The document discusses different types of digital voltmeters including dual-slope integrating DVMs and potentiometric integrating voltmeters. A dual-slope DVM works by integrating the input voltage for a set time, then integrating a reference voltage for a second time period until the slopes are equal. This provides high accuracy. A potentiometric integrating voltmeter uses a voltage-to-frequency converter to generate pulses proportional to the input voltage, which are counted and compared to a DAC output to measure the voltage. Digital multimeters can measure voltage, resistance, current and have resolutions determined by their number of digits.
The document discusses different types of digital voltmeters including dual-slope integrating DVMs and potentiometric integrating voltmeters. A dual-slope DVM works by integrating the input voltage for a set time, then integrating a reference voltage for a second time period until the slopes are equal. This provides high accuracy. A potentiometric integrating voltmeter uses a voltage-to-frequency converter to generate pulses proportional to the input voltage, which are counted and compared to a DAC output to measure the voltage. Digital multimeters can measure voltage, resistance, current and have resolutions determined by their number of digits.
The document discusses different types of digital voltmeters including dual-slope integrating DVMs and potentiometric integrating voltmeters. A dual-slope DVM works by integrating the input voltage for a set time, then integrating a reference voltage for a second time period until the slopes are equal. This provides high accuracy. A potentiometric integrating voltmeter uses a voltage-to-frequency converter to generate pulses proportional to the input voltage, which are counted and compared to a DAC output to measure the voltage. Digital multimeters can measure voltage, resistance, current and have resolutions determined by their number of digits.
The document discusses different types of digital voltmeters including dual-slope integrating DVMs and potentiometric integrating voltmeters. A dual-slope DVM works by integrating the input voltage for a set time, then integrating a reference voltage for a second time period until the slopes are equal. This provides high accuracy. A potentiometric integrating voltmeter uses a voltage-to-frequency converter to generate pulses proportional to the input voltage, which are counted and compared to a DAC output to measure the voltage. Digital multimeters can measure voltage, resistance, current and have resolutions determined by their number of digits.
5 Dual-slope DVM: Features • Accuracy is high as it does not depend on R and C but depends only on the ratios • Clock should be stable ,so that the freq doesn’t change from up ramp to down ramp • Capable of rejecting noise in the input voltage due to the positive and negative slopes • Low cost • Relatively slow 6 POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING VOLTMETER
7 POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING VOLTMETER •Each measurement is composed of two separate and distinct sample periods.
•In the first sample period the D/A
converter o/p is zero and the I/P to the V/I converter is the input signal to be measured. 8 POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING VOLTMETER • The current flows in the I/F converter which generates a train of pulses. • The repetition frequency of pulses i.e. the number of the pulses generated is proportional to the instantaneous value of the input voltage. 9 POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING VOLTMETER • These pulses are fed to the 100s decade of the reversible counter
• The counter stops counting when
there are no pulses generated by the I/F converter.
10 POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING VOLTMETER •The counter O/P is given to the D/A converter and also retained in the counter.
•The D/A converter O/P should be
equal to exactly the count in the counter. 11 POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING VOLTMETER The I/P to the V/I converter is the difference in the I/P voltage and o/p of D/A converter.
This difference is not zero due the
errors in the voltage to frequency conversion. 12 POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING VOLTMETER • Now the second sample period begins….
• The difference voltage acts as the I/P to the V/F
converter which generates the number of pulses proportional to it.
13 POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING VOLTMETER •These are fed to the 1s decade of the counter and the carry pulse if any is fed to the 100s decade.
•At the end of the of the second
sample period the information is transferred to the front panel readout. 14 POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING VOLTMETER • Accuracy depends on the A/D converter and the reference voltage.
• Integrating capability of V/F rejects the noise
superimposed on the input signal.
15 16 DIGITAL MULTIMETER • DC VOLTAGE
• AC VOLTAGE
• RESISTANCE
• CURRENT PARAMETERS • Resolution: No. of the digits used in the display determines the resolution • n=No. of the full digits,
• Resolution=1/10 to the power n
19 PARAMETERS • Eg.3 ½ DMM would have Three full digits from 0 to 9 and one half digit that can display either 0 or 1
• can display positive or negative no.s
from 0 to 1999
20 Resolution • Find the resolution of a 4 1/2 DMM for 1v and 100v FSR.
21 CATHODE RAY TUBE
• One pair of plates is control the
Electron Gun • Heat is supplied to the cathode by High Positive Voltage • An accelerating. CATHODE RAY TUBE •Electron gun assembly •Deflection plate assembly •Fluorescent screen •Glass envelope •Base • Heater: heats the cathode
• Cathode: nickel cylinder coated with an
oxide coating of barium and strontium and emits plenty of electrons when heated.
• Control grid :metal cylinder with a small
hole to allow passage of electrons. Grid is negative w.r. to cathode, INTENSITY Preaccelerating anode: hollow cylinder in shape ,few hundred volts more positive than cathode accelerates the electron beam in the electric field
Focusing anode : cylindrical, focuses
the beam in a particular direction towards the screen:FOCUS • postaccelerating anode: cylindrical ,gives final energy to the beam before it strikes the screen DEFLECTION PLATES • HDP : deflects the beam in the horizontal direction Spot centre equal and opposite voltages applied to both horizontal plates • Xshift: varies the voltage between the plates and moves the spot in the horizontal direction •VDP : deflects the beam in the vertical direction Spot centre equal and opposite voltages applied to both vertical plates •Yshift: varies the voltage between the plates and moves the spot in the vertical direction CRO BLOCK DIAGRAM CRT CONTROL CIRCUITS CRT CONTROL CIRCUITS • Astigmatism. Adjustment of this control gives a sharp focus over the entire screen. This control is affected by varying the potential of deflection plates and accelerating anodes. DELAY LINES LUMPED PARAMETER DELAY LINE • Consists of number of cascaded symmetrical LC sections called T N/Ws capable of delaying signal by 3 to 6 nsec LUMPED PARAMETER DELAY LINE • T section acts as a low pass filter with the cut off frequency of
• If the frequency of the input signal is less than the cut off frequency then the output will be a proper replica of the input signal but delayed by time
• N …no. of delay elements
Total delay = DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER DELAY LINE ADVANTAGES • Does not require careful adjustment as lumped parameter delay line
• Requires less space.
TIME BASE CIRCUITS • Continuous sweep CRO TIME BASE CIRCUITS • Vo, Voltage across the capacitor is the sawtooth voltage to be generated
• Initially Vo<Vp, Vp is the peak voltage required
to trigger the UJT
• UJT OFF, C charges towards VBB
• When Vo=Vp, UJT’s emitter to base diode becomes forward biased and the UJT fires and the capacitor discharges through UJT
• Again Vo falls below Vp and the UJT turns
OFF,C charges and the cycle repeats TIME BASE CIRCUITS TIME BASE CIRCUITS •CT ->variation, changes the range •RT->continuous control of frequency within a range •Sync pulse->for synchronizing the sweep frequency to the input signal frequency CLASSIFICATION OF CRO • Beam deflection method :electrostatic, electromagnetic
• Presence or absence of acceleration
between the deflection plates and phosphor target: Mono accelerator, post accelerator CLASSIFICATION OF CRO • deflection plate design: Parallel plate, bent plate, segmented plate • Number of independent electron beams Single, dual, multiple
• No. of traces Dual trace, multitrace CRO BLOCK DIAGRAM DUAL BEAM CRO • Two separate Vertical deflection systems, VDPs • single horizontal deflection system and HDP. • Sweep voltage is same for both hence two signals should be harmonically related to each other. DUAL BEAM CRO Techniques to generate two electron beams in a single CRT •Double gun tube •Split beam tube •Two apertures in the last anode MULTITRACE OR DUAL TRACE CRO MULTITRACE OR DUAL TRACE CRO •Single set of VDP and HDP •Single beam is split into two by an electronic switch •Switch operates in two modes •ALTERNATE and CHOP MODE DUAL TRACE CRO:ALT MODE • Switch connects to one of the inputs in each sweep cycle, • Switch operates at the same rate as sweep signal • Adds a different dc component to each such that the signals from both channels are displayed at the different positions on the screen DUAL TRACE CRO:CHOP MODE DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE • Stores the signal which can then be displayed to the user.
• The storage scope can be used to analyse non-
repeating signals and signal glitches. DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE • A DSO uses digital memory to store a waveform. DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE • Preamplifier :Amplifies the input signal such that it falls within the range of the ADC and the trigger detector circuit.
• Trigger detector circuit: When the amplitude of
the input reaches the level set by the trigger detector circuit ,the recording of the data starts • Eg. 5mv amplified to 5v DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE
•The ADC samples the output of the pre amp
at regular intervals and the digital output from the ADC is then stored in consecutive locations in the memory.
•When the memory is full the recording is
stopped. DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE • The Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC) continuously scans through the recording producing a repeating analogue signal representing the contents of the memory, which is sent to the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) for display.
• This is required because the CRT image will fade away
if not continuously refreshed DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE The maximum Length of the recording depends on two factors • The memory size • The number of the samples which depends on the sampling frequency CRO PROBES •PASSIVE PROBES: 1X,10X
•ACTIVE PROBES
•CURRENT PROBES DIRECT PROBES:1X probes 1X PROBE • NO ATTENUATION OF THE SIGNAL
• SUITABLE FOR LOW FREQUENCY APPLNS
• OFFERS SAME INPUT IMPEDANCE AS IN CRO (1MOHMS)
10X probes: •HIGH FREQUENCY APPLNS 10X PROBES Current probes ACTIVE PROBE • To couple VERY high frequency, fast rise time signals to the CRO input
• High input impedance, less attenuation
• Diodes, FETs, BJTs
• More bulky and expensive than passive probes
ACTIVE PROBE ACTIVE PROBE • FET amplifies the input signal
• FET follower circuit has unity voltage
gain but provides a power gain so that the input impedance can be increased.
