UNIT 3

Module Title: Cell 3

Nominal Duration: 8 hours

This unit covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes required in

understanding the Cell Cycle and Transport Mechanisms.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this module, you MUST be able to:
1. characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points
Explain sex linkage and recombination.
2. describe the stages of mitosis/meiosis given 2n=6.
3. discuss crossing over and recombination in meiosis.
4. explain the significance or applications of mitosis/meiosis.
5. identify disorders and diseases that result from the malfunction of
the cell during the cell cycle.
6. describe the structural components of the cell membrane.
7. relate the structure and composition of the cell membrane to its
function.
8. explain transport mechanisms in cells (diffusion osmosis, facilitated
transport, active transport).
9. differentiate exocytosis and endocytosis.

General Biology 1: CELL CYCLE (Mitosis and Meiosis)

CELL/CELLULAR CYCLE
 It is a very strict process in which checkpoints are present at each stage.
 Many regulatory proteins such as cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinase and other
molecules mediate the regulation.
 This highly regulated process seeks to ensure the copying of DNA down to the last
nucleotide before cell division.
 Along with reproduction, they are dependent on the signal, which addresses the
organism’s needs such as multiplication, growth, repair and development.
 It is also needed by organisms for the formation of gametic cells that are essential
for reproduction.
 It is divided into four major phases: G1, S, G2 (Interphase [non-dividing phase]) and
M (Mitotic phase [dividing phase]) phase.

METABOLIC ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT IN EACH PHASE OF THE CELL CYCLE:

o G1 (Growth Phase 1)
 The cell grows fast along with the execution of its routine metabolic
process which is the synthesis of proteins and organelles needed for
cell division.
 The cell normally spends most of its life in this phase.
o S (Synthesis Phase)
 The cell’s DNA is being copied faithfully through the process of DNA
replication, which involves many regulatory proteins.
o G2 (Growth Phase 2)
 The cell makes final preparations before its division.
 Example: it makes additional proteins and organelles.
 o M (Mitotic Phase)
 The cell will undergo prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
o G0 (Resting Phase)
 The state in which the cell leaves the cell cycle.
 This phase can be temporary or permanent.
 Example: A neuron which has lost its capability to divide as it has
achieved the highest differentiation state.

CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS

They are important regulatory requirements before the cell cycle continues.
Each checkpoint plays a crucial/critical role to ensure normal cell physiology.

3 RECOGNIZED CHECKPOINTS
o G1 or Cell Growth Checkpoint
 Where the checking occurs towards the end of G1 phase.
 It makes surveillance if the cell is large enough and has made the
required protein for the synthesis phase.
o G2/DNA Synthesis Checkpoint
 The checking occurs near the end of G2 phase.
 The cell’s DNA is being checked for the correct replication down
to the last nucleotide.
 Once passed the cell will proceed to mitosis.
o Mitosis Checkpoint
 The final checkpoint before division.
 Occurs during mitosis to make sure that the cell has already
completed the mitotic process.
 If the requirement is fulfilled the cell divides and cell cycle
repeats.
 THE CELL CYCLE REGULATORS
Cell Cycle Regulators are proteins that function to detect and repair DNA
damage and prevent rapid uncontrolled cell division. The regulations are
dependent also on signaling relay of the cell.

THE REGULATORY MOLECULES

 Cyclins
o They are regulatory subunits that do not have a catalytic
function.
o The cell synthesis during the cell cycle.
 Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK)
o It is a catalyctic subunit that becomes active only when
cyclin is bound to it.
o The binding of CDKs and cyclins function together to
phosphorylate and stimulate or deactivate target molecule
in the succeeding steps of the cell cycle.
Note:
Specific types of cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinases and cyclin
combination determine specific target molecule (protein).

CHROMOSOMES
They are threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of
most living cells. They carry the genetic information of the organism in the form of genes.

Chromatid(s) – a strand of replicated chromosome. The number of chromatids is used in

identifying the number of DNA molecule.
Centromere(s) – it is a specialized DNA sequence that links a pair of sister chromatids (a
dyad). The number of centromeres is used in identifying the number of chromosomes.
2 TYPES OF CELL DIVISION (IN HIGHER LIVING ORGANISMS)
 Mitosis – the normal process of somatic or body cell division from the cleavage
stage up to the death of an organism.
 Meiosis – a special type of cell division that gives rise to gametes (sex cells: sperm
and ovum). It is not a cell cycle in itself.

Somatic cells (undergoes Mitosis): Gametes (undergoes Meiosis):

MITOSIS
 The resulting chromosome number is Diploid (2n) or have two copies.
 Number of daughter cells produced at the end of the process: 2
 Genetic composition of daughter cells: Genetically identical
 Takes place in body/somatic cells
 Only one cell division
 Synapses are absent on the chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
 Relevant mechanism of tissue repair and replacement of dead or damaged cells.
 Function: growth, tissue repair or replenishment and development or continues
physiological cycle
 Stages involved: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase (mnemonics:
PMAT)
 The presence of checkpoints is a highly significant parameter that prevents
deleterious consequences of unregulated cell division.
STAGES OF MITOSIS
1. Prophase (Pro = before) – condensation of chromatids into chromosomes
 Upon the permission of the M cell cycle
checkpoint, cell division will proceed to prophase.
 During this stage, the nuclear membrane
disintegrates
 Chromatin condenses into distinct
chromosomes (two chromatids joined by a
centromere)
 Development of bipolar spindles (not fully
developed) which are necessary for chromosome
migration. These mitotic spindles are the asters.

1.1 Prometaphase
 This stage is when the nuclear envelope fully dissolves.
 The chromosome starts to migrate at the equatorial plane
 chromatids become distinct

2. Metaphase (M = middle) – alignment of chromosomes at the equatorial plate

 The chromosomes (fully condensed) move
randomly until they attached to the spindle and
aligned at the equatorial metaphase plate.
 The centrioles align on opposite poles and the
polar fibers extend to the middle or center of the cell

3. Anaphase (A = away) – splitting of chromosomes

 The centromere splits
 The two chromatids of each chromosome
migrate toward opposite poles.
 The rest of the spindle fibers that were not
connected to chromatids lengthen and elongate
the cell.
 Both poles will contain a complete set of
chromosomes at the end of this stage.
 4. Telophase (T = two) – nuclear membrane reappears and cytoplasmic division
begins
 The chromosomes reach the opposite poles
 The nuclear membrane reappears
 Nucleolus and chromosomes start to
decondense
 Degeneration of spindle fiber
 Cytoplasmic division (Cytokinesis) begins.
 This stage is the exact opposite of Prophase

Mnemonics: PMAT
P – PROPHASE (Pro = before; it is the start of the stage)
M – METAPHASE (M = middle; chromosomes align at the middle)
A – ANAPHASE (A = away; sister chromatids are pulled away from each other)
T – TELOPHASE (T = two; two nuclei are formed at this stage)

Karyokinesis (Karyon = nucleus; Kinesis = movement or activity) – it is the process by which

the nucleus divides before cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis (Cyto = cytoplasm; Kinesis = movement or activity) – it is the actual division of the
cytoplasm that marks the production of two identical
cells. Mostly occurs after Telophase.

CANCER
 It is a multifactorial disease
 It is the consequence of unregulated cell division.
 The chromosomal constituent of cancer cells is heterogeneous, which is a result of
improper genetic segregation.

Some of the Various Types of Existing Cancer (Current)

 Lung cancer
 Melanoma (skin cancer)
 Liver cancer
 Breast cancer
 Bladder cancer
 Colorectal cancer
 Lymphoma - Non-Hodgkin
 Oral and Oropharyngeal cancer
 Pancreatic cancer
 Prostate cancer
 Thyroid cancer
 Uterine cancer
 Brain cancer
MEIOSIS
 The resulting chromosome number is Haploid (n) or only has one copy.
 Number of daughter cells produced at the end of the process: 4
 Genetic composition of daughter cells: Genetically different
 Takes place in germinal/sex cells
 Two cell divisions
 Synapses are absent on the chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
 Necessary for the production of gametes
 It reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid origin to haploid products.
 It occurs in the maturation of an organism due to physiological changes such as
hormone concentration gradient and other signaling molecules.
 Unlike Mitosis, it requires two cell division before it produces a functionally
differentiated cell called gametes.
 It is a Reduction Division. In humans it starts with a 46 chromosomes cell that ends
with a 23 chromosomes product.
 Chromosomal exchange is significant because it allows unique genetic material
to transfer to the offspring which leads to more unique and diverse individuals,
genotypically and phenotypically.

Primordial cells – are the origin of sex cells, which undergo repetitive mitosis before its
readiness to differentiate as sex cells.

STAGES OF MEIOSIS

THE FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION (Meiosis 1): Reduction Division

1. Prophase 1
 The nucleus and nuclear membrane
starts to disintegrate
 Chromosomes are already distinct, with
sister chromatids fused together by a
centromere.
 Synapsis or the pairing of homologous
chromosomes happens on this stage. The two
homologous chromosomes come from paternal
and maternal genetic material.
 Tetrad or the four sister chromatids from
the pair of chromosomes are visible in this
stage.
 Crossing over of genetic material
between non-sister chromatids occur in this
stage.
 Chiasmata is the point of crossing over,
resulting in the genetic variability of sex cells.
2. Metaphase 1
 The tetrads line up at the equatorial
plane (metaphase plate) of the cell along
with an increase in the number of spindle
fibers.
 The spindle fibers facilitate this
movement as it attaches into a kinetochore.

3. Anaphase 1
 The homologous chromosomes migrate
toward each pole.
 Half of the total chromosome number
will move to one pole and another half to
the other pole.

4. Telophase 1
 The daughter cells completely divide
with an equal amount of chromosomes
along with the reappearance of the nuclei.
 The chromosomes grow less visible.

5. Cytokinesis 1
 The cell membrane divides. Thus,
creating 2 daughter cells.
 6. Interkinesis 1
 It is the shortest pause before entry to Meiosis 2.
 There is no DNA replication during this stage, unlike Interphase.

At the end of Meiosis 1 in Humans

THE SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION (Meiosis 2)

1. Prophase 2
 The nucleus disintegrates again and
chromosomes shortens and becomes thicker just
like what happened in Prophase 1.
 The spindle fiber arranges and elongates, the
centrioles move toward opposite poles.

2. Metaphase 2
 The spindle fibers from opposite poles bind to
two kinetochores of every centromere.
 The chromosomes migrate to a new
equatorial plate.

3. Anaphase 2
 The centromere separate, permitting
microtubules to attach to the kinetochore
for chromatid migration toward opposite
poles.
 Upon movement toward opposite
poles, the sister chromatids are now call
sister chromosomes.
 4. Telophase 2
 The chromosomes starts to uncoil and
lengthen
 The spindle fibers disappears
 Reformation of the nuclear envelope
and cleavage furrow occurs in this stage.
 This produces two haploid cells.
 The total number of daughter cells
produced is four (all haploid) from the two
cells produced in Meiosis 1 that progressed
to Meiosis 2.

5. Cytokinesis 2
 Cell membrane once again divides like
Cytokinesis 1 which results to 4 daughter
cells.

At the end of Meiosis 2 in Humans

Note:
For the ovum/egg cells, after every Meiosis, only 1 daughter cell out of the 4 product
daughter cells can be fertilized or used in reproduction while the other 3 are polar bodies (small
haploid cell that does not have the ability to be fertilized).
For the sperm, all daughter cells produced after every Meiosis are viable for fertilization.
Syndromes Associated with Numerical Chromosomal Abnormalities
The most common syndromes are due to variation in chromosomal number.
Major classes of chromosomal aberrations are the following:
 Polyploidy – a condition in which a normally diploid cell or organism acquires
one or more additional sets of chromosomes.
 Mixoploidy – a condition where in two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploidy,
co-exist in a single organism.
 Aneuploidy – a condition where there is an extra or missing chromosome and
is a common cause of some genetic disorders.

Some Consequences of chromosomal segregation during Meiosis

CHROMOSOMAL SPECIFIC CHROMOSOMES CONSEQUENCE/S
ABERRATIONS INVOLVED

Polyploidy: Triploidy 69, XXX, XXY XYY Does not always survive

Nullisomy

Aneuploidy (missing both pairs of Lethal

homologs)

Monosomy

(one chromosome is Pre-implantation lethal

missing)
Autosomes
Trisomy  Trisomy 13 (Patau
Syndrome)
(one extra chromosome)  Trisomy 21 (Down
Syndrome)
 Trisomy 18 (Edward
Syndrome)
 Relatively minor
problems with
normal life span
 Turner Syndrome –
99% Abortive:
survivors have
normal intelligence
but infertile and
Sex chromosomes XXX,XXY,XYY
show minor physical
signs.
Amitosis – it is another type of cellular reproduction different from mitosis.
 It is the mode of reproduction of bacteria,
yeast, and unicellular animals.
 Binary Fission and Budding are forms of asexual
reproduction

Binary Fission
 Mode of reproduction for most
prokaryotes.
 Takes place as soon as the cell
achieves having duplicated circular
chromosomes, the required cell size,
among others.
 The cell elongated and
separates into two cells.
 Septum – the partition between
two cells
 The daughter cells pinch off after
the cell membrane and cell wall goes
toward opposing direction.
 Once the cell divides into two daughter cells, the cell grows again, and the
cycle repeats.

Reproduction via Endospore and Germination

 Some species of bacteria,
particularly gram-positive
organisms, produce specila
ultrastructure called endospore.
 In response to stressful conditions
such as heat, sporulation produces
endospores as a survival structure.
 This internal asymmetric division
results to endospores that develop
into forespore, with further
modification to become a mature
spore.
 The destruction of the cell via cell
lysis release the endospore, which
germinated to become a new
vegetative cell as long as the
environment is favorable.
 Budding
 It is a form of asexual
reproduction in which a new organism
grows and develops from a bud that
resulted from a cell division at one
particular site.
 The bud starts small, grows as it
produces on one side, matures and then
leaves behind a scar membrane.
 Fungi particularly yeast, some
bacteria, and lower forms of animals
reproduce through budding.

General Biology 1: TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

Transport Mechanism
It is very important in the cellular level because it accommodates the needs of
the cell in the form of ions, nutrients, and other molecules. The cell carries this out with
or without the use of energy in the form of ATP.

2 Types of Cellular Transport:

 Passive Transport – does not require energy
 Active transport - requires energy in the form of ATP.

The cell accomplishes this transport via the cell membrane depending on the
molecules or chemicals carried. The transport mechanism can be carried in the form
of simple diffusion, exocytosis, endocytosis, movement with the use of ion channels, or
active transport.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 It is an energy-independent mechanism of the cell, allowing small molecules
to enter into it without energy consumption.
 Usually, the basis of movement is through concentration gradient.
 Examples: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and plasmolysis

Simple Diffusion
 Only the cell membrane is required for small molecule movement.
 The cell membrane is semi-permeable due to its amphipathic nature, as it
contains both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.
 Common molecules that freely pass the cell membrane via diffusion:
carbon dioxide, water and oxygen.
 It cannot accommodate charged molecules or ions and large molecules
such as nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and large lipids.
 It is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to
an area with less concentration.
 Concentration gradient – it is the difference between the area with
greater concentration and lesser concentration.
 Diffusion is always from the area with high particle concentration to low
particle concentration.
 Dynamic Equilibrium – it is the end of diffusion and is the attainment of
equilibrium wherein the concentration of particles on both sides of the
membrane is the same.
Facilitated Diffusion
 Also known as assisted diffusion
 Transmembrane proteins are required
 Transmembrane proteins act as a carrier of some molecules and ions
(e.g., glucose, Na Ions and Cl ions) which cannot enter the cell via
diffusion.
 The main difference with Simple Diffusion is that in Facilitated Diffusion it
requires a specific carrier.

Osmosis
 A type of diffusion
 It is the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable
membrane from the side or area where water is greater in concentration
to where it is less concentrated.
 It is the mechanism by which the water moves through a membrane from
the side with lower solute concentration to the side with higher solute
concentration.
 Equal amounts of solute on both sides of the membrane attain dynamic
equilibrium.
 Change in solute concentration at the cellular level, either outside or
inside the cell, mediates osmosis.
 Factors that affect the rate of osmosis: Temperature, size of molecules,
and the permeability of the membrane
 The solute concentration defines the differences of solutions. It can be:
o Isotonic solution – the concentration is equal inside and outside
the cell. Physiologically, subjecting cells into this type of solution will
not change the cell structure, size and shape.
o Hypotonic solution – has a lower concentration of solute outside
than inside the cell. Physiologically, cells subjected into this type of
solution will undergo swelling or could even burst. For red blood
cells, this kind of solution might be fatal as hemolysis could occur.
o Hypertonic solution – a solution with higher concentration of
solutes outside the cell. Physiologically, subjecting cells into this
type of solution will lead to crenation (shrinkage or plasmolysis in
the case of a plant cell).

Osmotic pressure in RBC

Plasmolysis
 It is the process in which cell loses water when exposed in a hypertonic
solution
 In plant cells, change in osmotic pressure affects the rigidity of the cell.
 Hypertonic solution results plasmolysis in a plant cell while in animal cells it
causes shrinkage.
 Due to plant cells having cell wall, instead of complete shrinkage, the
plasma membrane will just detach from the cell wall.
 Unlike an animal cell that requires isotonic solution, a plant cell requires a
hypotonic solution to maintain rigidity of its structure,

Plant cell in varying environmental solute concentration

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 It is the way by which the substance enters and goes out of the cell
against a concentration gradient.
 The activity against the concentration gradient will not be possible
without the use of energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
 Another requirement is a protein transversely located in the plasma
membrane called active transport pumps.
 The role of ATP is to phosphorylate the active transport pump to
facilitate the entry of ions and other molecules.
 Some of the best examples of active transport pumps are the
potassium (K+) pumps and sodium (Na+) pumps, which are strictly
required for the proper functioning of the nerves and muscles.
 Substances such as vitamins, amino acids, and hydrogen ions enter
the cell through this type of transport.

Vascular and Bulk Transport

 Transports huge quantity (bulk) of substances required in and out
of the cell.
 It also requires ATP for its mechanism to take place.
 2 Types of Vesicular Transport:
o Endocytosis
o Exocytosis

Endocytosis
 Moves a large quantity of substances into the cell from the
extracellular fluid.
 The 2 known form of Endocytosis:
o Pinocytosis (cell drinking) - responsible for bulk liquid
transport
o Phagocytosis (cell-eating) - responsible for solid bulk
transport into the cell.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis - Another form of
Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis that requires a surface
receptor to allow entry of materials into the cell.

Phagocytosis
 Starts when solid particles encounter the cell
membrane.
 Upon contact, a bud-like projection called
pseudopods will surround and eventually enclose
the solid particle in a phagocytic vesicle.
 This vesicle pinches off from the cell
membrane and moves into the cell.
 The lysosome will then process the vesicle via
its digestive enzyme to digest particles.
 An example of a cell that usually uses this
mechanism of transport is a macrophage (white
blood cell) that engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis to
remove them from the bloodstream and other
tissues.

Pinocytosis
 Occurs when the cell membrane engulfs liquid
to form a pinocytic vesicle.
 The process of vesicle formation is almost the
same with phagocytosis.
 Best example of this is the entry of cholesterol
into the cell by a special pinocytosis called
receptor-mediated pinocytosis. In this case,
cholesterol attaches to a receptor on the external
surface of the membrane that initiates the vesicle
formation.

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
 A phagocytic process relies upon the
interaction of the substance that tries to enter the
cell and the cell surface receptor.
 This is the usual mechanism that some
metabolites, hormones, other proteins, and viruses
gain entry into the cell.
 Exocytosis
 It is the process by which the cell moves out a bulk quantity
of materials out of the cell, which is the reverse of
endocytosis.
 This process is applicable to the transport of hormones,
enzymes, and other important polypeptides out of the cell.
 The transported proteins, such as hormones, are of
significance to the endocrine and other cell signaling
mechanism.

__________________________________End of Module 3___________________________________