slipping. natural horizon.
Fig. 2-74 left shows a slip to the right. I f the altimeter and vertical speed indicator show a
If both the needle and ball are displaced to the same climb or descent, the aircraft is not in level flight and
side of centre, the aircraft is in a slipping turn. Fig. 2-74 an attitude correction is necessary to maintain altitude
right shows a slipping turn to the left. at the selected power setting. When a pitch error i s
1 54 Instrument Flying

detected, corrective action should be taken promptly but the airspeed should not exceed the speed for opti­
but with l ight control pressures and with three distinct mum rate of cli mb or descent for the aircraft.
changes of attitude. First, a change of attitude to stop The airspeed indicator gives an indirect indication
the needle movement; second, a change of attitude to of pitch attitude. At a constant power setting and pitch
return to the des ired altitude ; an d th ird, a change of attitude, the airspeed remains constant. If the nose of
attitude to stop the correction and assume the desired the aircraft lowers, the airspeed increases and the nose
flight attitude. Use small, smooth attitude changes to should be raised. If the nose rises airspeed decreases
correct for sma l l rates of cHmb or descent and retrim. and the nose should be lowered. A rapid change in
At this point it may be desirable to reset the position airspeed indicates a large pitch change and a s l ow
of the small aeroplane on the attitude indicator so that change of ai rspeed indicates a small pitch change. The
it is superi mposed on the horizon l i ne. apparent Jag in airspeed indications with pitch changes
When the altimeter and vertical speed indicator varie among different ai rcraft and is due to the time
how that the aircraft is not in level flight it is impor­ required for the airc raft to acce l erate or dece lerate
tant to note the r ate at which the aircraft i s climbing when the p itch attitude is ch anged. There i s no
or descending and apply control inputs accordingly. I f appreciabl e lag due to the construction or operation of
the altitude i s changing sl owly i t indic ates that the the instrument.
attitude is probably close to that required. Small con­ To change a irspeed d uring l eve l flight, se lect a
trol i nputs will l ikely be su fficient to correct. If a rapi d power setti ng appropriate to the desi red speed and
(ate of c l imb or descent i s noted, i t indi cates that a a dj ust the attitude to maintain level flight (Fig. 2- 75 ).
large dev iation in atti tude bas t aken place . Larger Once aga i n , tri m the ai rcraft so that it is stable, and
control input will be needed to correct this condition, reset the attitude indicator.
and a ch ange in power may be req ui red. When making pitch attitude correcti ons in response
The vertical speed indicator g ives an ind irect indi­ to information taken from the altimeter vertical speed
cation of pitch attitude and is both a trend and a rate indicato r, or a irspeed indic at or attention should be
inst rument. As a trend instrument, it shows the initial di rected to the attitude indicator wh i l e the control
vertical m ovement of the aircraft which disregarding input are being made. When raising or lowering the
turbulence can be consi dered a reflection of pitch nose, the amount of attitu de adj us tment is monitored
change. To maintain level fli ght, use the vertica l speed by watchi ng the re sponse o f the attitude indicator.
indicator in c onjunction wi th the alti meter and attitude When a new attitude has been attained, a cross-check
indicator. Note any up or down trend of the nee dle of the performance instruments wil l show if it is the
from zero and apply a very light correc tive elevator c orrect atti tude to m aintain level flight.
pressure. If control pressures h ave been smooth and
l ight, the needle w i l l react p romptly and low ly.
U sed as a rate i nstrument, the verti cal speed indi­
ca tor 's lag ch arac teri stics m ust be considered . Lag Power Control
re fers to the ti me delay before the needle atta in a
Wb iJ e in straight-and- l eve l. fl i ght, any change in power
stable indica tion fol l ow ing a pi tch change. Lag i s
setting results in a change in ai rsp eed or arn tude.
directly pr op ortional to th e speed and magni tude o f a
When the airspeed is constant, an increase in power
pitch change. At a constan t power setting if a low
smoo th pitch change is ini tiated the need le wil l move will cause the aircraft to cl imb , and a decrease in
power wil l cause the aircraft to descend. If the altitude
wi th minimum lag and then stabilize wh en the rate o f
climb or descent is steady. A large and abrupt pitch
change wi l l produce erratic needle movemen t an d al o H ig h cru ising speeds
introduce greater time delay before the needle stabi­ nose-low
lizes. Take care not to "chase the needle" when flight
through turbulent conditions produces erratic needle
movements.
When correcting for an altitude error, keep in mind
that the amoun t of the e r ror governs the rate at which
you shoul d return to tbe required al titude. A rule of
thum b is to make an attitude change that wil l result Low
Normal
in a vertical speed that is approximately double the cru ising speeds
cruising speeds
error in al titude. For example if the altitude error is nose-h igh
1 00 feet the rate of return should be approximately
200 feet per minu te. If a large altitude error is noted, Figure 2- 75 Attitudes at Different Cruising
the rate of return should be correspondingly greater, Speeds
 Instrument Flying 155
is maintained, a change in power will affect the 4. Maintain a continuous scan. T his will result in
airspeed. smooth airspeed changes.
To increase airspeed in straight-and-level flight,
power is added: to decrease airspeed, power is reduced. Trim
To maintain altitude at an increased power setting, the
nose must be lowered. When power is decreased, the I. Use trim only to relieve pressure on the controls.
nose must be raised. In addition, changes in power 2. Use trim frequently if required, and in small
tend to cause adverse yaw, which must be controlled amounts.
with rudder.
Power control and airspeed changes are much eas­
ier when you know the approximate power settings
necessary to maintain various airspeeds in straigbt­ Climbing
and-level flight. A rule of thumb for airspeed control
is 100 RPM, or one inch of manifold pressure, pro­
duces approximately a 5 KT change in airspeed. For The ability to climb at a particular airspeed or a given
example, consider an aircraft that requires 2,300 RPM rate of climb, or both, is essential to obtain the best
to maintain 120 KT in straight-and-level flight. If the climb performance from the aircraft. To accomplish
airspeed is to be reduced to 100 KT, you should reduce this, it is a good practice to estimate the airspeed and
power by 400 RPM to l,900 RPM. As this is only an power setting appropriate for the desired performance.
approximate rule, a second minor adjustment in power The rules of thumb given at the end of this section
may be necessary. will be useful in making these estimates.

Consider the following points:

Entry
Heading
To enter a constant airspeed climb from cruising
flight. raise the nose of the miniature aircraft to the
I. Be sure to scan the heading indicator, especially approximate nose-up indication for the predetennined
during changes in power and pitch attitude. climbing speed. Control pressures will vary as the air­
2. lnterpret beading changes correctly to avoid mak- craft decelerates. Advance the power to the climb
ing beading changes in the wrong direction. power setting after the nose-up attitude is established
3. Correct for all beading deviations. and the airspeed approaches climbing speed. If the
4. Use small bank angles for small beading corrections. transition from level flight is smooth, the vertical
speed indicator will show an immediate trend upward
Pitch and stop at a rate of climb appropriate to the stabilized
airspeed and attitude. Trim as necessary.
1. Check the attitude indicator and make any neces­ Scan the attitude indicator and airspeed indicator to
sary adjustments to the minfature aircraft for level ensure that the desired attitude is maintained. If the
flight indication at normal cruising airspeed. climb attitude is correct, the airspeed will stabilize at
2. Maintain a continuous scan and accurately interpret the desired speed. If the airspeed is low or high, make
all the pitch instruments. an appropriate pitch correction. Scan the heading indi­
3. Make pitch corrections as soon as an altitude devi­ cator to ensure that the desired beading is maintained.
ation is noticed. Be prepared for the yawing tendency that nonnally
4. As soon as a pitch correction is required, attention occurs during a climb and keep straight with rudder.
should be focused on the attitude indicator, while To enter a climb at a predetermined rate of climb
the control inputs are being applied. and speed, estimate the attitude and power setting to
achieve the desired performance. Set the climb atti­
Power tude using the attitude indicatoL Adjust the power to
the predetermined setting for the climb. Scan the atti­
l . Apply the power settings appropriate to various air­ tude indicator and the airspeed indicator to ensure that
speeds or drag configurations. the desired attitude is maintained and adjust the atti­
2. Make smooth thronle movements. tude as necessary to maintain the predetermined air­
3. Lead with power when making airspeed changes. speed. Cross-check the vertical speed indicator with
For example, during an airspeed reduction in level the attitude indicator to ensure that the desired mte of
flight, adjust the throttle to maintain the slower climb is maintained. Adjust the power as necessary to
speed before the airspeed reaches the desired level. increase or decrease the rate of climb. A change of
156 Instrument Flying

100 RPM, or one inch of manifold pressure changes lower the nose to maintain cruise airspeed and control
airspeed approximately 5 KT or the rate of climb by yaw. Scan the attitude indicator and the airspeed indi­
approximately 100 feet per minute. Scan the heading cator to ensure that the desired attitude is maintained
indicator to ensure that the desired heading is and the vertical speed indicator to ensure that the
maintained. desired rate of descent is maintained. If necessary,
adjust the attitude to maintain the predetermined air­
speed and adjust the power to increase or decrease the
Levelling Off rate of descent. A change of 100 RPM, or one inch of
manifold pressure, changes airspeed approximately 5
Levelling off from a climb must be started before KT or the rate of descent by approximately I 00 feet
reaching the desired altitude. The amount of lead var­ per minute. Scan the beading indicator to ensure that
ies with rate of climb. 1f the aircraft is climbing it will the desired heading is maintained.
continue to climb at a decreasing rate throughout the
transition to level flight. An effective practice is to
lead the altitude by IO percent of the vertical speed Levelling Off
shown.
To level off at cruising airspeed, apply smooth, Levelling off from a descent must be started before
steady forward elevator pressure to lower the nose to reaching the desired altitude. The aircraft will con­
the cruise attitude on the attitude indicator. As the tinue to descend at a decreasing rate throughout the
nose is lowered to maintain altitude, the vertical speed transition to level flight. An effective practice is to
gradually decreases toward zero and the airspeed lead the altitude by IO percent of the vertical speed.
increases. Continuing forward pressure in pitch con­ To level off from an 800 foot per minute descent
trol is needed as the airspeed increases. When the air­ for example, lead the altitude by approximately 80
speed reaches cruising speed, set cruise power and feet, adjust the attitude and simultaneously increase
trim. Cross-check the altimeter and heading indicator the power to the required setting. The vertical speed
to confirm that the required altitude and heading are will decrease toward zero. Scan the attitude indicator,
maintained. altimeter, and heading indicator to confirm that the
desired heading and altitude are maintained. Make
small adjustments to the attitude as necessary to main­
Descending tain altitude, and trim.

While descending, the objective may be to maintain a

constant airspeed, a constant rate of descent, or both. Turns
Entry When flying with reference to instruments, control
inputs, tum entry and recovery procedures, and use of
To enter a constant airspeed descent from crmsmg power are the same as when flying with outside visual
flight, reduce the power as required for the descent references. When using instrument reference the typ­
and maintain the cruise attitude. As the airspeed ical turn is accomplished using an angle of bank that
decreases to the desired airspeed, adjust the pitch atti­ results in a tum rate of 3 degrees per second. This is
tude to maintain that airspeed and trim as necessary. referred to as a rate one or standard rate turn. Nor­
Scan the attitude indicator and airspeed indicator to mally the angle of bank used during instrument ref­
ensure that the desired attitude is maintained. If the erence turns does not exceed 30 degrees.
attitude is correct, the airspeed will stabilize at the To produce a rate one turn, first estimate the angle
desired speed. If the airspeed is low or high, make a of bank required using the formula in the suggested
small pitch correction. Scan the heading indicator to rules of thumb on page 158. Enter the turn referring
ensure that the desired heading is maintained. to the attitude indicator miniature aircraft and bank
To enter a descent at a constant rate, estimate the scale. Use co-ordinated aileron and rudder inputs to
attitude and power setting for the descent. If the roll to the desired angle of bank. Because the angle
descent will be carried out at a reduced speed, reduce of bank calculated from the formula is approximate,
the power, maintain the cruise attit. ude and allow the ensure the turn needle on the turn co-ordinator or
airspeed to decrease as necessary before adjusting the tum-and-bank indicator indicates a rate one turn. Note
attitude for the descent. If cruise speed is to be main­ and maintain the angle of bank shown on the banking
tained during the descent, reduce power as required, scale of the attitude indicator when the turn needle is
 Instrument Flying 157

directly under the standard rate index. Fig. 2-76 shows

a turn-and-bank indicator and tum co-ordinator indi­
cating rate one turns.
At this point a small amount of nose-up pitch is
usually required to maintain altitude. Refer to the dot
on the attitude indicator and raise it slightly with ref­
erence to the horizon bar by applying elevator. After
the turn is established, fluctuations of the turn needle
must be controlled with co-ordinated rudder and aile­
ron inputs. During the turn, cross-check the attitude
indicator with the altimeter and the beading indicator,
with occasional reference to the turn needle.
To return to straight flight, lead the desired beading
as shown in the rules of thumb. Refer to the attitude
indicator while rolling the wings level, and use the
same rate of roll for the recovery as for the entry. As Figure 2-77 Steep Left Turn
the wings roll to the level position, the aircraft may
show a tendency to climb if the back pressure on the instead of raising the nose. [f the vertical speed indi­
elevators is not released. At this point� cross-check the cator and the altimeter indicate a descent and the air­
altimeter frequently and adjust the pitch attitude to speed is increasing despite increased backward
maintain altitude. pressure on the control colwnn, reduce the battle angle
to one where the elevator control can be used to raise
the nose and restore the aircraft to level flight. Then
re-establish the required bank angle.
During recovery from steep turns, lead the desired
heading as shown in the rules of thumb and refer to
the attitude indicator while rolling the wings level. As
the wings roll to the level position, pitch the nose
down slightly to maintain altitude and adjust the
power as required.

Change of Airspeed in Turns

Changing airspeed in turns is an effective manoeuvre
Figure 2-76 Rate One Turns for increasing proficiency in all basic instrument skills
as it involves simultaneous changes in all components
of control. Proper execution requires rapid scanning
Steep Turns and interpretation as well as smooth control. Profi­
ciency in the manoeuvre will also contribute to con­
Enter a steep tum using the same control inputs as for fidence in the instruments during attitude and power
any other turn, and be prepared to scan rapidly for changes involved in more complex manoeuvres. Pitch
pitch and bank attitude information as the turn steep­ and power control techni.ques are the same as those
ens. As the angle of bank exceeds 30 degrees, pitch used during changes in airspeed in straight-and-level
the nose slightly above the horizon bar on the attitude flight.
indicator to maintain altitude and increase power as The angle of bank necessary for a given rate of turn
required to maintain a selected airspeed (Fig. 2-77). is proportional to the true airspeed. The angle of bank
The power necessary to maintain a desired altitude must be varied in direct proportion to the airspeed if
and airspeed increases as the bank increases. When a constant rate of turn is to be maintained. For exam­
the required angle of bank is reached, keep it constant ple, during a reduction of airspeed, decrease the angle
with aileron and control yaw with rudder. of bank. The pitch attitude must also be increased to
As the bank angle increases, pitch corrections nec­ maintain a level turn. The altimeter and tum needle
essary to maintain altitude will require increasingly indications should remain constant throughout the
stronger elevator pressure. If bank angle continues to turn.
increase, a point will be reached where further appli­ While reducing airspeed in a turn, the rate of scan­
cation of back elevator pressure tightens the turn ning must be increased as you reduce power. As the
158 Instrument Flying
aircraft decelerates, check the altimeter and vertical performance instrument used to confirm that a con­
speed indic. ator for pitch changes and the bank instru­ stant, correct heading is being maintained. Keep
ments for bank changes. Adjust pitch attitude to main­ straight by using co-ordinated aileron and rudder
tain altitude, and as you approach the required inputs to keep the ball centred and eliminate any yaw
airspeed adjust the power setting to maintain it. Trim indications shown on the tum needle.
is important throughout the manoeuvre to relieve con­
trol pressures. Frequent cross-check of the attitude
indicator is essential to keep from overcontrolling and
to provide approximate bank angles appropriate to the Scanning the Partial Panel
changing airspeeds.
Wben flying without the attitude and heading indi­
Suggested rules of thumb: cators, as with full panel, you must scan the instru­
ments to ensure that the aircraft is being flown as
l . The approximate angle of bank to produce a rate required. However, the scan must be somewhat mod­
one turn may be calculated by using the following ified to use other instruments to determine the attitude
formula: (!As in KT divided by 10) + 7 = bank information needed to control the aircraft. The prin­
angle. Add 5 instead of 7 for statute miles per hour. ciple of instrument flying remains unchanged. You
2. Use small angles of bank to make small heading continue to control the aircraft in accordance with the
changes. Usually a bank angle equal to half the formula "attitude plus power equals performance!' As
number of degrees of beading change will suffice. with full panel, you must continually answer the basic
In any case, limit bank angle to no greater than questions:
that required for a rate one turn.
3. To roll out of a turn on a selected heading, lead 1. What information do I need?
the heading by half the angle of bank, e.g., if using 2. Which instruments give me the needed information?
a 30 degree bank, begin the roll-out 15 degrees 3. Is the information reliable?
before reaching the desired beading.

Partial Panel Straight-and-Level Flight

To fly straight in an aircraft with no heading indicator,
The term partial panel refers to instrument flying frequently refer to the turn needle to detect any head­
while the attitude indicator and heading indicator are ing change (Fig. 2-78). Controlling an aircraft in
either not fitted on the panel, or are unserviceable. straight flight by means of the torn co-ordinator or
With a full panel, the attitude of the aircraft is deter­ tum-and-bank indicator requires a return to basic con­
mined either by reading direct information from the trol principles, i.e., control yaw with the rudder and
attitude indicator or by interpreting indirect informa­ keep the wings level with ailerons. Therefore, when
tion from the performance instruments. While flying flying straight using the turn co-ordinator or tum-and­
an aircraft without an attitude indicator, you must bank indicator, prevent yaw with appropriate rudder
determine the pitch attitude by interpreting airspeed, pressure, and keep the wings level with appropriate
altitude, and vertical speed indications. For example, aileron pressure. The needle will remain centred while
in straight-and-level flight with cruise power set, the heading is maintained as no turn exists. If the ball is
airspeed can be expected to be the same as it has kept centred the needle will always indicate two
always been for that condition. By establishing an atti­ important aspects of flight: the direction in which the
tude and power setting that results in the expected aircraft is turning and the rate at which it is turning.
cruise speed, the aircraft will be in, or very close to, This information is cross-checked with the magnetic
the cruise attitude. The altimeter and vertical speed compass to verify or determine whether tbe heading
indicator will then confirm if the attitude is correct is being maintained.
for level flight. To fly level using partial panel, frequently scan the
Without an attitude or heading indicator an impor­ altimeter and vertical speed indicator for early detec­
tant source of direction and bank information is lost. tion of altitude errors and occasionally scan the air­
However, you know that when the ball of the turn­ speed indicator for feedback on the pitch attitude
and-bank indicator or turn co-ordinator is centred and (Fig. 2-78).
the aircraft is on a constant heading the wings of the In turbulent conditions you may have to average the
aircraft will be level. The magnetic compass is the movement of the turn needle or magnetic compass.
 ln trument Flying 159

•
MAGNETIC
COMPASS

• •
Figure 2-78 Straight-and-Level Flight

Climbing Descending

To enter a limb u ing partial panel use normal To enter a d c nt u ing partial panel adju t the
mooth ntrol pre ure and ob erve the indications pow r and attitude a you � ould when using full
of the airsp ed indicator and the vertical peed indi­ pan I. After the po r i set and the air peed
cator as a no -up attitude i being established. They approa b d ending p ed lower the nose to main­
may tak a few momen to react When they begin tain the de ired air p ed. The airspeed indicator i
to regi ter the chang a o iat d with climb entry interpret d t give pitch information for the de cent
bold th attitud con tant apply climb power and u ing the ame technique as for the climb. U e small
trim. Wh n the air pe d is table make minor pitch pitch adju tment for small air peed corrections
adju tment a required. anticipate yaw, and ke p traigbtwitb rudder.
During the cUmb, tbe air peed indicator must be The can for the traight descent is the same as the
interpreted for pitch information. Use small pitch can for the straight climb (Fig. 2-79).
adjustment" for small airspeed corrections, anticipate To level off apply the correct lead and adjust the
yaw, and keep traight with rudder. Check the mag­ pitch attitud to stop the altimeter at the desired alti­
netic compa occa ionally to en ure the desired head­ tude. et crui e p wer without delay to avoid any
ing i maintained. The can for a straight climb decrease in air peed and trim.
includ frequent referen e to the air peed indicator
and tum co-ordinat r or turn-and-bank indicator, and Turns
le frequent refi rence to the altimeter, vertical speed
indicator and the magn tic compass (Fig. 2-79). While flying n partial panel, most tum are made at a
To level ff the altimeter houJd b canned more rate not ceeding rate one 3 degrees per econd .
frequently the air raft approaches the required alti­ Without an attitud indicator refer to the tum need!
tude ig. 2- 0 . pply the rul of thumb for leading of the tum-and-bank indicator or turn co-ordinator
the altitud . ufficient forward elevator control hould wbil rolling the air raft into the turn. Maintain gentl
be applied to top th aJtim ter mo ement at th ail ron control pre sure until the tum needle reaches
d ired aJtitud . ro -check the ertic.al speed indi- the rate on inde then neutralize the ailerons. The
cator. hown b th coloured arro in Fig. 2-81 can for the tum include frequent reference to the
lh air raft approa h the required airspeed the turn needle for bank information and the altimeter and
airspeed indicator i canned more frequently. When airspeed indicator or pitch information (Fig. 2-82 . To
the airspeed increase to cru· e peed et cruise po er □
return to traight flight, ro the wing le el using the
and trim. same rate ofroU for the ntry.
160 Instrument Flying

MAGNETIC
COMPASS

---------•

•
Figure 2-79 Straight Climb and Descent

•t •
MAGNETIC
COMPASS

e......--- ◄ _____.... •
•
Figure 2-80 Approaching Desired Altitude

The magnetic compass is not reliable for establish­ in straight flight, check the magnetic compass and
ing a heading during a tum. A more reliable turn to make any required small hearung corrections with a
a heading can be made by turning at a known rate of small rate of tum.
turn for a known period of time. Tbjs is called a timed Errors in the turn-and-bank inmcator or tum co­
turn and, as such, requires that the clock be included ordinator needJe indications may exist due to insuf­
in your scan. For example, a turn through 90 degrees ficient or excessive rotor speed or inaccurate
at rate one takes 30 seconds. Begin the roll-in to adjustment of the calibrating spring. The accuracy of
establish a rate one turn when the clock second hand the rate one indication on these instruments may be
passes a prominent point. At the last second of the determined by timing the heading change in a turn
timing, injtiate the roll-out to wings level at the ame while holding the needJe on the rate one mark. For
rate as you rolled in. After the aircraft is established example, a 30 degree heading change should take J 0
 Instrument Flying 161

• •
MAGNETIC
COMPASS

t
-�◄ �►- •
Figure 2-81 Level, Approaching Desired Airspeed

• •
MAGNETIC
COMPASS

t
-�◄ �► • •
Figure 2-82 Turns

seconds. Any errors can be eliminated in future turns already learned, assume an unusual attitude and
by holding slightly more or less bank as required. increase the peed of the cross check to confirm the
attitude.
Unusual attitudes can result from a number of con­
ditions such as turbulence, disorientation, preoccu­
Unusual Attitudes and Recoveries pation with cockpit duties incorrect scan techniques
errors in instrument interpretation, and instrument
maJfunctions. As unusual attitudes are not performed
As a general rule whenever you note an instrument intentionally, except in training, they happen unex­
rate of movement or indication other than those you pectedly. When an unusual attitude is noted on the
associate with the basic instrument flight manoeuvres cross-check, the immediate problem is not how the
162 Instrument Flying

aircraft got there, but what it is doing and how to get

-·-
it back to straight-and-level flight as quickly as pos­
sible. As was pointed out in the introduction to this
chapter, you can't rely on what your senses tell you.
Recognition and recovery must be carried out using
the following procedures.
Airspeed indicator Attitude indicator Altimeter

Recognition

Nose-up attitudes (Fig. 2-83) are identified by the rate

and direction of movement of the altimeter vertical
speed and airspeed needles. Nose-down attitudes are
shown by the same instruments, but in the opposite Turn-and-bank Heading Vertical speed
direction. If the ball of the tum co-ordinator or turn­ indicator indicator indicator
and-bank indicator is centred the direction of turn
Figure 2-83 Nose-Up Unusual Attitudes
indicated by the needle will also be the direction in
which the aircraft is banked.
3. Level the wings by applying co-ordinated aileron
and rudder pressure to centre the turn needle and
ball.
Recovery 4. When the airspeed stops decreasing, you are at or
near level flight; stop the forward elevator pressure.
Recovery should then be made by reference to the
airspeed indicator turn co-ordinator or tum-and-bank
indicator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator. As the initial control inputs may have to be large
In moderate unusual attitudes it may be possible to continue with a fast cross-check to detect possible
establish level flight using the attitude indicator. How­ overcontrolling. When the movement of the altimeter
ever in extreme attitudes the information shown on and airspeed indicator needles stop the attitude is
the attitude indicator may become unreliable as a ref­ approaching the cruise attitude. Should the needles
erence for recovery. The following rules emphasize stop and then rotate in the opposite direction, the air­
interpretation of the attitude from the performance craft has passed through the cruise attitude. As the
instruments. indications of the airspeed indicator, altimeter and
tum-and-bank indicator stabilize, check the attitude
indicator for proper functioning before incorporating
it into the scan. A malfunction in this instrument may
Procedure for Recovery from Unusual have been the cause of the unusual. attitude. The atti­
Attitudes tude indicator, tum needle, and ball should be checked
to determine bank attitude. Corrective control pres­
Nose Down: sures should be applied as needed. The ball should be
centred, as skidding and slipping sensations can easily
1. Reduce power to prevent excessive airspeed and aggravate disorientation and delay recovery.
loss of altitude. After recovery from an unusual attitude, it is impor­
2. Level the wings by applying co-ordinated aileron tant to continue with a rapid cross-check of instrument
and rudder pressures to centre the turn needle and to prevent entry into a secondary unusual attitude. In
ball. addition it may be necessary to climb or descend to
3. Apply smooth back elevator pressure to return to return to a safe altitude as soon as the aircraft is under
Level fligbJ. control.
4. When the airspeed stops increasing, you are at or
near level flight; stop the back elevator pressure.
Spin Recovery
Nose-Up:
The spin is the most critical unusual attitude of all,
1. Increase power to prevent further loss of airspeed. not necessarily because of the manoeuvre itself but
2. Simultaneously apply forward elevator pressure to because of the disorientation that usually accompa­
lower the nose to prevent a stall. nies it.
 ln rnanent Flying 163

The fir st requir ment for pin r o ry is to d ter­

mine the dire cion in hich the air raft i spinning.
The onl reLiabl instrument for thi purpo e i the
tum needle of th tum-and-bank indicaLor or the rum
o-ordinator. Th needle will sbo a d flection in th C
direction of th pin and the altim ter will sho a
rapid Jos of b igbt. To differentiate b tween a pin
and a spiral, ch ck the airspeed. It will be low (near
the stalling peed) in a spin and ltigh and increasing
in a spiral.
Having determined the direction of the spin di -
regard the ball in trument temp rarily and use the
recovery t chnique specified in the Aircraft Flight E D
Manual. The procedure outlined bel i suitable for
+
t
mo mall aeroplao and may be u d in the ab en e
of a procedure recommended b the manufacturer.

r
I. Power to idle oeuiralize ailero
2. Apply and bold full rudder oppo ite to the dire -
tion of rotation e.g. if the turn needle is full right
apply full I ft rudder.
3. Just after th rudder reache the top, move the A
control column positively forward far enough to
break the tall. Full-down elevator might be required
1. A to B: reduce to holding speed
in ome aeroplane .
appropriate for the aircraft.
4. Hold the control input until the turn needle 2. B to C: 180 degrees standard rate tum.
tarts moving back to the centre, indicating that the 3. C to D: 1 minute, straight and level flight
pin has topp d 4. D to E: 180 degrees standard rate tum,
eutralize th rudder (need! at r near centre . rolling out at E on original A to B heading.
6. pply back pre ure on th c ntrol column to e 5. E to B: return to fix B (1 minute for practice
the aircraft ut of the di e. purposes if fix is imaginary.)
7. When the airspeed befililS to d er e hold the pit b 6. Repeat.
attitude constant and apply power to resume cruis­ 7. For Non-Standard Holding Pattern practice,
ing flight. eep the turn oeedl and ball centred make all turns left.
with co-ordinated control pre ure .
Figure 2-84 Standard Holding Pattern (all turns
right)

Basic Instrument Flight Patterns instrument flying kill to stay within the bound of
the pattern at the a igned altitude.
The procedure turn hown in Fig. 2-85 i typical
good way to c ntinue practice once you ha e
of tho e us d in tandard instrument approa h pr -
achi ed a d gree of proficienc on in trumen i to
cedure . For non- tandard procedure . make a right
imulate ba i flight patterns u ed in Instrum nt
tum at B and left turns at all oth
light Rule IFR _procedure . Kn , ·og the flight
requiremen of the e procedures will pro advanta­
geous if you int nd to extend our in trument ffight
training b yond an elem ntary tage. The actual pr -
cedures pre ume a tarting point r fix uch as a n­
Radio Navigation
Directional Beacon ( DB) or a Very High Frequency
Omni Range VOR). For practice purposes a visua'I Very High Frequency Omni-directional
geographic fix may also be used. Range
At thi tage timing precision turn , and the main­
tenance of pecific ai rspeeds and altitudes on instm­ One common means of radio navigation is the Very
ments are th primary objecti e . The holding pattern High Frequency Omni-directional Range OR . Thi
outlined in Fig. 2- 4 demands accurate timing and y tern con i of many trategically placed gr und
164 Instrument Flying

select the VOT frequency. You should hear a rapid suc­

cession of morse code dots or tbe local Automatic
Terminal Information Service (Ans) broadcast (see
Chapter 30). With the omni bearing selector (OBS) set
at 360 degrees you should get a FROM indication in
the sense or TO-FROM indicator and the course devia­
tion indicator (cm) should be centred. With the OBS
set at 180 degrees you should get a TO indication in
the sense indicator and the CDI should be centred. In
either case if the OBS indicator is reading within plus
or minus four degrees the system is acceptable for
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight. FinalJy, turn theu
OBS 10 degrees either side of needle centre and fll
deflection of the CDI should result.
Although there are no error limits specified that
preclude use in VFR flight, you should be cautious and
not rely on the VOR if you suspect inaccuracies. How­
ever, any attempt to apply an error found during the
VOR check will complicate VOll navigation as there is
no guarantee the error is the same throughout 360
degrees. 1n any event the OBS setting must be the same
as your required track.
VOR provides you with 360 different magnetic
1. A to B: 1 minute - Outbound tracks (one for each degree in a circle) from which
2. B: Turn left 45 degrees then you can select the track that best suits your needs to
3. 45 seconds to C fly TO or FROM a VOR station. These tracks are called
4. C: Turn right to intercept D radials.
at a 45 degree angle
5. D: Then fly inbound to cross
the fix A

Figure 2-85 Procedure Turn

stations that transmit navigational signals in the Very

High Frequency (VHF) range 108.10 to ll7.95 MHz.
An airborne VOR receiver converts these signals into
visual indication which may be used for accurate
navigation. A typical airborne VOR instalJation is
shown in Fig. 2-88.
Like all VHF signals, VOR signals are subject to line­ B
of-sight transmission, hence the greater the height the
greater the range of the signal. For this reason, caution 1. Approach fix A in level flight
must be exercised when flying close to the ground or 2. A: Take up a heading 30 degrees "off" the
outbound track; maintain this heading for one
within mountainous regions. Line-of-sight range at
minute at low cruise speed to B
J 000 feet AGL is approximately 39 miles; at 2 000 3. B: Turn right to roll out on the inbound track at C
feet AGL, 54 miles; at 3,000 feet AGL, 66 miles; at 4. C: Descend 800 feet and level off
4,000 feet AGL 77 miles. 5. A: After passing fix, descend 500 feet at
Before using the VOR system, tune in the desired approach speed.
frequency and listen to the identification signal to be
sure the right station has been selected. voR stations Note: Turns and timing must be adjusted to
are identified by a three letter morse code or a voice compensate for wind effect.
identification.
Most large airports have a VHF omni-test frequency
(voT), which enables you to determine the servicea­
bility and accuracy of the receiver. To test the receiver, Figure 2-86 Tear-Drop Procedure Turn
 instrument Flying 165

of the aircraft heading. It ouJd be flying along it or

er ing it at an angle ig. 2-90). Thu the VOR i
n itive to position but not to heading.

Homing to a Station

li home or fly directly to a v R tation. the following

E tep may be used:

I . Tune th receiver to the fr quency printed on th

chart and identify the tation.
2. Rotate the OBS until the TO-FROM indicator how
A: Approach fix in level flight; cross fix, a TO.
8: Fly 90 degrees to outbound heading for ontinue rotating the OB until the cm is centred.
30 seconds at low cruise speed,
4. The reading under the B index is the magnetic
C: Rate one turn; roll out on outbound heading,
D: Hold outbound heading for 1 ½ minutes, track to the station. Turn the aeroplane to the head­
(reciprocal of inbound heading), ing ind-icated on the OB . With the cm centred the
E: Rate one turn; roll out on published Inbound aeroplane will fly directly to the tation. In a cro
heading and descend 700 feet as soon as wind it may be nece ary to repeat step 3 and 4
aircraft is on a definite Inbound heading, to keep the CDI centred. Thi will result in the air­
and level off, craft flying a curved path to the tation.
F: Inbound heading to fix; after crossing fix
Inbound, descend 500 feet (G) at approach
speed and level off.
Intercepting a voR Radial TO a Station
an
Note: Adjust turns and liming to compensate
for wind effect. rien ed pilots may u a number of meth
int rcept a specific radial. Ho\! e er to acquaint ou
ith the use of the VOR, n basic techniqu ill be
Figure 2-87 Direct Entry Procedure
pre nted (Fig. 2-91 . !eel th appropriate frequen y
and identify the voR. D t rmin the reciprocal of th
radial to be inter pted and et the corresponding
xamination of a navigation chart will show the number on the OB . beck the TO-FROM indication. If
v R t tions surrounded by a compa ro e that ena­ th indication i FROM, you cannot readily interc pt
ble you to identify the radial or de ired track in the d ired radial from the pr ent location. [f the
degree magnetic. AU radial are identified as bear­ indication is TO, che k Lhe DI. If the CDI indicate
ing from the station, for example, the 090 degree I ft, subtract 90 degrees from the OBS reading to
radial extends east of the station. The TO-FROM indi­ det rmine the intercept heading. If the cm indicate
cat r i u ed to indicate whether an aircraft is on a right add 90 degree to th OB reading to determine
bearing toward or from th v R tation. [f the T - the intercept neading. Fly th intercept heading until
FR M indicator reads TO with the 01 centred, th the or begins to mo e toward the centre then reduc
heading hown on the OB repre ent the track from the intercept angle a n ce ary. Turn to the inbound
the aircraft TO the tation. ln ig. 2- 9 the aircraft i heading as the co1 n°" , and track to the tation.
on the 0 0 degree radial flying a magnetic track of
270 d gree TO the VOR. Lf th TO-FRO indicator
rea FROM the neading b wn n the OBS repre en Intercepting a VOA Radial FROM a Station
th track of the aircraft FR M th station. t every
p ition, o voR indication ar po ible. One bow­ If y u want to intercept and fly along a radial a y
ing th track from the aircraft th station and the from th tation, first lect the appropriate frequ n y
reciprocal bowing the tra k to th aircraft FRO th and id ntify the VOR. t, determine the radial to b
statfon. int r pted and set the corresponding number on th
The aircraft does not ha e to be flying the heading OB . heck th TO-FROM indication. If the indication
f th radial inbound or outbound for the CDL to be i T you cannot readily int rcept the desired radial
centr d. The receiver merely indicates that at that from your present location. If the indication is FROM
moment the aircraft i lo ated n that radial regardle che k the cor. If the 01 indicates left, subtract 90
166 Instrument Flying
Communications side Navigation side
12 13 8 2 3

Courtesy Aviation Training Syslems

Navigation Receiver Frequency volume of audio from the communication signal. When the •ow position
Selector Knob selects navigation receiver. disappears, the indicator shows whether
receiver frequency in 1 MHz steps. 7 Squelch Control Knob controls the the selected course is "To" or "From"
2 Navigation Frequency Receiver Dial. communication receiver squelch circuit. the station.
3 Navigation Receiver Fractional Clockwise rotation increases back­ 1o Reciprocal Course Index indicates
Frequency Selector Knob. ground noise (decreases. squelch the reciprocal of the selected VOR
4 ldent Filter Switch selects identifier. At action): counterclockwise rotation course.
"ID" position the filter is switched out of decreases background noise. 11 Course Selector (Omni Bearing
circuit and station identifier (Morse 8 Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) Selector OBS Knob) selects the
Code) signal Is audible. indicates the course deviation from the desired course to or from a VOR
5 Navigation Receiver Volume Control selected omni bearing or localizer station.
Knob controls the volume of audio from center-line. 12 Azimuth Dial.
the navigation receiver only. 9 Off/To-From (Omni) Indicator operates 13 Course Index indicates the selected
6 Off/On Volume Control Knob turns the only with VOR or localizer signal. "Off" VOR course.
complete set on and controls the position (flag) indicates an unreliable

Figure 2-88 NAV/CCM Radio with VCR

degrees from the OBS reading to determine the inter­ Fly the intercept heading until tbe crn begins to move
cept heading. If the CDI indicates right add 90 degrees toward the centre and begin to reduce the intercept
to the OB reading to determine the intercept heading. angle as necessary. Tum to the outbound beading as
the cm centres and track from the station (Fig. 2-92).

Correcting for Drift

Once you are established on a radial, it may be nec­

................
90
° essary to eliminate drift. If the wind direction is
_
known an allowance for drift may be made before the
aircraft drifts off track. Fig. 2-93 shows the CDI indi­
cations that may be observed while following a radial.
If the wind is not known, hold a beading identical to
the radial being flown. After a short time any drift
will be indicated by deflection of the CDI. The wind
has drifted the aircraft in Fig. 2-93 to the right of the
090 degree radial. To reintercept, turn to a heading of
070 degrees and confirm that the cm is moving
toward the centre. An intercept angle of greater than
20 degrees may be required if the wind is strong. Hold
the heading correction until the cm centres. After the
radial is intercepted, reduce the intercept angle to
allow for drift. Subsequent left or right deflection of
the CDI indicates insufficient or excessive drift cor­
Figure 2-89 Aircraft on 090 Degree Radial Flying rection and will require further heading changes to
a Magnetic Track of 270 Degrees to the VCR keep the 01 centred.
 Instrument Flying 167

l the half-way point or as depicted on the chart and set

the inbound radial bearing on the OBS.
A Victor airway or air route joining two VOR sta­
tions does not always show the radials as exact recip­
rocal numbers because of chart convergence and
magnetic variation. The CDI will not necessarily be
centred when the new station is tuned, but it will indi­
cate what direction to tum if necessary to intercept
the new radial.

Determining a Fix
The position of an aircraft can be plotted by taking
bearings from two or more VOR stations. The resulting
Figure 2-90 Aircraft on 120 Degree Radial
lines of position are plotted on a navigational chart
Regardless of Heading
and the point where these lines intersect is called a
f x. Because the aircraft is still moving ahead, the
i
accuracy of the position wiJI depend on how quickly
the bearings are taken. If the aircraft has two VOR
receivers this is not a problem. Fig. 2-94 shows how
Flying Victor Airways and Air Routes the aircraft's position may be plotted using lines of
position.
Enroute Low Altitude (LO) charts have the VOR (Vic­
tor) airways or air routes clearly indicated, enabling
you to readily detennine the airway or air route to Station Passage
follow from one VOR station to another. When flying
along a Victor Airway between two VOR tations tune As the aircraft approaches a VOR station, the CDI
in the frequency of the station ahead at approximately becomes very sensitive and may show large deflections

Set OBS to 270° and check for a TO indication.

COi indicates that the COi is left so turn to an intercept heading of 180° .
aircraft is on the radial
270TO
CD 270TO

s'\' \
..
'J,'1 ·,.,,
�\• •..-'o\;
./ '\/
•••• O····

'��

��,�

F ly a heading of
180° to intercept.

�
o

0
As the COi moves towards the
@ centre, turn onto the
0
inbound
270 90 _ _
0
0_90__r_a_d
i _a_l ------l+------h
- _ e a _d_in_g ( 2
_ _7_0_ )_. _____ _

O
180 G) Heading 270°
VOR station

Figure 2-91 Intercepting a VOA Radial TO a Station

168 Instrument Flying

� As the COi moves toward Heading 090° M.

the centre, turn onto the

+-----+-
outbound headingF G) G)
,100�
°
090 radial

180

+
VOR station
Fly a heading of �
360 ° to intercept. \V

Set OBS to 090° and check

for a FROM indication. COi indicates that the
COi is left so turn to an aircraft is on the radial.
intercept heading of 360 ° .

Figure 2-92 Intercepting a voR Radial FROM a Station

Heading indicator •

090 ° Wind
•••
-*
� 070° 070° 080 °
0
Q-

2700�
180
VOR station I
090° 090° 090° 090 °

VOR indicator

From From From From

Figure 2-93 Correcting for Drift

 Instrument Flying 1 69

•
0
ADF reception is not subj ect to line of sight trans­
missions. Reception range depends to a great degree
on the strength of the broadcast station and atmo -
pheric conditions. Compared wjth the static free qual­
270
ities of VOR, radio static caused by l ightning or any
disturbance in the atmosphere is quite often a problem
with the use of the ADF.
VOA station Whi l e there are other types of ADF displays this
text wiU discuss the display in which th e longitudinal
axis of the aircraft is parallel to a line passing through
the zero index (0 degrees) and 1 80 degrees, as i llus­
trated in Fig. 2-96. This is commonly known as the
"fixed card' display. 1n thi s figure the ADF needle is
90 pointing to a beacon that is 40 degrees to the right of
the nose of the aircraft.

1 80
VOA station
Terms and Defin itions
Figu re 2-94 Determining a voR Fix
Before using the automat i c direction finder, you
although the aircraft is only a short distance away should un derstand the following definitions (Fig. 2-97).
from the des ired track. Hold the headi ng that kept you
on track along the radial until the aircraft passes over Relative Beari ng. The angle formed by the intersec­
the s tation. Station passage will be indicated by full tion of a line drawn through the centre line of the
deflection of the cm to one si de and then the other, ai rcraft and a l ine drawn from the aircraft to the bea­
w i th the TO- FROM indi ca tor chan ging from TO to con . This an gle is always measured clockw ise from
F ROM. Thi s i s in dicated in positions l and 2 of the nose of the aircraft. The relative bearing is ind i ­
Fig. 2-9 5 . I f the a ircraft is pass ing abeam the VOR s ta­ cated directly by the ADF needle when the beacon is
ti on the cm and TO-F ROM ind ica tor wi ll record the tuned and the fun ction se lector knob is in the ADF
fact as sh own in posi tions 3 4, and 5 of Fig. 2-9 5 . position.
If a change o f direction i s desired after s tation pas-
age, select the ou tboun d radial on the OB S and use M agneti c Bearing. The an g l e formed by the inter­
the cot as before to indica te the direction to fly to section of a 1 ine drawn from the aircraft to the beacon
intercept the new radial . l f you are close to the station, and a Line drawn from the airc raft to magneti c north .
a 90 degree i ntercept angle w i l l like ly cause you to For an ADF rad io wi th a fixed azimuth indicator, a
overshoot the radia l . Thi s c an be avoided by se l ecti ng magnetic bearing to the beacon i s obtained by adding
a sh al lower intercept angle. th e re l ative bearing shown on the ind icator to the mag­
a
netic beading of the aircr ft. lf the total i more than
3 60 degrees 3 60 degrees i s su btracted to obtain . the
Automatic Di rection - Finder magnetic bearing.

The automatic di rect i on- fi nder (ADF) is a low fre­ Reciprocal Beari n g. The bearing plus or minus l 80
quency radio receiver that can be used for reception degrees. Reciprocal bearings are u sed when p lotting
of non -directional radio beacon ( DB ) ignals and fixes. A reciprocal beari ng (beacon-to-aircraft bear­
commercial broadcast stations . The system bas the ing) is obtained by adding or subtracting 1 80 degrees
abiJ ity to provi de con tinuous relative bearings or mag­ from the aircraft-to-beacon bearing. I f the bearing i s
netic bearings, or both, to any radio facility with in the less than 1 80 degrees 1 80 degrees is added to obtain
frequency range of 190 KHz to 1 750 KHz. the reciprocal bearing. I f the bearin g is more than 1 80
When radio beacons are used as a navigational aid, degrees, 1 80 degrees is subtracted to obtain the recip­
the morse code identifier signals can be readi ly used rocal bearing.
to identify the beacon. However, if a radio broadcast
station is used, it is essential to identify the station Position Line. When a bear ing is taken on a beacon
positively by listening to confirm station identifica­ and plotted on a map, the resulting line is ca lled a
tion and to ensure that a back-up antenna site is not position line. Fig. 2-98 shows how a position line may
being used prior to relying on bearing indications. be plotted.
170 Instrument Flying

Position 1

Position 5

Position 4

Position 3

Figure 2-95 Station Passage

Homing to the Station degree or a 270 degree relative bearing depending on

whether you are left or right of the desired track. As
Homing to a beacon or station using the ADF in no the needle nears the wing-tip position, tum inbound
wind conditions simply entails keeping the ADF needle on the desired track.
on the 0 degree ind x. This method can be followed In Fig. 2-100 the aircraft is south of track with the
in a cross-wind condition but will result in a curved ADF needle reading 030 degrees. For an intercept
path a shown in Fig. 2-99. angle of 90 degrees, a heading of 015 degrees would
be required. When established on the intercept head­
ing, the AD.F wiU indicate the station to be to the left
Intercepting a Track to a Station and ahead of the wing-tip. Wben the angle opens to
a relative bearing of 270 degrees, the aircraft is on the
To intercept a desired ADF track to a station, first desired track and a tum should be made to the desired
determine the aircraft's position relative to that track heading of 285 degrees.
by turning to tbe same heading as the desired track. If after turning to parallel the required track the
Next, tum 90 degrees from the parallel beading in the ADF needle indicates a relative bearing between 090
direction of the ADF needl.e. As you approach the degree clockwise to 270 degrees the beacon is
desired track the needle will move toward either a 90 behind the aeroplane. From this position you will be
 Instrument Flying 17 l

In Fig. 2-101 the aircraft is west of track, with the

ADF needle reading 140 degrees. For an intercept
angle of 90 degrees, a beading of 050 degrees would
be required. When established on the intercept head­
ing, the ADF will inclicate the station to be to the right
and ahead of the wing-tip. When the angle opens to
a relative bearing of 090 degrees, the aircraft is on the
desired track and a turn should be made to the desired
heading of 320 degrees.

Correcting for Drift

Once you are established on a track, it may be nec­

Fixed card essary to eliminate drift. If the wind direction is

Figure 2-96 Fixed Card

Aircraft heading 030 ° M

Relative bearing 300 ° M

Magnetic bearing
to station 330°

Variation 15 ° E

&,� True bearing to station 345 °

e'll-
. 1 bearing
Rec1pro c: eacon) True bearing from the
trorn th b station to the aircraft 165°

NOB (Station)

"To the beacon

Figure 2-97 Bearings

unable to use the 90 degree intercept method to estab­

lish yourself on an i_o bound track of 285 degrees.

Intercepting a Track from a Station

To intercept an ADF track from a station, first deter­

mine the aircraft's position relative to that track by
turning to the same beading as the desired track. Turn
90 degrees from the parallel heading in the direction
of the ADF needle. As you approach the track the nee­
dle will move toward either a 90 degree or 270 degree Heading indicator
relative bearing. As the needle moves to the wing-tip
position turn outbound on the desired track. Figure 2-98 Position Line
172 Instrument Flying

Flying LFIMF Airways

Flight path resulting from cross wind
when no corrective action is taken A prescrjbed track joining two non-directional bea­
(0 degree relative bearing is maintained) cons is called a Low/Medium frequency LFIMF auway.

\ ,,
LFIMF airways are marked on aeronautical charts and
�.,,. .... "'- -- are based at 2,200 feet above ground level. An LFIMF
airway joining two NDBs does not always show the
tracks at each station as being exact reciprocal mun­
bers due to the effect of chart convergence and mag­
netic variation.
I When flying along an LF/MF airway between two
I
I
I NDBs, depending on the power output of the beacons,
I
I
tune the frequency of the station ahead at approri­
I mately the half-way point. When the new station is
tuned, the ADF indicator may not show you to be on
track, but it will indicate the direction to tum if nec­
Flight path without cross wind

1/
or when adequate corrective
essary to reintercept tJ1e airway.
f action was taken for cross
�rt
�
�
Determining a Fix
As with VOR, when two or more magnetic bearings
are taken on different DBS or voR/NDB combinations,
Figure 2-99 Homing and the resulting lines of position are plotted on a
navigational chart the point where they intersect will
be the position of the aircraft at the time the bearings
were taken. The intersection of these lines is called a
known, an allowance for drift may be made before the fix.
aircraft drifts off track. Any deviation of the ADF nee­ Fig. 2-104 shows how the aircraft's position may
dle from the 0 or 180 degree index while maintaining be plotted.
the inbound or outbound heading shows that the air­
craft is drifting. If it is drifting to the right as in
Fig. 2-102, for example, tum to a heading of 070
degrees. Fly the new heading until the ADF needle
moves clockwise to a position 20 degrees off the 0 Station Passage
degree index. After the track is reintercepted, divide
the intercept angle by two and fly a heading of 080 Flight directly over the beacon can cause the needle
degrees. to swing back and forth, possibly both clockwise and
In Fig. 2-103 the aircraft is tracking away from the counter-clockwise, and finally to swing completely
station and has drifted to the right of track. To re­ around to 180 degrees indicating that the beacon is
intercept, a turn to a heading of 070 degrees is made. behind the aircraft.
This heading is maintained until the ADF needle When an aircraft approaches and passes abeam a
moves to within 20 degrees of the 180 degree index. beacon, the nearer the aircraft is to the beacon, the
After the track is reintercepted, divide the intercept greater will be the number of degrees the needle is
angle by two and fly a heading of 080 degrees. off 0 degrees. For example if an aircraft is 1 mile to
The correct allowance for drift will be evident the right of a desired track 60 miles from the beacon,
when the number of degrees the needle is placed off under no wind conditions, the ADF will show I degree
the 0 or 180 degree index remains constant, with a off 0 degree (359 degrees relative). At 30 miles it
constant heading being shown on the beading will be 2 degrees (358 degrees relative) and at 15
indicator. miles 4 degrees (356 degrees relative). This figure
If you have not estimated the drift angle correctly, a increa es as the aircraft gets closer to the beacon, so
change in bearing will again become apparent and that as the aircraft passes abeam the beacon at a dis­
further adjustments to the drift angle will have to be tance of J mile, the needle wouJd be 90 degrees off
made until the ADF needJe remains steady. 0 degrees (270 degrees relative).
 In tntment Flying 173

The aeroplane heading is 285 °

and the ADF needle indicates
the aeroplane is on the desired
NOB (Station) track of 285 ° .

The ADF needle opens (moves counter­

clockwise) to a relative bearing of 270°
indicating the aircraft is on the desired
track. Turn to a heading of 285° .

The go 0 interception angle is

now set and the ADF needle
shows the station to the left
ahead of the wingtip.

Tum onto a heading of 285 ° which

parallels the desired track. As he ADF
needle she s the station to the righ ,
turn right go0 to a heading of 015 ° .

ADF----.

Start

Figure 2-100 Intercepting a Track of 285 Degrees To a Station

Monitoring ca e monitoring th tation would no b as

important.
The ADF olume should be l ft loud enough that it
ould become apparent if th bea on or aircraft Intercept Angles
recei er fail . Some air raft r ei ers have a built-in
fail afe mechanism uch as ontinuous rotation or )though a 90 degre .intercept angle is the horte t
r talion of the ADF oeedl to the wing-tip position or route to a desired radial or track it isn't the short t
an off flag to indjcate equipment failure. In this route to the station. As you become more proficient
174 Instrument Flying

The aeroplane heading is 320° and the

ADF needle indicates the aeroplane is on the
desired track of 320 ° .

The ADF needle opens (moves clockwise) to

a relative bearing of 090° indicating the
aircraft is on the desired track. Turn to a
heading of 320° .

The 90° interception

angle is now set and
the ADF shows the
station to the right
ahead of the wingtip.

ADF

Turn onto a heading of ------- •• Start

320 ° , which parallels the � - •• 1--
desired track. As the ADF ----- - - -ffl
needle shows the station to N D B (Station)
the right, turn right 90° to a
heading of 050° .

Figure 2-101 Intercepting a Track of 320 Degrees From a Station

in the basic intercept technique, your instructor will near a station where the radials or tracks are close
show you how to use shallower intercept angles that together, or when correcting for wind drift. When
wiU take you more directly to your destination. In using an intercept angle less than 90 degrees, take care
these cases, care must be taken to achieve the intercept also that wind is not causing a rate of drift that
before reaching the station. The use of a shallower exceeds your intercept angle.
intercept angle is also often used when intercepting
 Instrument Flying 175

Wind

3 4 5 6 7

+ �
°
,,.._-...,of----+---'-T..:...:
ra= ..:....:0=
ck 0 -+----gr'---......,�
9-=--
090° ---+----

(S��i�n)

•••••••
•
Heading
, , . , , . _ , Indicator

•• :
'
•

.••
•••
.
•••
.
•••
• ••••
:
• • •
:
•
:
• ADF

Figure 2-102 Correcting for Drift While Tracking Toward the Station
 176 Instrument Flying

Wind

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

NOB �/
(Station)

+
Track 090 °
�
�\

•••••••
. .
Heading
Indicator
. , , . , , , .

Figure 2-103 Correcting for Drift While Tracking Away From the Station
 Instrument Flying 177

NOB
(Station)

Aircraft heading ____ 030° M

Relative bearing 300° M
Magnetic bearing to station_33Q0
Variation ________ 15°E
True bearing to station ___ 345°
True bearing from the
station to the aircraft ____ 165°

NOB

■
(Station)
°
--265

Rx
Aircraft heading ____ 030° M
Relative bearing ____ 040° M
Magnetic bearing to station_ 070°
Variation ________ 15°E
True bearing to station ___ 085°
True bearing from the
station to the aircraft ____ 265°

Figure 2-104 Determining a Fbc

EXERCISE TWENTY-FIVE

Night Flying

Night flying can be most enjoyable; in fact, many fuses. Check that the required flashlight is working,
experienced pilots prefer it to flying by day. In sum­ that its batteries are sufficiently strong, and that it is
mer, the lower temperatures at night make the air more within easy reach. Cockpit lighting must illuminate
dense, which improves aerodynamic and engine per­ vital instruments and equipment satisfactorily, but
formance. Convection cloud tends to dissipate; there­ should not create a glare that interferes with the pilot's
fore air turbulence is much weaker and very often outside vision. Position lights, sometimes referred to
almost entirely absent. The air oear the ground is gen­ as navigation lights must be checked for serviceabil­
erally more stable and good landings can be made ity and operation. Do not forget the importance of the
with relatively less manipulation of the flight controls. generator or alternator charging rate since the load
Once accustomed to night flying, you will find that imposed both by the radio and the aircraft lighting
other aircraft io flight, which are generally less numer­ system depend on it.
ous than during the day, can be seen more reacti ly. It may have been some time since you have had to
Night flying does require that you readjust to a rel­ use light signals directed at you by the control tower.
atively different environment, especially outside the Review these signals so that you know what to expect
cockpit. Reference points such as the horizon topo­ and do in the event of a ractio failure.
graphical features, and even the ground itself, a]J so The position lights of an aircraft are coloured and
vital in establishing aircraft attitudes by day are indis­ are located so that they are visible through certain
tinct, obscure, and sometimes invisible. Nevertheless, angles for the express purpose of indjcating the rela­
you will find that there is nothing mysterious or par­ tive position of an aircraft and the general direction
ticularly difficult about night flying. The aircraft is in which it is moving. It is important that you know
flown by night in the same way as it is by day, though how to interpret the position lights of another aircraft
more frequent reference should be made to the instru­ to determine whether there i any possibility of a
ments to verify attitude, airspeed, beading, etc. For collision.
this reason you must be adequately proficient io con­ Allow enough time after exposure to bright light
trolling the aircraft by reference to instruments. for your eyes to become accustomed to darkness.
You should become familiar with the airport Light­ Most people require about a half-hour in darkness for
ing systems. Some of the names of these systems are: their eyes to achieve maximum adaptation.
runway lights, runway threshold lights runway During the day there is little possibility of flying
into a cloud condition accidentally. On a dark, over­
approach lights, taxiway lights taxiway entrance
cast night, however, it can be done easily. Be alert to
lights airport rotating beacon, and obstruction lights.
the possibility of the existence of cloud in the area.
Various colours are used: threshold - green runway At night it may be detected or suspected by the oth­
edge - white, taxiway - blue, and obstruction - erwise unwarranted disappearance of lights on the
red. At many airports runway lights and approach
ground and by a red or green glow adjacent to the
lights can be varied in intensity. The inten ity is position lights of the aircraft.
usually controlled by the control tower or .flight service
and can often be varied at the pi1ot's request.
Before attemptiog a night flight, you must be thor­ Taxiing
oughly familiar with the operation of the aircraft's
lighting system and its emergency equipment. Mem­ In preparation for the flight carry out all normal day­
orize the location of switches circuit breakers and time checks before taxiing out and check your night
178
 Night Flying L 79

flying equipment - such as landing lights, position Supplement visual reference with instrument ref­
lights, instrument and cabin lighting, the flashlight, erence on take-off before losing sight of the runway
and the alternator/generator charging rate. lights. When established in the climb you may have
Taxiing at night requires extra care compared with to augment directional and pitch attitude control by
taxiing in the daytime, for the following reasons: reference to flight instruments, since visual references
can often be obscured by the nose-up attitude. Do not
l . At night stationary lights are nearer than they appear start to turn until a height of 500 feet above ground
to be, which makes judging distance difficult. bas been gained, after which the aircraft should be put
2. Speed is deceptive at night and there is a tendency into a climbing tum in the direction of the circuit.
to taxi an aircraft too fast. One reason for this is the Action in the event of engine failure after take-off is
lack of the customary visible ground objects which the same as by day, with the additional action of
make speed apparent on the ground during the day. switching on the landing lights.
3. Careful look-out is required to avoid obstructions.
They are marked by red obstruction lights, which
are sometimes mistaken for the Lights of aircraft. The Circuit
4. It is difficult to determine slight movement of the
aircraft on the ground at night, and care should be Regular circuit patterns are to be made, thus permit­
exercised to prevent the aircraft from creeping for­ ting completion of cockpit checks (and receipt of
ward during the run-up. clearances) in accordance with the normal procedure
on the various legs of the circuit. The circuit is flown
Take care not to shine your taxi/landing lights on other principally by reference to other aircraft, aerodrome
aircraft as a pilot's night vision may be impaired by lighting, and lights on the ground.
the sudden bright light. Strobe lights should not be Your instructor will point out other aircraft in flight
used on the ground for the same reason. and will show you how to space your circuit pattern
At the take-off position, if the aircraft is generator to avoid crowding on approach.
equipped, keep the engine running fast enough to keep
the generator charging.
Approach

Take-off A power assisted approach is normally used, but a low

flat approach should be avoided. It is an important
Complete a normal pre-take-off check. Correct trim is principle of night flying that pilots be able to complete
important. lt is also good practice to put the landing safe approaches and landings by reference to the run­
lights on, if the aircraft is equipped with them. Obtain way lighting only. The normal aid to judgement is the
take-off clearance (or take the required precautions at appearance of the runway lighting as seen after turn­
uncontrolled airports), then line up the aircraft on the ing in on the final approach. If the approach path is
runway in use. correct, the lights will appear to remain equidistant
The take-off is si:milar to the daytime take-off. Direc­ (longitudinally). If you are overshooting, the distance
tion is maintained first by reference to the runway between lights appears to increase; if undershooting,
lighting and later by other lighted objects ahead. If the distance appears to decrease. The aim, therefore,
landing lights are not used there may be some dif­ is to regulate the approach path so as to maintain the
ficulty in judging the aircraft's attitude, so take care to runway lights in the correct perspective (Fig. 2-105).
ensure that the normal nose-up attitudes for take-off Ideally, the approach should be gauged so that the
and climb are established. It is essential that a safe flare occurs over the beginning of the runway lighting.
climbing speed with a positive rate of climb be achieved
just after lift-off. Thus, any temptation to lift the
aircraft off the ground prematurely must be resisted. Landing
Because of difficulty in judging the pitch attitude,
on some tail wheel aircraft the control column is The landing at night is made by visual reference to
allowed to remain neutral during the take-off run and the runway lights. The appearance of the ground is
the aircraft allowed to assume the flying attitude of its deceptive: never attempt to refer to it as you do by
own accord. To guard against settling back to the day.
ground after lift-off, the aircraft is climbed at a gentle The normal but not invariable effect of night con­
nose-up attitude immediately it becomes airborne, until ditions on the pilot is to induce a tendency to flare
the desired climbing attitude may be safely assumed. too high. If you experience this difficulty early in
180 Night Flying

Figure 2-105 Runway Approach at Night

instruction, it may be advisable to keep some power aircraft is navigated according to a predetermjned
on until the touchdown is completed. flight plan, corrected from time to time by radio nav­
When the aircraft's landing lights are used you igation and reliable visual aids.
should not look directly down the beam, but ahead of The following points caIJ for special consideration
it and slightly to one side, io order to avoid losing when flying cross country at rught:
perspective. Remember that the flare is still gauged
by reference to the runway lights.
Executing a missed approach by night requires no 1. A weather briefing and detailed flight planning are
special technique but is conducted in the same manner essential.
as by day. Reference to the flight instruments should 2. Identifiable lighted landmarks or large lakes and
be made before losing sight of the runway lights to rivers are easier to see at night.
augment directional and pitch control as discussed in 3. Compass headings should be accurately maintained
the take-off procedures. and corrections made only when the position, fixed
At night as during the day, you must keep ale11 for by check-points or by radio aids, is absolutely
other air traffic and avoid keeping your head in the certain.
cockpit to read instruments for too long a period. As 4. Accuracy in time keeping is essential.
you gain experience in flying night circuits, you
should become familiar with the correct position of
The route for initial night pilot navigation practice
the flight instrwuent needles for various flight atti­
should be carefully chosen to include several land­
tudes and airspeeds so that it is not necessary to try
marks that can be identified unmfatakably at rught.
to read the actual figures, and a glance is sufficient
The feasibility of map reading will depend mainly on
to determine that reasonable accuracy is being
the weather and the moon. Ground features show up
achieved.
better when viewed against the moon. Aerodrome bea­
cons are very useful fixes, but guard against the pos­
sibifay of large errors when judging distance to or
from them. Avoid depending on small lights on the
Cross-Country Flying by Night ground for fixes; the scattered lights around a small
community can give the impression of a much larger
town. At all times be aware of the approxin1ate bear­
The principles of pilot navigation by night are basi­ ing and distance of a known prominent feature that
cally similar to those applicable by day, except that you can divert to easily should anything occur to make
map reading at night calls for special techniques. The continuation of the flight impossible or impracticable.
 Night Flying 181

Airport Lighting markers are approved for use on runways at registered

aerodromes only; however, they may be used as a sub­
The floodlights illuminating most terminal building stitute for edge lighting on taxiway or apron areas at
aprons are in many cases semi-blinding and cannot be some certified airports.
dimmed or turned off except in emergencies. When Retro-reflective markers are positioned such that
taxiing in floodlit areas use extreme caution, since when the aircraft is lined up on final they will provide
persons, vehicles, and other objects tend to "shadow" the pilot with the same visual presentation as normal
out or become invisible in these areas. runway lighting. A fixed white light or strobe light is
Blue lights are used to delineate taxiways and are installed at each end of the runway to assist pilots in
necessarily of very low intensity. To assist aircraft locating the aerodrome and aligning the aircraft with
exiting from a lighted runway, the exit is generalJy the runway.
identified by two blue lights on each side of the tax­ Retro-reflective markers must be capable of reflect­
iway exit. ing the aircraft landing lights so that they are visible
Runway and approach lighting systems are not for a distance of 2 NM. Be cautioned that the reflective
restricted to night-time use. If visibility is poor, a capabilities of retro-reflective markers are greatly
landing is being made into the sun, or any other factor affected by the condition of the aircraft landing lights
affects the safety of the aircraft in this regard, do not and the prevailing visibility. Therefore, as part of pre­
hesitate to ask the control tower or the agency respon­ flight planning to an aerodrome using retro-reflective
sible to tum on the runway and approach lights. These markers, be sure to exercise added caution in checking
lights may also be adjustable in intensity; ask for the serviceability of your aircraft landing lights and
lighting that is best suited to the circumstances. making provision for an alternate airport with I igbting
Some aerodromes may use retro-reflective markers in case of an aircraft landing light failure.
in place of lights to mark the edge of runways. These
EXERCISE TWENTY-SIX

Floatplanes

Most of the civil primary flight training aircraft that

use water instead of land as a take-off and landing
surface are conventional landplanes equipped with Mooring cleat Strut
two floats instead of wheels. All aircraft capable of Bow Stern
taking off or landing on water are termed seaplanes,
Transom
including flying boats. For the purpose of this text,
the subject aircraft is a floatplane, since we do not �
intend to include any of the operating procedures
applicable solely to flying boats. For the most part,
the subject will be referred to as an aircraft. Bumper
In the air a floatplane acts much like a landplane. Chine Heel
Keel Step Water
It does not require as much use of the aileron • in a Rudder
sideslip and tend to be less stable directionally than
(up)
a landplane. Otherwise, any normal manoeuvre that
can be performed by a landplane can also be per­ Figure 2-106 Major Components of a Float
formed by a floatplane. Accordingly, no special
instructions will be given here concerning operating are also reduced due to increased drag produced by
of the aircra-ft: in the air. The same applies, to a large the floats and the float attachment .
extent, to familiarization with the aircraft itself.
The techniques for handling and manoeuvring a
floatplane on the water are very different from those
for handling a landplane on land. Besides airmanship
the pilot must also acquire and apply knowledge in Seamanship
seamanship. A floatplane has no brakes and is affected
by both wind and water currents. Whether the engine Terms
is stopped or runnjng, left to its own devices the air­
craft will always turn into the wind. Therefore the Under Way. An aircraft that is not moored or fas­
stronger the wind the more difficult it is to manoeuvre tened to any fixed object on the land or in the water
a floatplane. Despite the additional problems, float­ is under way. A :floatplane under way may be moving
planes can offer much pleasure and operational ver­ forward, backward, or sideways upon the stnface of
satility. In most areas of North America the floatplane the water with its engine running or stopped, and may
has countless "aerodromes' with "runways" of be taxiing, sailing, or stationary. Under way presumes
unlimited length. that a properly authorized person is at the controls of
the aircraft.

Performance Sailing. A floatplane that is under way and is

being manoeuvred backward or sideways solely with
Due to the weight of the floats, the useful load of a the wind or water currents providing the necessary
floatplane is normally less than that of the same air­ force is sailing. The engine may be running or
craft on wheels. The rate of climb and cruising speed stopped.
182
 Floatplanes 183

Bilgewater. All floats leak water to a varying degree,

adding to the overall weight of the aircraft and dimin­
ishing buoyancy. The water is removed by means of
a bilge pump. It is essential that this be done as often
as necessary to keep the floats dry, especially before
the first take-off of the day or when the floats have
been subject to a hard landing or other abuse. The
centre of gravity will also be affected by water in the
floats.

Stationary. A floatplane under way that is being held

in one position against wind or water currents by
means of engine thrust is not taxiing, but is said to
be stationary. The longer this single line
is, the more effective the
Taxiing. A floatpJane under way that is being man­ anchor will be.
oeuvred in a forward direction by means of engine
thrust is taxiing.
Caution: A moored floatplane has a great deal
Lines. Lengths of hemp, manila, or nylon rope used of surface exposed to the wind and in strong winds
for mooring a floatplane or securing it to a dock are and/or high waves the aircraft will exert
calJed lines. considerable drag force upon its mooring line.
Under these conditions, an anchorage which has
Bridle. A Y-sbaped configuration of lines used when proven satisfactory for relatively large pleasure
mooring a floatplane to a buoy or when using an boats may be found quite unsatisfactory for even a
small floatplane.
anchor. To allow a floatplane to weathercock properly
when moored to a buoy or anchored, the bridle must
be equilaterally secured to the bow cleats of each
float. The longer the single line of the bridle the less Figure 2-107 Bridle
the aircraft will tend to drag the anchor or mooring
(Fig. 2-107).
Starting the Engine
Equipment on Board
Many variables apply to the actions immediately pre­
In addition to the items carried by any aircraft to meet ceding the actual starting of the engine. If no belper is
operational requirements, a floatplane sbouJd also available to hold the aircraft until the engine is started
have on board the following equipment, in serviceable and you are ready to taxi, then the aircraft should be
condition: suitably restrained and not released until you are
seated. Release in this case can be made by releasing
1. An approved and readily accessible life-jacket for a rope that is threaded through a fitting or around a
each occupant. strut. If it is necessary to allow the aircraft to drift
2. Two or more 25 foot mooring lines. away from its mooring, then surrounding obstructions
3. A float bilge pump. such as other aircraft, trees rocks, and piers will
4. One or more paddles. dictate the procedure to be followed. If you face this
5. An anchor with its own 50 foot line. situation with a clear plan, such as releasing an anchor
6. A device for filtering gasoline when away from or paddling, should the engine fail to start there is less
base. likelihood of damaging the aircraft. If the engine bas
to be started by hand the propeller must be swung
from behind. This is done by standing on the right
General Considerations float with a firm grip taken on a convenient strut.
Usual1y onJy the smaller engines can be started in this
Footwear. Floatplane pilots should wear shoes or manner. The Canadian Aviation Regulation governing
boots that afford a good grip on the normally wet engine starting and engines left running applies to
surface of the floats. Footwear with. nails or cleats on floatplanes as well as Jandplanes. A floatplane has no
the soles may scratch or damage the surface of the brakes and will begin to move immediately when the
floats. engine starts, unJess suitably restrained.
184 Floatplanes

Water Currents area. When preparing to land at an unknown area,

select the taxi path from the air when underwater haz­
Special operating considerations may be necessary ards can be seen and other obstructions can be noted.
when water currents, such as may occur in a river or To aid in turning while taxiing at slow speeds,
in tidal action, exceed 5 KT, especially in areas where floatplanes have water rudders hinged to the transom
obstructions or other hazards are present. of one or both floats. They are linked to the normal
rudder control system and may be retracted or lowered
1. When turning from downwind to upwind for take­ by the pilot from the cockpit. Water rudders are most
off: effective at low speed in comparatively calm water;
(a) if taxiing against the current, begin the tum at high speeds the pressure of the water tends to kick
b yond the intended talc -off point; or them up into the retracted position.
(b) if taxiing with the current, begin the tum A floatplane has three taxiing modes, known as
before the intended take-off point. idling, sailing, and on the step. In the first mode the
2. The best condition for take-off occur when the elevator control should be held all the way back so
take-off is made with the current (in the direction that the propeller does not strike spray developed by
the current is moving) and into the wind. the bows of the floats or wave action, since water
3. The best conditions for landing occur when the striking a rotating propeller can inflict severe damage
landing is made against the current and into wind. to the propeller and its components. Except when spe­
cial wind and water condition -prevail, or there are
other extenuating circumstances, experienced float­
plane pilots consider it normal practice to taxi by
The Flight means of a combination of the idling mode and
sailing.
Pre-Flight Inspection
In addition to the usual items inspected in a landplane Idling
during a pre-flight inspection, some important items
in a floatplane warrant careful attention. The float In the idling mode (Fig. 2-108), the speed of the air­
compartments must be inspected for water, pumped craft through the water is approximately 8 KT or less,
out, and closed. The load penalty from water leaking and the aircraft's attitude is about the same as when
into the floats can mean increased take-off distance it is at rest on the water. Spend as much time as pos­
which could produce an accident. The condition of the sible initially taxiing in the idling mode to familiarize
float struts brace wires, attachments, fittings, cables, yourself with the action of the water rudders. This
water rudders and paddle attachments should be practice is best conducted when the wind speed is
ascertained. below 10 KT and the water relatively calm.
Great care must be taken when making turns on the
water, especially at high speed or in a strong wind.
Passengers Floatplanes constantly endeavour to turn into the wind
(weathercock) when being taxied across wind or
As a general rule, passengers should not be permitted downwind. Consequently, when countering control
out of the cabin while the propeller is turning. If pas­ pressures are relaxed, the aircraft will swing abruptly
senger assistance is required, a thorough briefing on into wind. Centrifugal force tends to make the aircraft
procedures and hazards must be given. Many a pas­ roll toward the outside of the tum and the wind
senger has been bit by the idling propeller or fallen
into the water while trying to assist a pilot to secure
or release a line. Therefore, ensure that passengers Centre of buoyancy
stay seated until the aircraft is secured when docking
or departing.

Taxiing

The proposed taxi path should be planned in advance

if obstructions exist, as wind strength, river current,
tidal action, or a combination of these factors will
dictate your actions while proceeding to the take-off Figure 2·108 Idle Taxi
 Floatplanes 185

striking the side of the aircraft further aggravates the run on both magnetos for a short while before shutting
rolling tendency. If you tum abruptly when taxiing it down.
downwind, the combined action of the two forces can
be sufficient to overturn the aircraft. Additionally, the
more the aircraft heels over the greater the lifting
effect of the wing exposed to the wind on the wind­ Taxiing on the Step
ward side and the less on the wing on the leeward
side. Due to the higher speeds and other considerations
To make a turn into wind, simply neutralize the involved, taxiing on the step requires considerable
rudder, unless you are taxiing directly downwind; in skill and experience, together with a good knowledge
that case a slight amount of rudder should be applied of water obstructions or other hazards in the locality.
in the direction in which a tum is desired. As soon as To gain solo experience, carry out your initial practice
the turn begins, neutralize the rudder. If the wind is on smooth water with light winds and in areas you
strong, apply opposite rudder to slow the tum down. know well.
The aircraft is placed on the step by holding the
elevator control fulJy back and applying full power.
Sailing As the power is applied the nose will begin to pitch
up and the aircraft will begin accelerating. You will
Sailing is a procedure used to position or manoeuvre notice that at some point the nose will rise no farther
a floatplane in, or to, an area where normal manoeuvr­ and there will be no further acceleration. When this
ing is inadvisable because of congestion or unfavour­ point is. reached, ease the control colwnn forward and
able wind or water conditions. With even the lightest place the nose of the aircraft in an attitude slightly
breeze, a floatplane may be sailed into a very cramped above the attitude the aircraft would be in at rest on
space. If there is absolutely no wind the aircraft can the water (Fig. 2-109). As this is done the aircraft will
easily be manoeuvred with a paddle. Water rudders begin to accelerate noticeably again.
must be retracted when sailing. As the acceleration will be fairly rapid, the power
In a light wind with the engine stopped, a float­ must be reduced in order to prevent the aircraft from
plane moves backward in the direction in which the becoming airborne. About 65 percent power should
tail is pointed. [n a stronger wind with the engine be sufficient for the procedure.
idling, movement is usually backward and toward the Should the nose of the aircraft begin to pitch up
side to which the nose is pointed. Move the tail or and down (a motion referred to as porpoising), it must
nose in the desired direction by coarse application of be stopped immediately, as the oscillation will
rudder. Additional assistance can be acquired by full­ increase rapidly and the aircraft may become uncon­
scale deflection of the ailerons. When sailing with trollable. The safest course of action is to close the
engine on, use the air rudder and aileron drag to steer throttle and hold the control column fully back, allow­
the aircraft. A floatplane can travel as much as 45 ing the aircraft to return to idle taxi. Providing you
degrees to the wind in this manner. recognize the porpoising action in the early stages,
To sail directly backward, merely centra)jze alJ con­ you can stop it by applying a back pressure on the
trols. Additional "sail" effect may be acquired by low­ control column as the nose pitches up.
ering flaps, lowering elevators, and opening cabin Tums may be made on the step but they should be
doors. very gentle, and only a few degrees at a time, until
Care should be exercised and relative effects you are thoroughly familiar with a particular float­
assessed where strong water currents or tidal action plane. The aircraft is moving in excess of 25 KT over
are present, since it is quite possible that these forces the water and the centrifugal force in too sharp a turn
may offset the effect of the wind to varying degrees. can easily capsize it. With certain wind and water con­
When sailing near obstructions with the engine ditions it is unsafe to execute a step turn under any
stopped, it is important to be able to restart the engine circwnstances. For example, if the wind speed is con­
instantly, so that backward motion of the aircraft may siderable, say over 20 KT, and the waves high, as the
be arrested immediately to avoid collision. aircraft turns broadside to the wind the upwind float
In the case of an engine that may not restart readily may be lifted by the crest of a wave while the down­
and must be left running should it be needed to arrest wind float is in a trough between waves. Under these
backward motion, its forward thrust while sailing may conditions, if a turn is well established the aircraft is
be reduced by allowing it to run on one magneto only. in danger of capsizing. Hence, if tendencies to heel
Carburettor heat may also be used to reduce idling over are evident at or near the start of the tum, throttle
thrust. Do not operate the engine this way for too long right back and apply rudder to stop weathercocking.
at any one time. Once moored or docked, allow it to Turns beyond 45 degrees on the step require a high
186 Floatplanes

degree of skill and experienced assessment of all exist­ Mooring and Docking
ing circumstances and conditions. lf any doubt exists
as to the safety of this type of turn for a given condi­
tion, manoeuvre the aircraft by some other method, When approaching a dock or mooring point, observe
such as sailing. (The water rudders must be in the "up" it closely for obstructions and study the possible effects
position while taxiing on the step.) of wind and water currents. Left to its own devices, a
ln addition to the three methods of taxiing previ­ .floatplane will always point into wind, and it can
ously discussed, it is possible to taxi the aircraft in always be turned into wind without difficulty.
what is called the nose-up mode (Fig. 2-110). It must Always have a suitable line ready when approach­
be clearly understood, however, that except for engine ing a dock or other mooring if no shore assistance is
run-up, any nose-up taxiing should only be attempted available. Taxi speed can be reduced by operating the
by highly qualified seaplane pilots, due to the danger engine on one magneto and/or using carburettor heat.
of upset A general rule of thumb is that if the nose­ Open the doors and release the seat-belts. Brief the
up mode is necessary to tum downwind while taxi­ passengers on what is planned, and if necessary place
ing in a high wind, then the average seaplane pilot them for easy pilot exit. As the aircraft nears the dock
should not be out there in the first place. If you are and it appears that inertia will carry tbe aircraft the
faced with such a situation, sailing backward is remaining distance, shut the engine down, leave the
recommended. aircraft, secure a line to a strut, and when sufficiently
To enter this mode hold the elevator control fully close, step off with rope in hand. At the time the engine
back and apply about balf maximum RPM for the air­ is shut down, be prepared for weathercocking due to
craft. Be careful to hold the control column fuJJy back loss of slipstream. Protect the aircraft from damage by
during this procedure to keep the propeller from being using one foot to cushion the contact with the dock,
damaged from the spray should the nose get too low. and secure the line. In high wind conditions, if the line
Taxiing in this mode may be necessary in rough water cannot be secured quickly enough, be prepared to jump
and when turning downwind in high_ wind conditions. back on to the float, restart the engine, and try again.
There is considerably more float "side area" ahead A seaplane ramp is a wide sloping surface, often
of the centre of buoyancy than aft of it. Therefore, of wood, with its lower extremity under the water. Tt
when taxiing cross-wind in the nose-up mode many is used for bringing seaplanes out of the water for
aircraft tend to tum downwind instead of following sundry reasons, including routine docking. Other dock­
the nonnaJ tendency to tum into the wind. This is why ing forms include piers, rafts, and buoys. The technique
it is often necessary to adopt the nose-up mode when for approaching any of these varies, but if possible all
attempting to tum out of a high wind. It is possible of them should be approached into wind at a slow
to use power to augment rudder since opening the speed, since under this condition you have maximum
throttle increases the speed of the aircraft, causing the control.
nose to rise higher, which exposes more float area and In the case of a raft (float) moored some distance
thereby increases the tendency to turn downwind. from shore, even if the wind is blowing shoreward it
Conversely, reducing power decreases speed, lowers is sometimes possible to taxi past the raft, turn, and
the nose, and allows the aircraft to tum into wind. then approach into wind. The same is true of a pier,
Taxiing with the nose up should be limited to short since three sides are available for approach.
periods of time, as the engine can very quickly become When "docking" an aircraft on a natural beach,
overheated. lo addition, because of the relatively high ascertain the nature of lhe shore before contact is
speed and limited forward view, be very careful to made. If it is rocky there is danger of damaging the
ensure that the path ahead is clear. floats, especially if waves rock the aircraft up and
down, Sandy beaches are the best, but even these will
wear off paint and protective coatings if there is wave
action. With an onshore wind the best approach to a
beach is to sail the aircraft backward to it with the
water rudders up. This has the added advantage of not
having to wade into the water to turn the aircraft around
for departure.
ff the wind is offshore, approach slowly, checking
for submerged obstructions or obstacles that could
damage the wings or tail. lf the wind is onshore and
very light, the same type of approach can be made.
However, if the wind strength dictates, raise the water
Figure 2-109 Taxiing on the Step rudders and sail backward, watching for possible
 Floatplanes I 7

damage from bstacles on th shore. If the ind i Centre of buoyancy

parallel to the h re taxi clo e until opposite the beach­
ing point, then u the engin to rum the no e into
Bevators up
hore and beach a oon a po ible. ltemati ely
taxi down ind and close the throttle , hen in a
po ition where th weatherco k a tion will face the
aircraft for a clo e approach. In h.igh winds alway
u e a helper oo . hore.

Anchoring to a Buoy Figure 2-110 Nose-up Taxjing

pproacb the buoy from into ind at minimal p ed. Departing from a Beach
When inertia will arry the air raft to the buoy. hut
down the engine. and exit th aircraft with rop in Depending on the trength f the wind and i direc­
hand. care the aircraft with a bridle or two rop tion, pu h the aircraft out from hore with a paddle or
one to each b \! !eat. sail back, rd. AJtemati 1 face the air raft toward
the op n " ater tart the engine and put the v ater
rudde d n a oon as po ibl .
Using an Anchor
elect a location, taking into account other aircraft or
boat traffic riv r currents, tide wind speed wave Taking Off
iz , and depth of water. As a gen ral rule the anch r
line should all w for l O feet of I ngth for every foot Take-off training hould b gin when there i en ugh
of water. lway ensure that the anchor i holding breeze to m e small wa e but not enough to pro­
before leaving the aircraft, and if ind peed increase duce white ap . t the tak -off po ition the water
return to th aircraft lo ensur i safety. ruddeTS h uld be placed in th 'up • po ition, and th
intended tak -off path carefully tudied to make u:r
that iL i cl ar and ill r: main clear. Op rato of
plea ure boat , ho ar unaware of the aper ting
Leaving a Dock or Mooring requirement of aircraft ar likely to mo dir ti
into the path of a floatplane while it i taking off.
Departing fr m a pier or raft fl at presents no r al
Unlike the landplaoe, the fl atplane ordinarily take
problem. It i de irable to have an as i taut bold the
off and land in public area . It therefore alway face
aircraft pointed toward open water untiJ you tart th
the po ibility of encountering partially submerged
engine. If no a sistance is available and the bows of
:floating obj ct and swimmer that are difficult to ee,
the float are headed against the pier or raft cast off
as well a various types of watercraft. When tax._iing
and allow the aircraft to drift back far enough to make
into take- ff po ition it i often advisable to taxi along
a turn with ut triking the pier r raft before arting
the int nd d take-off path and check for floating
th engine. When an aircraft i l off and allowed
ob tacle and ob tru tions.
to drift the engin ma: not tart readil o alway k ep
The take-off on floats is imilar to a oft fi Id take­
in mind the po ibili of drifung into ob trn ti n or
off in a landplane. When th aircraft i ettled into
ob tacl .
wind, bold th ontrol column hard back and m thl
apply tak -off p , r th n all th aircraft to progr
through th no e-up mod into the planing m de
Departing from a Buoy accordin to the procedure already di cus ed. When
the aircraft i in the planing mod on the tep) at fuJJ
ln calm conditi n it is po ible for a float to be directly power ba k pre sure should b exerted on the c ntrol
over a buoy anchor. Damage could re ult if the aircraft column. Too much back pre ure will cause the beet
i in shaJlow wat rand you step on to the float. be of the floats to dig into the water and create a drag
buoy anchor could al o do damage when moving away that will impede the take-off. onver ely if in ufficient
o always e erci e care in hallow water. lway pre sure i ex rted, the forward part of the bottom of
po ition th bu for departure o that it i at the ide the float will r main in the water and create unde irabl
rather than b h en th floa . drag. mmon error i attempting to 'drag ' the
188 Floatplanes

aircraft out of the water, without realizing that the Glassy Water Take-off
heels of the floats will be forced down into the water
at a much lower angle than is required to put the tail The take-off condjtion that may require more skill
wheel of a landplane on the ground. Experience will than any other occurs with the combination of a hot
determine the best take-off attitude for each aircraft. If sultry day, calm wind, glassy water, and a fully loaded
held at this attitude, the aircraft will take to the air aircraft. Such a condition calls for timing, co-ordina­
smoothly and with adequate flying speed. tion of controls, and practice. The take-off run required
The importance of the proper use of flaps cannot will be longer, and it wi]] take longer to get the aircraft
be ignored. As a general ruJe in selecting the take-off on the step than under normal conditions. Once the
path, when you feel you have sufficient distance, dou­ throttle is opened with the control column held back,
ble it. The climb-out path must be planned prior to and you are quite sure that the nose of the aircraft has
starting the take-off, with hills, valleys, and downdrafts come up to as high an attitude as possible, ease the
being taken into account. control column forward to roll the aircraft onto the step.
Make sure that it is on the step and is accelerating and
planing in the correct attitude. Glassy water is "sticky."
Rough Water Take-offs When aileron control is effective, one float is gently
lifted out of the water (thereby reducing water resis­
When taking off on rough water, apply take-off power tance); at the same time the nose is raised slightly,
as the bows of the floats are rising on a wave. This held there for one or two seconds, and the aircraft
prevents the nose of the floats from digging into the brought to level flight position. You will then find the
water and helps keep spray away from the propeller. aircraft is airborne. Delicate handling is necessary for
Throughout a rough water take-off, hold the controls the first few seconds as the nose may assume too high
somewhat farther back than in smooth water, to hold an attitude, due to the sudden unsticking from the
the bows of the floats well above the surface. Once in water. If the nose of the aircraft is levelled too soon
the planing mode, the aircraft will begin to bounce it will contact the water again. It is impossible to
from wave to wave, and each time it strikes a wave judge vertical distance from glassy water. Leave the
the bows will tend to rise. lf nothing is done to correct flaps until plenty of height is gained, then raise them
this, the impact with each successive wave will be slowly.
more severe. As the nose starts rising, exert forward
pressure on the controls, then apply back pressure just
before the aircraft strikes the next wave. 1t is important Rocking onto the Step
to exert back pressure at the correct instant, otherwise
the bows of the floats may be pushed underwater, There may be occasions, with a heavily loaded air­
capsizing the aircraft, nose first. Accurate timing and craft, hot weather or high altitude, and glassy water
quick reactions are essential. FortunateJy, it usually conditions, when it is necessary to rock the aircraft
f
follows that if there is wind enough to cause waves the onto the step. This should only be attempted i it is
aircraft will become airborne quickly. absolutely necessary. Rocking the aircraft is in fact a
The worst rough water condition occurs when a controlled porpoise started by pulling the control col­
strong current runs against the wind. For example, if umn right back and then releasing it. The nose of the
the current is running at 10 KT and the wind speed is aircraft rises and falls immediately the control column
15 KT, the relative speed between wind and the water is pulled back again. This procedure is repeated until
is 25 KT. The waves will be as high as those produced the nose of the aircraft reaches a maximum height. Ji
in still water by a wind of 25 KT. the control column is then pushed well ahead and
held there, the aircraft is jumped onto the step. The
best planing attitude is then carefully controlled with
Effect of Winds the control column. Allow the speed to build up as much
as possible and follow glassy water take-off procedure.
Besides the obvious effects on taxiing, high winds can It is difficult to give a written explanation of the
impose limitations on float operations, depending on proper timing for rocking an aircraft onto the step in
the size of the aircraft and the experience of the pilot. this manner. To become expert requires considerable
Take-off and landing paths in sheltered areas are desir­ practice and knowledge of the limitations of tbe air­
able, as open water can be rendered unusable by high craft being handJed. It should be emphasized that if
winds. Learn to "read" the wind strength from the the nose refuses to come up progressively higher and
air by observing wave action, wind lanes (streaks upon the aircraft will not start to rock, it will be impossi­
the water), and other indications, before selecting a ble to put the aircraft on the step. In order to avoid
landing area. overheating and causing serious damage to the engine,
 Floatplanes 189

throttle right back, taxi slowly, and lighten the load or on boats give a fair approximation of the wind; smoke
wait for a breeze. and flags are other indicators. If the wind has appre­
ciable velocity, its path is shown by streaks on the
water, which in a strong wind become distinct white
Cross-Wind Take-offs lines. The direction of the wind cannot be determined
by these alone, but if there are whitecaps on tbe waves
Provided the wind is not too strong, cross-wind take­ there is no difficulty. The foam appears to move into
offs are entirely practicable. The procedure is identical wind, an illusion caused by the fact that the waves
to that for landplanes. The aileron control is held to move under the foam.
the windward side and appropriate rudder pressure
applied to maintain the desired direction. When the
aircraft leaves the surface of the water, a gentle turn is Landing Attitudes
made into wind, if possible.
Because of the continually changing properties of the
water's surface, a pilot can use a wide variety of touch­
Downwind Take-offs down attitudes. When the water surface is reasonably
smooth, the best touchdown attitude is at an angle
Downwind take-offs are possible and may even be such that the steps and the heels of the floats touch at
preferred when the wind is light, if obstructions or the same time. A nose-high, power-off landing is safe,
other circumstances do not favour a take-off into the but it is not as smooth nor as pretty to look at as a
wind. Hold the control column farther back than when "step-heel" landing. It may also be a little disconcert­
taking off into wind, otherwise the procedure is the ing at first to the landplane pilot as the aircraft rocks
same. Much more room is needed for a downwind forward almost to the level attitude immediately after
take-off. In a small body of water completely sur­ contact. This is due to the heels of the floats striking
rounded by land an excellent procedure is to begin to the water first, causing a pronounced drag which tips
take-off downwind and finish it into wind. This is the aircraft abruptly forward. However, remember that
done by starting the take-off downwind and when in a smooth landing may be made in any attitude between
the planing mode turning into wind, thus bringing the the step-heel and nose-high attitude provided the con­
aircraft into the take-off configuration near the down­ trol column is moving steadily back at the instant the
wind shore. A reduction of power may be necessary to aircraft contacts the water and is held back after initial
avoid upset, or for control during the turn in the plan­ contact to prevent the floats from digging in.
ing mode; therefore, do not neglect to apply take-off
power again after the aircraft is pointed into wind.
Landing Run
Upon touchdown, the aircraft will slow down through
Landings the three taxiing modes in reverse order to take-off­
i.e., planing, nose up, and idling. If the landing is made
some distance from the docking or mooring point and
Landing a floatplane presents some problems that are water conditions are satisfactory, open the throttle
unfamiliar to the landplane pilot. An airport, except sufficiently while the aircraft is in the planing mode
possibly during the winter, always presents the same and taxi in "on the step." Taxiing in the planing mode
general surface, whereas the surface of the water is is much easier on the engine than taxiing in the nose­
continually changing. up mode. With the latter mode, the engine RPM is the
An airport is restricted to air traffic only and is as same, but as the forward speed is much lower engine
free as possible of obstructions and obstacles, whereas cooling may be inadequate if long distances are
boats, floating debris, and submerged obstructions are involved. In any case, the last few minutes of taxiing
everyday hazards to the floatplane pilot. It is therefore should be done at idling RPM to cool the engine and
wise to fly all around a proposed water landing area prevent after firing when it is shut down.
to examine it thoroughly for obstructions such as float­
ing logs and mooring buoys and to note the position
and direction of motion of any watercraft. Landing in Rough Water
When a windsock is not present at a landing site,
there are several methods for determining wind direc­ When the waves are high, select the best suitable shel­
tion. If there are no strong tides or currents, boats tered location and land with an attitude equivalent to
lying at anchor will point into wind. Seagulls and the attitude of the aircraft in slow flight, and plan to
other water fowl invariably land facing the wind. Sails touch down on top of the wave. If the aircraft starts
190 Floatplanes

to porpoise after touchdown, carry out a missed rect attitude and the amount of power used to control
approach. When landing in rough water, the aircraft the rate of descent will vary with each type of aircraft.
will slow down appreciably as it strikes the first wave, Procedures and airspeeds recommended by the aircraft
but not enough to keep it from slamming into the next manufacturer must be followed. In the absence of
one. The shock of this second contact can be lessened manufacturer's data, the approach speed should be
by judicious use of throttle during the bounce. Exer­ determined by experimentation before you attempt
cise caution while taxiing. This may be an occasion glassy water landings. While figures of 15 to 30 per­
to use nose-up taxiing to turn downwind to proceed cent above the calibrated stall speed are often quoted
to shore or an anchorage. for approach speeds, each type of aircraft has to be
dealt with individually. If during your seaplane
endorsement training no glassy water experience is
Glassy Water Landing possible, you must receive dual instruction on tbe pro­
cedure from a qualified instructor before you attempt
Landing on glassy water can be hazardous unless you a glassy water landing as pilot-in-command.
follow proper procedures. It is impossible to determine Tbe same landing procedures may be used if failing
the height of the aircraft above the water in glassy daylight, deteriorating weather, or other conditions
water conditions; without special procedures it may be affect depth perception over a landing area.
flown into the water or stalled at a considerable height Shmlld a pilot be forced to land on glassy water
during the "float" after the aircraft has been flared for after the engine has failed, a landing should be effected
landing. Either situation can be extremely dangerous. as close to the shoreline as possible and parallel to it,
Power assisted approaches and landings must be the height of the aircraft above the surface being judged
used when landing on glassy water. While it may not from observation of the shore. Floating objects, weeds,
always be possible, it is desirable to set up a normal and weed beds can also be used to judge height.
approach. over the terrain preceding the leeward shore­
line and land parallel to a shoreline. If these aids are
not available, objects in the water should be used to Landing in a Cross-Wind
judge altitude.
The procedure for landing a floatplane in a cross-wind
When approximately 200 feet above the surface
is much the same as for landplanes. Lower the water
(300 to 400 feet where visual aids for judgement of
rudders as soon as possible after landing but not while
height are not available) reduce the rate of descent and
in the planing mode. Do not attempt cross-wind land­
apply more power. The objective is to produce a safe
ings in high waves. The possibility of one float land­
airspeed and power combination that will result in a
ing in a trough and the other on a crest could capsize
nose-up attitude sufficient to prevent the floats from
the aircraft.
digging in on touchdown. The descent should be
established at 200 feet per minute or less by the time
the shoreline is crossed. Provided the attitude and air­ Downwind Landing
speed are correct, you need not alter the power until
touchdown. Care must be taken to trim the aircraft Avoid downwind landings if possible. The high
properly to ensure that there is no slip or skid at the "ground speeds" cause an undesirable forward pitching
point of contact. of the aircraft as the floats make contact with the
The flight instruments, particularly the airspeed and water. Allow plenty of room and use the soft field
vertical speed indicators, should be scanned during technique in the approach and landing so that the
the final approach, while using peripheral or forward floats touch the water at the minimum safe airspeed.
vision for clues of the height above the surface. If the Engine power should be left on at point of touchdown
rate of descent increases, increase power until the only long enough to check the tendency for the aircraft
desired rate of descent is regained while maintaining to pitch forward.
the correct attitude and airspeed. Make no attempt to
round-out or "feel for the surface." At the point of
contact, which should be gentle with the steps and
heels of the floats touching simultaneously, the throt­ Landing at Other than Regular Operating
tle should be eased off gently while maintaining the Areas
back pressure on the control column to prevent the
floats from digging in as the afrcraft settles into the Before landing, check the intended landing surface
water. Remember, considerable space is required for and the subsequent proposed take-off path for rocks,
this type of approach and landing. sand bars, debris, or other obstructions, and decide on
The approach speed necessary to achieve the cor- the taxi path and the method of beaching. In marginal
 Floatpkmes 191

areas, it is also wise to select a prominent reference due to an engine failure or other extreme emergency,
point, from which you can carry out a missed approach plan the approach and execute the subsequent landing
if you are not already on the water, or, on take-off, so as to contact the ground with the keel of the floats as
from which you can discontinue the take-off if you nearly parallel to the ground as possible. Immediately
are not airborne by that point. after touchdown pull the control column hard back.
Float flying can, under normal conditions, be
extremely rewarding and pleasurable. Otherwise inac­
Landing on Land cessible areas are opened up, and provided you pace
your teaming and confront new situations with respect
lf it becomes necessary to land a floatplane on land, and discretion, much is to be gained
EXERCISE TWENTY-SEVEN

Ski planes

In those areas of Canada that have a reasonably long ski and the surface, even at subzero temperatures. The
winter season, an aircraft equipped with skis takes on film of water depending on !he type and temperature
a versatility as a mode of transportation or sport, that of the surface, either lubricates the ski and assists its
no ordinary landplane has. As soon as the snow cover forward progress or clogs the bottom surface of the
reaches a depth of 2 to 3 inches, practically every ski and impedes it. For example, since a skiplane bas
open expanse of flat land becomes a potential landing no mechanical braking system, if it is landed on the
surface. When the ice on sheltered lakes becomes bare ice surface of a lake in even the slightest tail
thick enough, these too offer inviting wide open wind, this minute film of water could mean practically
places for taking off and landing. It is an exciting no friction between the ski and the surface, so that
experience to have take-off and landing areas on all the aircraft would slide unhampered until it collided
sides practically as far as you can see. It is also a with something or some action was taken to redirect
pleasant novelty to be relatively free of the other air its heading. On the other hand, this same film of water
traffic normalJy associated with aerodromes and between dampisb snow and the skis of an aircraft
airports. attempting take-off could create a surface tension that
Like any other endeavour in the field of aviation would drastically restrict acceleration and lengthen the
operating an aircraft on skis mu t be kept within the take-off run considerably.
bounds of certain guidelines. These guidelines require
the exercising of basic common sense throughout the
many and varied circumstances that may occur in a
new and sometimes sensitive operational environment. Manoeuvring on the Ground
In this exercise we will discuss only those opera­
tional areas peculiar to skiplanes. The subject aircraft
will be a typical tail wheel style, single-engined, light A skiplane in flight operates almost exactly like a
aircraft equipped with fixed skis (as opposed to a landplane. The addhional weight and the aerodynamic
retractable ski wheel arrangement). It should be properties of the skis may affect the stalling speed and
pointed out that certain nose wheel aircraft may be overall performance of the aircraft, but to a degree
equipped with skis, but most light skiplanes are of the that is usually negligible. However on the ground and
tail wheel style. especia1Jy during the landing roll the lack of brakes
on normal skiplanes call for special techniques and
certain precautions. Unlike the floats of a tloatplane,
the "heels" of aircraft skis cannot be forced down into
Properties of Snow the snow or ice by elevator action to arrest forward
motion. The steering effectiveness of steerable tail
Studies carried out by variou agencies disclose many skis fluctuates from good to nil according to the type
interesting aspects of the properties of snow and ice, of snow or ice on which the aircraft is manoeuvring.
but one point stands out in explaining why a skiplane Even with normally good conditions, the steering
may perform differently nearly every time there is effectiveness of the tail ski may deteriorate consider­
even the slightest rise or fall of the ambient temper­ ably in a cross-wind. In any case, with no braking
ature or change in the texture of the snow. The pres­ system at all, let alone no differential braking capa­
sure of the skis as they move on the frozen surface bility, sharp taxiing turns are more difficult to execute
creates an extremely thin film of water between the than with wheeled aircraft. This is especially important

192
 Skiplanes 193
in congested areas. In strong cross-winds that would surface and having to push against the slush ahead of
be difficult but not impossible for landplanes to taxj it; in a way it could be likened to the skis trying to
and manoeuvre in the skiplane may have to depend ride up over a tiny but everpresent hill. Fig. 2-111
on outside handling for drrectional guidance. A great offers a slightly exaggerated illustration of this.
many turns on the ground are done by "blowing" the Surprisingly enough, new snow even at fairly low
tail around with bursts of engine power while applying temperatures does not provide a good slide factor, and
full rudder in the direction of the turn desired. Most if deep enough and new enough can affect the take­
of the problems associated with manoeuvring skipla­ off performance of a Light skiplane very seriously. The
nes on the ground occur in congested areas if there reason for this is a combination of drag (Fig. 2-1 l l)
are strong winds. Offsetting this is the fact that ski­ and lack of lubrication. New snow contains a great
planes usually operate away from airports and are sel­ deal of air which allows the skis to sink in deeply
dom required to manoeuvre in congested or confined and at the same time acts like a blotter, absorbing the
areas. Almost invariably, the take-off and landing can thin layer of water instead of allowing it to lubricate
be made directly into wind (there being no defined the skis. New snow of reasonable depth on top of
runway system); therefore, cross-wind taxiing is usu­ older snow provides ideal landing conditions. A thin
ally reduced to a minimum. layer of new snow over ice could be somewhat less
than ideal, because of the lack of braking action.
Snow is at its worst for slide when it is at its best
Slide for making nowballs. Skiplanes manoeuvring in this
type of snow have difficulty making anything but
The strength with which skis wi11 adhere to the snow large radius taxiing turns without severe blasting of
comes as a considerable surprise to most pilots oper­ the tail. The skis tend to stick to the surface, so that
ating a skiplane for the first time. Sometimes even a lot of engine power is needed to get the aircraft
full engine power wiJI not cause the aircraft to move. moving. A peculiarity of skis however, is that once
Between adhesion and the surface tension previously moving even at a snail's pace they will continue to
mentioned, the length of the take-off run and landing move even in adverse snow conditions. Once the air­
roll varies greatly with the condition and type of the craft has broken clear, keep it moving, rather than con­
snow surface. The weight of the aircraft also has more tinuously stopping and starting, to avoid abusing the
effect on this performance under poor snow conditions engine. This type of snow can be misleading s·ince if
than in tbe ame aircraft on wheels, to the extent that the aircraft encounters an area compacted by other
it may be necessary to lighten the load in order to get traffic the slide qualities will suddenly improve.
off the ground. Approach these areas cautiously to avoid unexpected
A skiplane attains its best take-off performance forward progress.
when the surface afford as much slide as possible. Wllen planning a take-off on new snow, or any
This is not a profound statement in itself, but it snow condition that allows the skis to sink to any
achieves importance when you consider that the sur­ depth, compact a take-off path by taxiing the aircraft
face condition which affords the most ideal landing up and down the proposed take-off area. Do this
run, since no brakes are available, could be one that before loading the afrcraft to avoid overheating the
produce as little slide as possible. Bear this in rrund engine and to make the aircraft easier to manoeuvre
when contemplating an operation into and back out of
confined space.
The best sliding conditions for skiplane take-off:
can occur when the ambient temperature is relatively
low or relatively bigh. At temperatures of -5 °C and
lower the film of water cau ed by compression
between the ski and the snow surface is extremely
thin, producing good lubrication but very little surface
tension. When ambient temperatures rise to the point
at which the snow cover becomes watersoaked and
slushy on top of a sound surface lubrication i good
and the 'smack" of the ski on the slush as it pro­
gresses forward breaks the surface tension. Although
the sliding qualities of the higher temperature condi­
tions are good, performance itself is not quite as good
as at the lower temperatures, due to drag. Drag in this
case is caused by the ski sinking slightly into the soft Figure 2-111 Major Components of a Ski
194 Skiplanes

during the compacting process. If for any reason the airport manoeuvring areas usually available to ski­
take-off must be discontinued during the ground run, planes, landings and take-offs can be executed into
change the heading of the aircraft so that it leaves the wind at most times. But on a normal snow surface,
compacted area. This will help bring the aircraft to a which allows the skis to sink into the surface slightly,
stop in a shorter distance, through the aid of drag. cross-winds may be handled in the same manner as
with landplanes. However, you may have to land a
skiplane (or take oft) in an area limited in width, such
Take-off as a river or a narrow serviceable area on a frozen
lake. If the ice surface is relatively smooth, the influ­
ence of a cross-wind must be counteracted in a man­
The procedures for talcing off and landing a skiplane ner that is quite contrary to everything said thus far
are basically the same as a soft field take-off for a on the subject of cross-wind landings or take-offs. The
landplane. It is good practice, once the tail of a ski­ cross-wind landings and take-off techniques for land­
plane has been lifted on take-off, to hold the nose planes (and skiplanes under normal snow conditions)
slightly higher than is customary with a landplane. depend largely on a ground surface that will hold the
This will allow the toes of the skis to ride up over wheels or skis firmly aligned in a desired direction
snow "ripples" instead of digging into them, and wi11 while they are on the surface. A skiplane on ice does
transfer the weight from the skis to the wings as not have this advantage. When landing on an icy sur­
quickly as possible. face that freely allows lateral movement of the air­
On a landplane the tires absorb a great deal of the craft, a sk.iplane must come to touchdown by
shock and iron out bumps and other irregularities on counteracting cross-wind drift in the normal manner.
the manoeuvring surface. A skiplane has only the sus­ At touchdown the aircraft must be immediately crab­
pension system to absorb shock, and it is not generally bed into wind to maintain the desired direction of
designed to counteract anything but minor irregulari­ travel until it comes to rest. In other words, the aircraft
ties. You must get used to high noise, vibration, and is actually sliding sideways throughout the landing
bumps and shocks not experienced with wheeled air­ run. More crab is required as speed diminishes. On
craft. However, this does not mean that a skiplane has take-off, apply crab immediately and maintain it
some special quality for accepting shocks that a land­ throughout the take-off run. Less crab is required as
plane does not. There are many surfaces that would speed increases. Execute this procedure with great
have to be considered operationally unacceptable for care and if possible only with a first-hand knowledge
skiplane operations, except in an emergency. Under of surface conditions, since hazards exist when crab­
most circumstances, though, there is reasonable scope bing a skiplane on an icy surface in a strong cross­
for selectivity and you should exploit it fully. wind. Should the skis encounter a rough spot or a soft
area while most of the weight is still on the skis, the
aircraft may suffer considerable side-loading. The
Landing severity of the side-loading depends on speed, amount
of weight still on the skis, and the extent and degree
Most skiplane landings can be made into wind. How­ of the rough or soft area. The side-loading would ordi­
ever, if a landing is made in a cross-wind it must be narily be least severe just after touchdown or imme­
executed in the usual manner, with the appropriate diately prior to take-off, since at these points much of
control action taken to counteract drift. There are the aircraft's weight is on the wings, and the crab
many snow and ice surface conditions that can exert angle is smallest.
more side-load on a skiplane's landing structure, if In normal recreational flying avoid this type of
drift is present at touchdown, than the same amount operation, or select an alternative surface that will per­
of drift would exert on a landplane's landing-gear. mit landings and take-offs into the wind with no side
Here again, the landplane's tire absorbs a great deal drift.
of the side-loading. A ski is long and a touchdown
with drift in a rutted, icy, or hard-packed snow surface
can twist the landing struts beyond the point of return
to proper alignment. Ideally a skiplane should be Sticking
landed in the three-point attitude.
The skis of a skiplane parked for any length of time
on any snow or ice surface will adhere to the surface.
Cross-Wind The adhesion will vary in degree, according to
weather and other conditions, from one in which rea­
It bas already been said that because of the large off sonable engine power will start the aircraft moving to
 Skiplanes 195

a condition where no amount of power will get it should a failure occur, search for a landing area with
under way. A skiplane that is stuck fast may some­ a surface that offers no opportunity for the ski to dig
times be broken clear by judicious use of simuJtane­ in, such as the snow-free ice on a lake or a river. Use
ous engine power and movement of the rudder and a power assisted approach and landing to keep the
elevator controls. The wiggle induced will unstick rea­ nose high. Just before touchdown, enter a forward slip
sonable adhesion, but under no circumstances use this with bank toward the affected ski and gradually allow
method until you are certain that the tail ski is free. that ski to settle onto the ice, then remove the slip and
Forward movement of the elevator control may complete the landing.
unstick an adhered tail ski so suddenly that it will be
almost impossible to prevent the aircraft nose from
pitchmg down and possibly damaging the propeller. White-out
Tbe best way to unstick a skiplane is manually, by
the careful use of strategically placed wooden levers. White-out conditions are most commonly encountered
ff the skis are so submerged in ice that you must chop when flying over large lakes at some distance from
them free, make sure that any lumps of ice are the shoreline. Never proceed into areas where, due to
removed before attempting to taxi. If the snow con­ white-out, it is not possible to distinguish between
dition is such that the aircraft sticks fast each time it ground and sky, unless you are sufficiently experi­
stops, unload it and compact the area to be used by enced and capable of instrument flight (see Chapter 6,
taxiing up and down until the surface slide improves. "White-out").
If the aircraft is to be parked for any length of time If it should be necessary to land during these con­
over two hours, under most conditions you should taxi ditions follow the procedure used for glassy water
it up onto something that will limit the degree of sur­ landings (see the section, "Glassy Water Landings;'
face adhesion and allow the aircraft to easily break in Exercise 26). The heels of the skis should make
itself clear when it is next used. Spruce boughs, the contact with the surface first. As soon as this occurs,
trunks of small trees, lengths of lumber laid out at close the throttle immediately, since unlike floatplanes,
right angles to the skis, or well secured plastic sheet­ the skiplane will have no tendency to pitch forward
ing will serve this purpose. upon contact with the snow or ice surface. Due to the
lack of visual cues the instruments must be used for
altitude, airspeed, and descent reference throughout
Types of Skis the approach.

Aircraft ski construction varies widely, from brass

trimmed laminated "boards" to sophisticated hydrau­ Suitability of Snow Surface for Landings
lically operated wheel-ski combinations. Most skis are
attached to the wheel axle when the wheel is removed, When selecting a landing area under conditions of
while others are a "roll-on" variety, using the cushion­ restricted visibility or bright sun, it is often impossible
ing effect of the tire, with the tire fitting in a channel to determine the condition of the surface. Extreme
built into the top of the ski. caution is advised. Ice ridges, hummocks, and win­
The main function of the trirnming and restraining drows of snow are often impossible to see, and any
cables with which aircraft skis are equipped is to flex­ one of these can cause serious damage to a skiplane.
ibly maintain and secure the skis in a correct attitude The annual toll of aircraft damaged due to selecting
during flight. During the walk-around inspection prior unsuitable terrain for a landing is an effective
to flight include a careful examination of these cables, reminder of the need for discretion when deciding to
to ensure that they are in good condition and that all fly under such conditions and when selecting a land­
their locking and securing devices are intact. ShouJd ing area.
a rear cable fail during flight the aircraft would Unlike water surface conditions, there is no rela­
become asymmetrically trimmed and awkward to fly, tionship between wind conditions and ground condi­
but if a front cable failed, a very dangerous flight tions. High snow-drifts could exist in a no-wind
condition and landing problem would exist. The condition, and snow-drifts could be parallel as well as
affected ski would drop to approximately a 45 degree at an angle to the existing wind.
angle and create extreme drag on one side of the air­
craft. Landing in this condition carries the risk of the
toe of the ski digging into the snow upon touchdown, Thin Ice
tearing off both the ski and its landing strut. Because
these cables are subject to minute inspection by most When operating skiplanes on ice-covered lakes or
skiplane pilots, a failure is extremely rare. However, other ice areas with a water base, there are various
196 Skiplanes

rules of thumb to determine the thickness of ice late winter and early spring. On rivers, avoid areas of
required to support a certain aircraft weight. However, undercurrents resulting in thin ice. Points where creeks
none of these will safely cover all situations. For com­ or rivers flow into or out of lakes should also be
plete knowledge on this phase of skiplane operations avoided, along with air holes, fissures, and deep snow.
refer to the Transport Canada publication, Water/Ice If during a refuelling operation fuel is spilled
Aerodrome Standards and Recommended Practices. directly onto the snow or ice surface, move the aircraft
This publication may be purchased from: a safe distance from the spill area before starting the
engine. Gasoline lying on a cold surface does not
Transport Canada evaporate as quickly as usual and could be ignited
330 Sparks Street accidentally by the engine exhaust flame.
AARNG
Ottawa, Ontario
KIA 0N8 Survival
While winter operations should automatically include
Operations survival equipment, the very nature of ski flying
demands extra precautions. Carry ropes, axe, shovel,
Due to the possibility of extending the take-off run, it blowpot, snow-shoes, tent, engine and wing covers,
is important to remove dirt, sod, ice, etc. adhering to and a receptacle for draining and heating the engine
the undersurface of the skis before attempting a take­ oil, where applicable. Other survival equipment such
off. When operating off an ice surface remember that as food, sleeping-bag, clothing, and footwear should
ice near the shoreline will bear greater loads in early also be considered if you are operating away from
winter, but should be used with great caution in the home base.
EXERCISE TWENTY-EIGHT

Type Conversion

One side effect of improving the performance of any Pre-Flight

medium can be increased complexity of operation. The
manual change gearboxes in transport trucks and buses The pilot's visual inspection of a complex aircraft is
afford more efficiency and flexibility than the trans­ similar to the inspection of a basic aircraft. To begin
missions in conventional automobiles, but to operate with when you enter the cockpit to check that magneto
them effectively requires much greater skill than the and master switches are off, also check that the landing­
average car driver normally possesses. And so it is with gear up-down selector is in the "down" position.
aircraft. One that requires only basic skill to operate When checking the tires and other standard items
safely usually lacks the overall performance of the of the landing-gear, also look for hydraulic fluid leaks
more complex. in the Lines and actuating cylinders of the landing-gear
For our purposes, in addition to flaps, carburettor retracting system. If the system is electricalJy oper­
heat, and mixture control, an advanced-type aircraft ated, look for loose electric wires and switches. The
in the middle range of complexity is equipped with exposed threads of the screw-type jack of an electro­
retractable landing-gear, a constant speed propeller mechanical retracting system should be bright and
and a muJticell fuel selection system. It invariably has free of accumulations of oil dirt and sludge.
a higher wing loading than an initial trainer therefore Complex aircraft often have separate baggage com­
it also has a higher stalling speed. Extra cockpit partments with their own doors. These doors mu t be
equipment will include a propeller pitch control a securely closed prior to take-off. Besides other obvious
landing-gear position indicator, a landing-gear posi­ consequences, a door that opens in flight and cannot
tion selector, an engine manifold pressure gauge and be closed may change the aerodynamic characteristics
qufre often engine cylinder head temperature, exhaust of the aircraft and produce serious control difficulties.
gas temperature, or carburettor air temperature gauges. The security of baggage doors is the pilot's responsibil­
ity, a responsibility that should never be passed to
unqualified persons.
Weight and Balance
The weight and balance of a complex aircraft is usu­ Fuel Systems
ally more critical than that of a basic aircraft. The
aircraft, with its greater length, fore-and-aft baggage When the aircraft has a mu]ticell, multiselection fuel
compartments, and greater load-carrying capacity, can storage system, study the relevant section of the Air­
easily be improperly loaded. Pay strict attention, craft Flight Manual very carefuly, since there may be
l

therefore, to weight and balance prior to flight. a certain fuel tank (or tanks) that cannot be selected
Complex aircraft, with their greater efficiency of for take-off or landing. When so specified there are
operation, offer the flexibility of carrying a limited various technical reasons for this precaution. It is not
payload a great distance with full tanks, or a heavy always the case of course, but generally the fuel tanks
payload a short distance with limited fuel. This calls that are specified as not to be used for take-off or
for very carefuJ payload and fuel load planning on the Landing are designated as "auxiliary" and those that
part of the pilot-in-command. may be used as "main." It is good practice to start
and warm up the engine on an auxiliary fuel tank to
check the system, then select a main tank prior to the
engine run-up and take-off. Auxiliary fuel tanks
197
198 Type Conversion

should not be selected until crumng altitude is tion of the propeller pitch lever in relation to the blade
reached and the aircraft is in a level attitude. The main angle, but perhaps the most descriptive and least con­
fuel supply should be selected well prior to Landing. fusing is:
Many pilots select the main supply at the beginning 1. Pitch lever forward - high RPM
of the descent from altitude and then recheck the item 2. Pitch lever back - low RPM
during the pre-landing check.
The complex aircraft under discussion is most The engine should be started with the propeller pitch
likely somewhat larger than the initial trainer; there­ lever in the fully forward position. There may be
fore, it may be presumed that considerably more fuel mechanical reasons for this, but the most important
is being carried in each wing. In order to keep the reason is operational. To start the engine of an aircraft
aircraft in good 1.ateral trim, the fuel should be used in the class under discussion, it must be cranked at
alternately from each side of the aircraft. If, for exam­ about 250 RPM. To crank the engine at this speed the
ple, an aircraft is carrying 4 hours of fuel on board starter must produce a specific amount of power with
(2 hours on each side), fly for 45 minutes on one side the propelJer pitch at its smallest angle (smallest bite).
initially, switch over to the other side, for 1.5 hours, If the pitch lever is not fully forward, the blade angle
then return to the original side, which now has 1.25 will be greater and the starter may not be able to crank
hours of fuel remaining. the engine fast enough to cause it to start, or if it does
It is never considered good practice to run a fuel start there may be an undue strain on the starter and
tank dry unless a fuel shortage warrants doing so. battery.
When a tank is run dry, there is a possibility of sed­ When checking the magnetos for drop in RPM dur­
iment or water being drawn into the carburettor or fuel ing the engine ground check, make sure that the pro­
injection system, but more important stiU, an air lock peller pitch lever is in the "full high" RPM position.
may be introduced into the fuel system. The best pro­ Being a constant speed propeller, it will automatically
cedure for fuel management when full use must be adjust the RPM to compensate for power loss due to a
made of the available supply is to calculate fuel con­ magneto drop if the lever is in some intermediate posi­
sumption and accurately time each tank, using the fuel tion. In other words, the drop will be there but the
gauges as monitors. When the fuel state requires run­ tachometer will not show it.
ning a tank dry, try to do so at altitude in. level flight A constant speed propeller allows the pilot to
while at cruising speed. If there is a fuel warning light match the operational performance requirement of an
and it begins to flicker, select a new tank and switch aircraft more readily with its available engine power
on the boost pump. Be careful not to select an empty at a certain throttle setting. Most internal combustion
tank position. In running a tank dry, if you must wait engines attain their maximum horsepower at a point
until the engine falters through lack of fuel, select a somewhere near their maximum allowable RPM, but
new tank and then move the throttle lever back to a the power requirement for economical cruising is usu­
position half-way between the idle and nor. mal cruise ally found at considerably less than maximum RPM.
setting until the engine is running evenly again. When listing the performance figures in an Aircraft
Flight Manual, the manufacturer usualJy begins the
list with the distance, in feet, that the aircraft requires
Engine and Propeller for its take-off run. The ability to accelerate from a
stopped to an airborne condition in as short a distance
Several principles are used to effect the change in as possible and then climb out initially at a good rate
blade pitch angle of the various makes of constant is a prime performance requirement of most aircraft.
speed propellers, but in the majority of cases engine To accomplish this the engine must be allowed to
oil at engine pressure provides the moving force. The develop the RPM that produces its maximum power
propeller must be "exercised" from its high RPM to output. This is done by setting the pitch angle of the
low RPM range through at least two cycles prior to propeller blades small enough to allow the engine to
take-off. This is usually carried out during the warm­ rotate freely up to the desired RPM. When the pitch
up and engine ground check. The main reason for angle is small the propeller takes a smaller bite of the
doing this, of course, is to ensure that the propeller air, but it takes many more bites because it is turning
mechanism is functioning properly, but it is also for faster. This is much like the need to use a lower gear
the purpose of circulating warm engine oil through in an automobile for acceleration, or to climb a steep
the propeller actuating system. hill at low speed. Once the aircraft is in cruise climb
When the propeller pitch lever is fully forward, the or cruising flight, the air is coming through the
propeller blade pitch angle is at its smallest, and when propeller at such a speed that if its blades are left at
the lever is pulled right back, the pitch angle is at its the smaller pitch angle, it cannot take a sufficient
greatest. There are various terms to describe the posi- number of small bites to efficiently chew its way for-
 'Pype Conversion 199

ward. (This is like leaving an automobile in low gear speed propeller at the recommended manifold pres­
while trying to maintain highway speed.) At this point sure and engine RPM, the manifold pressure will
the propeller pitch angle must be increased so that a decrease as the aircraft ascends. This wilJ require con­
bigger bite of air can be taken for each engine stant forward adjustments to the throttle to maintain the
revolution. correct marufold pressure. If the climb is continued,
Thus, to use the available horsepower of an aircraft you will reach an altitude where the throttle is fully
engine effectively, for a given flight configuration, open and the manifold pressure cannot be maintained.
you must be able to control the pitch angle of the When cruising altitude is reached, bring the throttle
propeller blades. The fixed pitch propeller used on an back to the manifold pressure recommended for the
initial training aircraft is designed to provide the best speed desired at the selected altitude. Then bring the
compromise between take-off performance and cruis­ propeller pitch control back until the corresponding
ing speed. recommended engine RPM is indicated on the tachom­
An internal combustion engine can be operationally eter. On descent from altitude, you will have to con­
damaged, even to the point of failure, by sustained stantly adjust the throttle backward to maintain a
overspeeding and/or subjection to high internal pres­ desired manffold pressure.
sures for lengthy periods of time. To use a familiar When the pilot selects a specific RPM setting, the
parallel again, when an automobile is forced up a governing mechanism of a constant speed propeller
steep hill at relatively low speed in high gear with the will maintain it regardless of reasonable variations in
accelerator depressed to the floor, severe and dam­ throttle setting and aircraft attitude. With this type of
aging pressures are being generated within the com­ propeller, reasonable movement of the throttle will
bustion chamber of the engine. This condition could change readings on the manifold pressure gauge, but
be remedied by selecting a lower gear. Because it is will not alter the engine RPM. However, movement of
air-cooled, an aircraft engine is even more susceptible the propeller pitch lever affects both RPM and mani­
to damage by similar engine abuse. In an aircraft with fold pressure. When the pitch lever is brought back,
a fixed pitch propeller, the pilot cannot, under normal the RPM will decrease and the manifold pressure will
circumstances, subject the engine to abnormal internal increase. Conversely, ease forward on the pitch lever
pressures nor is it likely that engine overspeeding will to increase the RPM and the manifold pressure will
be allowed to occur for too long a time. This is not decrease. An increase of manifold pressure by move­
so in the case of aircraft equipped with constant speed ment of the pitch lever alone is undesirable. Therefore,
propellers. The pilot bas control over internal engine remember the rule: to increase engine power, first
pressures and can also overspeed the engine very easily. increase RPM; to decrease engine power, first decrease
To assist in maintaining acceptable engine pres­ manifold pressure.
sures, in addition to the familiar tachometer the com­ To increase power: 1 . pitch forward;
plex aircraft is equipped with an instrument called a 2. throttle forward;
manifold pressure gauge and perhaps cylinder bead or To decrease power: l. throttle back;
exhaust gas temperature gauges, or both. The engine 2. pitch back.
handling procedure for take-off and climb in most in.i­ Carburettor icing will be indicated in the case of an
tial training aircraft is to apply full engine power and aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller by a decrease in
maintain this power setting until the altitude selected RPM. This is not the case in aircraft with constant
for cruising is reached. To do this with most constant speed propellers. The propeller will continue to main­
speed propeller equipped aircraft would subject the tain its RPM setting until the carburettor is so choked
engine to severe and unnecessary abuse. If the engine with ice the engine will not have the power to main­
is not turbo-charged, take off with full throttle and the tain RPM, even at the smallest propeller blade pitch
propeller pitch control fully forward in the high RPM angle. The instrument that will indicate that carburet­
position. As soon as the aircraft is established in the tor ice is present is the manifold pressure gauge. If the
normal climb attitude at a safe altitude, throttle back altitude and the throttle setting have been constantly
to reduce the power until the recommended climb maintained, a decrease in manifold pressure may
pressure is indicated on the manifold pressure gauge. indicate that carburettor ice is present. We say "may"
Then bring the propeller pitch control back until the since other factors can cause fluctuations in manifold
recommended engine RPM for the climb is indicated pressure. The manifold pressure gauge is a pressure
on the tachometer. Aircraft with turbo-charged instrument and is influenced by the atmosphere;
engines often do not use full throttle for take-off. Use therefore, flight from a high pressure area into a low
the recommended procedures, manifold pressures and one would cause the manifold pressure to decrease,
RPM shown in the Aircraft Flight Manual for the and vice versa. A decrease in manifold pressure may
aircraft being flown. also indicate an engine malfunction. In any case apply
When you are climbing an aircraft with a constant carburettor heat in the manner prescribed by the
200 Type Conversion

manufacturer. ff there is a momentary decrease and accumulations of slush to avoid the possibility of the
then a rise in manifold pressure, carburettor ice is most landing-gear freezing in the "up'' position when
likely present. retracted after take-off. If it is suspected that the
You will recall that early in training you were landing-gear is wet or slush covered, delay retraction
warned against abrupt applications of power, and ade­ for a short period after take-off or cycle the landing•
quate reasons for such a warning were given. In the gear to reduce the possibility of retraction or extension
case of turbo-charged engines there is another impor­ problems.
tant reason. An abrupt movement of the throttle, par­ Most aircraft manufacturers publish airspeed restric­
ticularly on a cold engine can cause an overboost that tions concerning the raising and lowering of the landing­
could exceed the engine limitations. Although the gear of a specific aircraft. There often is a maximum
turbo-charger is designed and constructed to accept airspeed above which the landing-gear should not be
some abuse, changes in power applied to a turbo­ retracted. In some aircraft, the gear will not retract
charged engine must be progressive and smooth with above this airspeed. There are also aerodynamic and
the degree of rapidity warranted by the situation. structural reasons for these speed restrictions. Therefore,
It is considered good practice to place the propeller it is important to commit these airspeeds to memory.
pitch control into the "full high" RPM position some­ Under normal circumstances, an aircraft with
where in the traffic circuit, prior to landing. Primarily, retractable landing-gear will climb faster than its
this assures that full power is available should a go counterpart with fixed landing-gear. Therefore, in the
around be required with both landing gear and flaps case of short field take-offs, especially over obstacles,
extended. Some operators leave the pitch control at retraction should occur as soon as possible and con­
the normal cruise setting throughout most of the cir­ sistent with safety. Some Aircraft Flight Manuals rec­
cuit and then place
f
the pitch lever into the "full high" ommend a delay in this procedure, as the drag of
RPM position (orward) after turning onto the final gear-door opening and the retraction process may
approach. This ensures that adequate engine power is exceed the drag when the gear is down. Aircraft with
immediately available. devices that protect against accidental retraction of the
landing-gear may require special procedures for
retraction below a certain airspeed. Before contem­
Retractable Landing-Gear plating a short field take-off procedure, review the
subject carefully in the Aircraft Fljght Manual.
Retractable landing-gear gives the recurring advantage 1t is not good enough 10 presume that the actual
of a gain in airspeed, due to a reduction in parasite position of the landing-gear automatically corresponds
drag. For all practical applications, the ratio of the with the position of the "up-down" selector. An air­
advantage increases as airspeed increases. craft may be flown for miles while the pilot searches
An aircraft with its landing-gear retracted has a shal­ for the reason for poor performance, eventuaJJy to
lower glide angle than a similar aircraft with fixed find that the landing-gear is still extended due to a
landing-gear. For example, should a forced landing popped circuit breaker or a blown fuse. The landing­
become necessary, the gear may be left in the retracted gear position lights should be rechecked when power
position to gain glide distance and extended at the right is reduced for the climb or as part of the after take­
moment to reduce speed or increase the glide angle. off check. Nearly all systems incorporate an arrange­
Another distinct advantage of retractable landing­ ment of green lights to indicate that the gear is down
gear is that it extends the safe operating speed between and locked. Red lights warn that the landing-gear is
stalling and normal cruising speed. Tbjs gives you a unsafe and they remain on when the gear is not down
wider choice of speeds for fuel economy. and locked. During the training period, the landing­
Although there are aircraft with manually operated gear will most likely be lowered during the cockpit
landing-gear, most are operated hydraulically, electri­ check on the downwind leg prior to landing. However,
cally, or by a m.ixrure of both, with an emergency there may be advatages
n
to lowering it at a point more
method of extending the gear manually. Since the sys­ suitable to the operation. Therefore, it is important to
tems are remarkably trouble free, pilots are apt to set op a procedure and treat this as an independent
ignore the procedure for manually extending the land­ or additional check item, to be carried out on final
ing-gear, resulting in delay and confusion should a approach. The green and red gear position indicator
landing-gear emergency arise. It is good practice to lights in some aircraft are automatically dimmed when
allow a few seconds to review the procedure for man­ the position lights are switched on. This has caused
ual extension of landing-gear, as part of the pre-taxi more than one pilot to believe there was no "gear
geographical check of the cockpit. down" indication because the cockpit was not suffi­
When the outside air temperature is below freezing, ciently dark to show that the lights were on. Switching
refrain from splashfog through puddles of water or the position lights off momentarily will confirm that
 Type Conversion 201

the lights are functioning. lf a light does not illumi­ builders may or may not have developed flight perfor­
nate as expected, it may be burned out. Disconnect­ mance criteria for their particular aircraft.
ing a light that is functioning, and inserting it in the The majority of these aircraft are well built and are
place of the suspected defective light will remove meticulously maintained. However, because of the lack
all doubt. of standardized design, construction, and maintenance,
pilots should consider the fo!Jowing points before they
fly an amateur-built or ultra-light aeroplane:
General
1. Find an instructor or pilot experienced on the air­
The handling and performance characteristics of a craft you intend to fly. Each one has unique flight
complex aircraft may differ from those of a basic air­ characteristics. It is estimated that as many as half
craft as follows: the accidents involving ultra-light aeroplanes
involve pilots trained in certified aircraft. Finding
l . The take-off run may be longer. a pilot experienced in the aircraft you intend to fly
2. Greater torque and thrust may require coarser rud­ will save training time and could prevent an
der movements to keep the aircraft straight during
accident.
the initial stages of the take-off run.
2. Flight control inputs may dramatically differ from
3. It is more difficult to regain control if directional
what you are used to in a conventional aeroplane.
control is lost during the take-off run.
3. The ground handling characteristics may be
4. There may be poorer forward visibility in the
different than you expect.
climb attitude.
4. Instruments, if they are installed, may not look the
5. Climb wiU be faster, requiring more vigilance for same as they do in a conventional aeroplane.
slower aircraft ahead or in the vicinity of the air­
5. Automobile engines are sometimes utilized in
port traffic circuit.
amateur-built aeroplanes. Make yourself aware
6. Stalling speed is higher. of the engine type and its unique operating
7. The radius of a standard rate turn is usually larger.
characteristics.
8. The majority of complex aircraft have a low wing;
6. Two-stroke engines are also a possibility. Two char­
therefore, other aircraft at a lower altitude are
acteristics are worthy of note. First, carburettor
obscured at certain angles of vision.
heat is rare. Second, due to their design, two stroke
9. A substantial reduction in airspeed occurs when
engines do not have the built in redundancies of
the landing-gear is lowered.
certified aircraft engines. Therefore, engine per­
10. More foot pressure may be required to operate the
formance should be carefully monitored.
rudder of nose wheel aircraft when the landing­
7. Safety features built into certified aircraft may or
gear is lowered.
may not be incorporated into an amateur-built
11. The approach and landing speeds are higher.
aeroplane.
12. The combination of increased weight and higher
8. The stall characteristics of the aircraft may not
landing speed may lengthen the landing roll.
have been evaluated.
9. In an ultra-light aeroplane, the difference between
Amateur-built and Ultra-light Aeroplanes the stall speed and the normal climb speed may be
very small. If the engine fails during a climb, most
In the last decade there bas been an increase in the ultra-light aeroplanes will decelerate rapidly. Quick
number of amateur-built and ultra-light aeroplanes. recognition and reacti.on is crucial.
These aircraft are built from plans or kits developed 10. Some amateur-built aeroplanes may be authorized
by knowledgeable designers o.r engineers. However, for aerobatics. This is on the basis of an owner's
these aircraft have not been subjected to the rigorous declaration, not a flight test evaluation by an
flight test standards required for formal certification. experienced test piJot.
In the case of an amateur-built aeroplane, the original
builder bad to establish a limited performance envelope 1f you are a novice, seek out experienced advice so
during its first 25 hours of flight. Ultra-light aeroplane that your flight will be enjoyable and safe.
EXERCISE TWENTY-NINE

Emergency Procedures

Although aircraft today ar very afe, there are times ome typical em rg ncy ituation are discus ed in
when a malfunction could adv r ely affect the safety the following paragraphs.
of the flight. During y ur training you will learn the
pr per methods of dealing with th�se proble11;1s .
.
A emergencie r arely happ n in well-mamtamed
Engine Fires on the Ground
air raft, th ir occurrence i u ually unexpected. A
pit t who i not mentally prep red for an unfamiliar o t engine fire occur due to improper starting tech­
ituation, may take inappropriate a tioos to deal with oiqu often caused b lack of or non-adherenc �o a
th probl m Being prepared b ha ing a pre-dete�­ h k-Li t. Incorrect starting procedures for the time
mioed plan of action ill help ?� !Dake good dec1- of ear can also lead to ngine fires. For xampl
_
ion and al o reduce th po 1b1h of making a during cold,; eather a pilot may rprime an engine
di tra rion induced w r. Ther for; , it is important to
that refus to start. This acti n often leads to backfir­
peri dicaJI review standard m rgenc procedure in
ing , hich could caus a carburettor fire if !f1e engin
ur ircraft Flight aoual
d not start Overpriming i al o common m umm r
In aJmo t all ituations th aircraft will be capable
eatber here in many c little or no priming i
of ontrolled flight Ho e er th distraction, pre­
upation, and channelized att orion caused by an ���- . .
The procedures for dealing with an eogme fir on
mergen y or unu ual ent u h a a door windov
the round are u ually w II d tailed in the appropriat
or panel opening in flight may ignifi�tly degra�e
Air raft Flight Manual and hould be committed t
a pil t' control of the aircraft. Yi ur pnmary task 1
_ memory. Know the recommend d tarting procedures
to fly the aeroplane while you a e s and deal w1th
the manufacturers recommended drill for tarting
the problem.
problems and the step to ·� llow in case of an engine
ome emergencies require a fa t response. 1n these
fir .
ituation you must have the vital actions for the aer­
When the vital action for fire are complete
plane you are flying committed to �emory. �he
depending on the urgency f the ituation, you might
h ck-Ii t may be used t follow-up a llme penrut .
on ider using the radio t reque t as istance before
Tb em rgeocy procedur check-Ii tin mo�t Airc�aft
light aouals pro ide easy referen � �or mune�ate e acuating the aircraft. DO OT fly the aeroplane
correcti e action and foll \! -up. Ind c1 10n co llm aft.er th fire bas been e tingui hed as there may be
and in ome case tim may be crucial. internaJ damage of wnicb you are unaware. Ha e
any emergencies don t happen quieldy but are an ·r raft Maintenan e ngioeer in pect it b fore
th re ult of a eries of en . If th pilot i alert to flight
ubtl hange in a ituation lb hain of e en that
lead t an emergency may broken.
It i ery difficult during training to co er e ery Fires in Flight
emergency ituation that you might po ibl exp ri­
ence. Understanding the pcration of your aircraft' o t ircraft Flight anual include procedure t
t m will help you to cope with unu ual situation . f, llow in th ent of a fire in flight Very specific
B considering uch emergencies hile on �e pr cedure for engine cabin and wing fire are �m -
ground, you will be better pre ared if one occur 111 tim outlined eparately. The e should be com.nutt d
flight. to memory and review d p riodically.

202
 Emergency Procedures 203

Activation of the fire ex:tinguisber may become flight in conditions even remotely conducive to icing.
necessary to extinguish a cabin fire. It is worth a word Icing does not occur only in cloud. You could be
of warning that th.is may cause temporary oxygen flying well below the cloud base in relatively good
depletion in the closed space of a light aircraft cabin visibility and encounter freezing ra.in- The hazardous
or fill the cabin with a fine powder that restricts vis­ effects caused by ice accumulation on your aircraft in
ibility. The cabin should be ventilated immediately flight requires an immediate emergency response.
according to the manufacturer's instructions. Should an inadvertent encounter with icing occur,
ln rare instances fires occur that cannot be extin­ usually the best procedure is to note your heading and
guished; lb.is requires an immediate landing. rum 180 degrees to get back into clear air. Follow the
emergency procedures for icing outlined in the Air­
craft Flight Manual. In particular, you should ensure
Electrical Fire the pitot beat is on, if available, and get as much heat
as possible to the windshield. Inadvertent tught into
Modern aiTcraft rely more and more on electrical sys­ icing conditions can be most effectively avoided by
tems. Even light aircraft are not immune to electrical careful pre-flight planning and attention to existing
fires and most Aircrft a
Flight Manuals give clear pro­ and forecast weather conditions.
cedures on how to deal with this type of emergency.
The initial steps in most procedures call for turning
off the master or battery switch and the alternator or Carburettor Icing
generator switches. The purpose of th.is is to remove
all power to the systems to prevent further shorting Carburettor icing can seriously affect the safe opera­
whjle you attempt to identify and isolate the faulty sys­ tion of an aircraft. Its formation can be subtle, causing
tem or unit. lt is important that careful consideration a smooth, steady, power reduction: or it can be quite
be given to the effect that turning off these switches evident with rough running and rapid loss of power.
will have on lighting, communication, and navigation Carburettor icing may cause the engine to stop.
systems that you might be depending on at the time. Therefore, it is important that carburettor ice be
When attempting to isolate the canse of the fire, detected early. Being aware of the potential for carbu­
only tum on equipment that is absolutely necessary rettor icing on a particular day, watching and listening
and mm each item on one at a time with a significant for signs of engine power loss or roughness, and
waiting period between each item. Do not rush; with periodically applying carburettor beat are effective
electrical fires it often takes time for the malfunction­ ways to prevent serious carburettor icing.
ing electrical component to heat up and start smoul­ The procedures for using carburettor heat to pre­
dering again. vent and eliminate carburettor icing are outlined in the
Should the pilot turn the systems on too quickly appropriate Aircraft Flight Manual. It should be noted
and a burning smell is noticed, the tendency will be that the application of carburettor beat when carbu­
to tum off the last unit activated. That unit may not rettor ice is present may result in an increase in
be the one causing the fire. engine roughness and a further decrease in engine
If a circuit breaker has popped or a fuse bas blown RPM. This is normal and is caused by the melting ice
it is likely associated with the fire. The Aircraft Flight and water passing through the en.gine. Therefore,
Manual should be consulted before resetting a popped leave the carburettor heat on until the engine operation
circuit breaker or replacing a fuse. smooths out.
Some electrical fires generate a considerable amount
of acrid smoke. Should this occur, follow the Aircraft
Flight Manual's smoke removal procedures for a cabin Electrical Problems
fire.
Electrical fires can cause a high degree of anxiety Electrical power supply system malfunctions in most
and I.be isolation procedure can be time consuming. light aircraft fall under two categories. They are exces­
Remember, one of your primary concerns is to fly the sive rate of charge and insufficient rate of charge.
airplane. Do not become so distracted with procedures The onset of these malfunctions are silent and can
that you let a more serious situation develop. lead to an emergency if not immediately detected and
countered. Therefore, it is imperative that you monitor
Lhe electrical charging system continuously and sys­
Icing tematically throughout the flight.

VFR pilots should not be flying in icing conditions. Excessive rate of cbarge. If a sustained high battery
Extreme caution must be exercised when planning a charge is noted, a higher than normal voltage in the
204 Emergency Procedures

electrical system is possible. This can adversely affect in the cockpit. Therefore, pilots should carefully check
aircraft electrical components and may, if not dealt both the condition and security of all panel and door
with immediately, cause the battery to overheat and latches before flight to ensure they do not open on
evaporate the electrolyte at an excessive rate. The take-off or in flight.
appropriate checklist in your Aircraft Flight Manual Should a panel or door open on take-off or in flight,
will outline the procedures to follow for this type of in almost all situations the aircraft will be capable of
malfunction. controlled flight. However, during take-off or initial
climb when a pilot's workload is hrgh, the distraction,
Insufficient rate of charge. Some modern aircraft pre-occupation, and channelized attention caused by
have a warning light included as part of the electrical an inadvertent opening may significantly degrade a
system. When this light illuminates it acts as a warn­ pilot's control of the aircraft. Remember, your pri­
ing that there is a problem with the alternator and it mary task is to fly the aeropJane while you assess
bas been shut down. The battery is now no longer and deal with the problem.
being charged. If this occurs, follow the procedures as As the flight characteristics of aircraft with open
outlined in the Aircraft Flight Manual. Generally. they panels or doors vary by type, consult the Aircraft
include a shut-down of all unnecessary electrics to Flight Manual for specific guidance on handling of
conserve battery power. If the aircraft does not have inadvertent panel or door openings on take-off or in
a warning light, no charge or a discharge will be indi­ flight, and on door re-closing procedures.
cated on the ammeter. It is wise to inform the appro­
priate ATC unit of the problem in the event that radio
contact is lost.
Aircraft equipped with generators rely on relatively
high engine RPM for maximum output. Generator out­ Ditching
put should be checked during run-up to ensure an ade­
quate rate of charge. If a discharge is noted during The possibility of a single-engine landplane having to
flight, the same procedure as described in the para­ make an emergency landing in open water is remote.
graph above should be followed. However, should there be no other choice, follow the
procedures in the Aircraft Flight Manual. In the absence
of manufacturer's data, there are general procedures
Low Oil Pressure that may be applied.
Decide as early as possible that ditching is inevi­
Although an indication of low oil pressure may war­ table, so that power can be used to achieve a stabilized
rant immediate attention, shutting down an engine approach at minimum rate of descent and low airspeed
without further investigation could result in an unnec­ consistent with safe handling.
essary forced landing, or a forced landing into less Reports on slow, fixed-gear aircraft that have been
than favourable terrain. ditched indicate that the main gear tends to dig in
Trouble-shooting this problem should start by during the initial impact and prevents the aircraft from
checking the oil temperature. If the oil temperature skipping and subsequently striking the water in a
indication is steady and within limits the problem may stalled, nose-low attitude. The aircraft simply decel­
be a faulty oil pressure gauge. However, if oil tem­ erates rapidly and the nose burrows only slightly.
perature is rising, an engine failure may be imminent. However, because aircraft with retractable landing­
The specific procedures for dealing with low oil pres­ gear generally have higher landing speeds and are
sure in flight may vary, and it is important that the subject to greater deceleration forces, when able, the
appropriate Aircraft Flight Manual be consulted as ]anding-gear should be retracted.
soon as possible. Remember, a thorough pre-flight Low wing aircraft should be landed either with
inspection will usually prevent low oil pressure flaps retracted or extended only slightly. However, full
emergencies. flap should be used on high wing aircraft unless oth­
erwise specified in the Aircraft Flight Manual.
Consideration should be given to cracking the door
In-Flight Panel or Door Opening. and wedging it open or to opening the canopy to
reduce the possibility of jamming. Fasten seat-belts,
secure loose objects, and ensure that all equipment
Cabin and baggage door latches and panels on most needed for flotation and the prevention of hypothermia
light aircraft do not provide a conspicuous visual is available at hand.
indication that they are not properly secured, nor are Attempt to determine the wind speed and direction
such aircraft usually equipped with a warning device by observing the surface conditions. Waves generally
 Emergency Procedures 205

move downwind except close to the shoreline, but one wing touches the water before the other. Release
swell does not bear any relation to wind direction. seat-belts when certain the aircraft has stopped and
Wind lanes (streaks upon the water) may be apparent, evacuate the cabin as quickly as possible. If the doors
the streaked effect being more pronounced when look­ cannot be opened immediately, do not panic. It may
ing downwind. Gusts may ripple a smooth surface and be necessary for a considerable amount of water to
indicate the wind direction. From the air water appears enter the cabin before the pressure equalizes and the
to be calmer than it really is. If possible, fly low over doors can be opened. Unless it is badly damaged, the
the water and study its surface. When near the surface, aircraft wiU not sink immediately.
the aircraft's drift should give a good indication of
surface wind conditions and direction. Conclusion
Land into wind if the water is smooth, or smooth
with a very long swell. In some situations such as With a little care and planning many of the emergency
large waves or swell, or swells with short spacing, it situations mentioned can be prevented. Proper main­
may be advisable to land parallel to the swell and tenance of the aeroplane and a thorough pre-flight
across the wind. The danger of nosing into large waves inspection will go a long way toward reducing the
or swell is greater than the danger of landing cross­ chance of a problem. Knowledge of how your aircraft
wind. When ditching on a river, unless a strong wind systems work will give you an advantage when it
dictates otherwise the landing should be made down­ comes to making decisions concerning emergencies.
stream to reduce impact speed. Prevention is also enhanced by maintaining good sit­
Be prepared for a double impact. The second and uational awareness, managing the risks as things
greater impact will occur when the nose hits the water. change, avoiding hazardous attitudes, making sound
The aircraft may also swing violently to one side if decisions, and adhering to a check-list.
EXERCISE THIRTY

Radio Communication

Clear, concise, and accurate radio communication

between the pilot and a ground station is essential to
Clearance Delivery
flight safety. Use the Standard Radio Telephony pro­ Major airports often have a Clearance Delivery fre­
cedures and phraseologies outlined in the A.LP. Can­ quency assigned, which ATC uses to reduce radio con­
ada and in the Radiotelephone Operators Handbook. gestion on other channels. This frequency is used pri­
Pay close attention to all instructions and clearances marily by ATC to issue Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
issued from any Air Traffic Control unit to prevent clearances to aircraft on the ground. However, in some
misinterpretation and to ensure you receive and under­ cases at these airports aJJ departing aircraft are required
stand aU relevant information. When in doubt, request to make contact after receiving ATIS. Upon i.njtial
clarification. contact with CJearance Delivery the piJot should state
You may at first find that you are unable to under­ the aircraft type, registration and ATIS message code
stand many transmissions and the situational awareness received.
they impart but it wiJJ come together with experience. After Clearance Delivery bas responded to the ini­
One method used by instructors to develop a student's tial call the pilot's intentions should be stated. After
"ear" for transmissions is to have them listen to profes­ aJI the necessary information has been received by
sional pilots on a radio with an aircraft radio frequency both the pilot and controJJer, the pilot is usually told
band. It can also be used to receive airport information to contact ground control. The Clearance Delivery
on what i known as an ATI transmission. controller passes the information obtained to the next
controller to be contacted, normaUy ground controL
Consult the Canada Flight Supplement to deter­
mine if a call is required on Clearance Delivery and
Automatic Terminal Information the assigned frequency.
Service (ATIS)
ATJS is the continuous broadcasting of recorded info r­
mation for arriving and departing aircraft at major
Ground Control
airports. Its purpose is to improve controller effect­
ivenes and to relieve frequency congestion by repet­ At most controlled airports taxi clearance is normally
itive transmission of essential but routine information. received through contact with ground control. The
Ans for a particular airport is assigned a discrete VHF method of contact and information passing is described
frequency or may be beard over specified navigation in the A.LP. Canada. 1f lhere is no ATIS available, the
aid frequencies. ground controUer will ensure that all pertinent infor­
Each recording is identified by a phonetic alphabet mation is relayed to the pilot. The ground controller
code letter beginning with ' ALPHA," and as conditions is responsible for clearing the pilot to and from the
require a change in the mes age, subsequent letters active runway and that clearance often includes certain
of the alphabet are used. Once the ATIS message bas instructions that must be followed.
been heard, the pilot should inform the ATC unit on first Upon receipt of a normal taxi clearance a pilot
contact that the information has been received by is expected to proceed to the taxiway holding posi­
repeating the code word identifying the message. ATIS tion for the runway assigned for take-off. No further
frequencies are listed in the Canada Flight Supplement. clearance is required to cross any non-active runway

206
 Radio Communication 207

en route. However, un der no circumstances may a above instances, the pilot must read back the hold por­
pilot taxi onto an active runway unless specifically tion of the clearance.
cleared to do so. Should the ground controller require When "cleared for take-off:' the pilot shall
a pilot to request further clearance before crossing acknowledge, taxi onto the runway, and take off with­
or entering any taxiways or runways while en route out delay, or inform ATC if unable to do so. The tower
to the holding point, this will be stated in the taxi controller may ask if the pilot is ready for an imme­
instructions. diate take-off. This means that the pilot is expected
To assist in preventing active runway incursions, to 1axi onto the runway and take-off in one continuous
taxi instructions that contain the word HOLD shall be movement.
acknowledged by a read back of the bold point by the The pilot may have requested a specific altitude or
pilot. direction after take-off. It cannot be assumed that the
Examples of bold points that should be read back request will always be fulfiJled. The tower controUer
are: may issue different departure instructions than expected,
or alternate instructions any time after the aircraft has
HOLD or BOLD ON (runway number, taxiway); lifted off. The piJot must continuously monitor the
HOLD (direction) OF (runway number); and frequency in case there is a change.
HOLD SHORT OF (runway number, taxiway). IFR traffic may also be flying within th .e control
zone, but could be on other assigned frequencies. The
Furthermore, with the increased simultaneous use tower controller and IFR controllers communicate with
of more than one runway at many airports, instruc­ each other to ensure a smooth orderly flow of traffic;
tions to enter, cross, backtrack or Line-up on any runway however, pilots flying in the area may not be totally
should also be acknowledged by a read back. aware ofall potential conflicting traffic. Thus, the need
to keep a sharp look-out for other aircraft cannot be
overemphasized.
Once airborne the pilot, unless otherwise cleared to
Tower Control do so, is to remain on tower frequency until clear of
the vertical or horizontal boundaries of the control
Departing zone. Pilots must always monitor the tower frequency
when within a control zone as the controller may wish
The tower controller is responsible for the orderly to pass traffic information or issue instructions. Clear­
flow of traffic departing from and landing at airports, ances and instructions to other aircraft may also affect
as well as all VFR aircraft flying within the airport your flight. By keeping a good listening watch on the
control zone. frequency you maintain situational awareness, which
When ready for take-off, or when instructed to do assists in identifying potential traffic conflict.
so, the pilot should switch to the assigned tower fre­
quency. Often this frequency is very busy; therefore,
pilots must be very careful not to transmit until they Arriving
are certain that all other radio transmissions between
the tower controller and other aircraft are completed. When approaching an airport with the control tower
Do not request take-off clearance unti I all pre-take-off in operation, if available, pilots should obtain the ATIS
checks have been completed, because once the tower information well in advance. Ifpossible, the tower fre­
has given the clearance there should be no undue delay quency should also be selected earl.y. This procedure
taxiing onto the runway and taking off. ffpossible, the provides the information necessary for the pilot to plan
aircraft should be turned so that the approach may be the most expedient entry into the control zone. Before
scanned for other traffic. Even though the airport is entering the control zone, the pilot must contact the
controlled, the pilot still has a responsibility to ensure tower controUer and advise whether the intention is to
that there is no conflicting traffic when cleared to taxi land or proceed through the zone. A clearance must
onto the active runway. be obtained from the appropriate ATC unit prior to
After requesting take-off clearance, the pilot may entering a Class "B" or "C" control zone.
be told to BOLD due to traffic approaching or on the Should the intention be to land at the airport, the
runway. The aircraft must not proceed farther untiJ a pilot may eJ1..-pect the shortest routing to the runway in
new clearance has been received. use if traffic permits. Any necessry a
restrictions will
The pilot may also receive a clearance to "taxi to also be included in the clearance.
position and hold," which means that the aeroplane One such restriction is a holding over a geographic
may be ta,ded onto the runway and ljned up ready to location, or a VFR check point or call up point found
go, but must not take off until cleared. In both of the on the VFR Terminal Area Chart (VTA). Pilots are
208 Radio Communication

expected to do a left-band orbit with.in visual contact the pilot must then be prepared to hold, divert, or in
of the point and be prepared to proceed directly to the the case of weather perhaps request special VFR.
airport immediately upon receipt of further clearance.
If such a restriction is unacceptable, pilots should
inform the controller and state their intentions. Vectors
A clearance "to the circuit" by the controller means
the pilot is expected to join the circuit on the down­ During flight training you will become familiar with
wind leg at circuit height. Depending on the direction terms involving direction, such as magnetic heading,
of approach and the runway in use, it may be neces­ track, compass heading, etc. But when an ATC unit
sary to proceed cross-wind prior to joining the circuit requests that you fly on a certain heading, do not
on the downwind leg. become involved in any calculations; simply fly your
A clearance for a "straight in approach" authorizes aircraft on the requested beading as indicated by the
the pilot to join the circuit on the final leg without magnetic compass or the correctly set beading i. ndi­
having to fly any other portion of the circuit. cator. Most likely ATC is observing you on radar and
When established mid-downwind the pilot is to wi!J be providing guidance by manoeuvring the air­
advise the tower controller by calling downwind. At craft by means of vectors. (Vector, simply stated, is
this point the pilot may indicate the type of landing another way of saying heading.)
intended, such as a full stop or a touch and go, or
request "the option." If "cleared for the option," the
pilot may make a low approach, a touch and go, a stop Advisory Service (Uncontrolled Aerodromes)
and go, or a full stop landing. This procedure is usually
used when traffic is light. Civil aerodromes that do not have control towers are
Normally, the controller will initiate the landing called uncontrolled aerodromes. These sites may be
clearance when the aircraft is on final approach with­ operated by municipalities, corporations, individuals,
out having first received a request from the pilot. or Transport Canada. At many uncontrolled aero­
However, should this not occur, the onus is on the dromes Flight Service Stations (Fss) offer an advisory
pilot to request such clearance. A pilot must obtain a service to aircraft operating into and out of the aero­
landing clearance prior to landing. If it is not received, drome or in the area. Flight Service Stations may pro­
the pilot shaU, except in an emergency, overshoot and vide services to a remote aerodrome through a Remote
make another circuit. As well, for various reasons, Aerodrome Advisory Service (RAAS). A departing
such as traffic still on the runway, the pilot may be aircraft initiating a call to a Flight Service Station
told to "pull up and go around:' ShouJd the pilot decide might receive the following reply:
that an overshoot is necessary, the tower controller
should be advised as soon as possible. GOLF CRARLLE VICTOR HOTEL / TIMMINS RADIO /
After landing, the tower controller may issue WIND 040 AT 10 / ALTIMETER 3011 / WIND JS
instructions to exit the runway, but the controller does FAVOURJNG RUNWAY 03 / Affi ONTARIO FLIGHT 166
not usually expect an acknowledgement from a pilot REPORTS ON APPROACH TO RUNWAY 03 / NO OTHER
who is still busy with the landing roll. If no instruc­ REPORTED TRAFFIC / TAXJ AND TAKE OFF AT YOUR
tions are received, the pilot is expected to continue to DJSCRETION.
taxi in the landing direction to the nearest suitable
taxiway and exit without delay. Normally the aircraft As a Flight Service Station does not exercise control
should be taxied forward to a point at least 200 feet of air traffic, an aircraft receiving the above message
from the runway or across the hold line before coming is free to taxi and take-off provided correct radio pro­
to a stop. When off tbe active runway, taxi instructions cedures are followed and no traffic conflict exists.
will be given by the ground controller. Transport Canada has designated a Mandatory Fre­
quency for use at selected uncontrolled aerodromes,
normally those served by Flight Service Stations,
Transiting a Control Zone Remote Flight Service Stations and Community Aer­
odrome Radio Stations. Some airports that are uncon­
Pilots who intend to transit a control zone should trolled at times when the control towers are closed are
follow the initial procedures for arriving aircraft and also assigned a Mandatory Frequency. Aircraft oper­
state their intentions. The controller may then provide ating on the ground or in the air within the area in
altitude and routing instructions or vectors to fly and which a Mandatory Frequency has been designated
local tra ffic information. In some instances, such as must be equipped with a functioning radio capable of
heavy traffic or poor weather, or both, entry to a con­ maintaining two-way communication.
trol zone may be refused. Depending on the reason, The Mandatory Frequency wi1. 1 normally be the
 Radio Communication 209

frequency of the ground station that provides the More information concerning the use of Mandatory
advisory services for the aerodrome. The specific and Aerodrome Traffic Frequencies can be found in
frequency, distance, and altitude within which the the A.LP. Canada.
pilot must comply with Mandatory Frequency proce­
dures is published in the Canada Flight Supplement.
An Aerodrome Traffic Frequency is usually des­ VHF Direction Finding System (voF)
ignated for active uncontrolled aerodromes that do not
meet the criteria for a Mandatory Frequency. The Aer­ A pilot who is unsure of the aircraft's position and is
odrome Traffic Frequency is established to ensure that able to contact a VHFIDF equipped control tower or
all radio-equipped aircraft operating on the ground or FSS, on frequencies listed in the Canada Flight Sup­
within a specified area use a common frequency and plement, may be provided with headings to reach the
follow common reporting procedures. The Aerodrome VDF site. This site is normally located on or near an
Traffic Frequency is normally that of the ground sta­ airport. The pilot may also obtain a bearing from the
tion where one exists or 123.2 MHz where a ground VDF site, track out assistance, and an estimated time or
station does not exist. The specific frequency, dis­ distance from the site. As well, a fix may be obtained
tance, and altitude within which use of the Aerodrome when used in conjunction with another VDF site, a
Traffic Frequency is required is also published in the voR radial, or a bearing from an NDB. Details of this
Canada Flight Supplement. service are outlined in the A.I.P. Canada.
Epilogue

The preceding pages of this manual have outlined responsibility. Keep an open mind, and do not be
background knowledge and techniques that have been afraid _to ask questions or question the validity of ideas
formulated through the years by the learning experi­ that have been accepted for many years as being gos­
ences of others. It is impossible to put in print solu­ pel. Only a questioning mind will find more effective
tions to every possible situation that might arise, but solutions to problems and record information that can
the common sense application of the messages that be passed on to future generations of pilots by means
this manual has tried to transmit should leave you well of manuals such as this. Those of us who have put
prepared to face the world of aviation. Receipt of a this manual together are fully aware of the respon­
new licence or rating is an acknowledgement that you sibility we bear and appreciate the opportunity we
have reached a certain level of competency and have been provided to pass on to you, the reader, the
knowledge - you now have a licence to learn. Exer­ lessons learned from thousands of hours of collective
cise the new privileges you have earned with care and experience as flight instructors.

210