children

Review
Neurodevelopmental Outcomes of Pregnancies Resulting from
Assisted Reproduction: A Review of the Literature
Paraskevas Perros, Alexandros Psarris * , Panagiotis Antsaklis, Marianna Theodora, Michael Syndos,
Antonios Koutras , Thomas Ntounis, Zaharias Fasoulakis , Alexandros Rodolakis and Georgios Daskalakis

1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, “Alexandra” General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, 11526 Athens, Greece
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The term infertility is defined as the lack of conception within 1 year of unprotected inter-
course. It affects more than 80 million individuals worldwide. It is estimated that 10-15% of couples of
reproductive age are challenged by reproductive issues. Assisted reproduction techniques (ART) are
responsible for more than 4% of live births. Our aim is to review the research on neurodevelopmental
outcomes of newborns born after the implementation of assisted reproduction methods compared
to those conceived naturally. We conducted a comprehensive search of the PubMed, Crossref and
Google Scholar electronic databases for related articles up to June 2022 using the PRISMA guidelines.
Our research revealed a large number of long term follow-up studies between 2 and 18 years of
age, with comparable developmental outcomes. Many studies compared the effects of different
infertility treatments against natural conception. The review of the literature revealed that ART
is safe, as the majority of studies showed no effect on the neurodevelopmental outcomes of the
offspring. In most cases when such an effect was observed, it could be attributed to confounding
Citation: Perros, P.; Psarris, A.;
factors such as subfertility, multiple pregnancies and gestational age at delivery. Finally, the increase
Antsaklis, P.; Theodora, M.; Syndos,
in the prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders after ART, as described in studies with statistically
M.; Koutras, A.; Ntounis, T.;
Fasoulakis, Z.; Rodolakis, A.;
significant results, is predominantly marginal, and given the low incidence of neurodevelopmental
Daskalakis, G. Neurodevelopmental disorders in the general population, its clinical significance is debatable.
Outcomes of Pregnancies Resulting
from Assisted Reproduction: A Keywords: assisted reproduction techniques (ART); neurodevelopment disorders; mental health;
Review of the Literature. Children fertility treatments; assisted conception; natural conception (NC); in vitro fertilization (IVF); verbal
2022, 9, 1511. https://doi.org/ ability; autism spectrum disorders (ASD); intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)
10.3390/children9101511

Academic Editor: Elizabeth Asztalos

Received: 5 August 2022 1. Introduction

Accepted: 29 September 2022
The term infertility is defined as the lack of conception within 1 year of unprotected
Published: 3 October 2022
intercourse [1]. It affects more than 80 million individuals worldwide [1]. It is estimated
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral that 10–15% of couples of reproductive age are challenged by reproductive issues [1]. These
with regard to jurisdictional claims in couples resort to assisted reproduction technology to achieve their reproductive goals.
published maps and institutional affil- Assisted reproduction techniques (ART) are responsible for more than 4% of live births [2].
iations. Concurrently, the number of oocyte donation (OD) treatment cycles performed every year
in Europe and the US has reached 50,000 [3].
Assisted reproduction techniques have been associated with an increase in the preva-
lence of fetal morbidities such as increased blood pressure [4,5], metabolic disorders [6]
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
and reproductive tract anomalies such as hypospadias [7]. Furthermore, it has been shown
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
that among singleton pregnancies, adverse perinatal outcomes, including preterm delivery,
This article is an open access article
placenta previa, low birth weight infants and a decreased incidence of spontaneous cephalic
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
delivery are more common in individuals conceived with ART procedures regardless of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
the type of procedure used [8]. Multiple studies have suggested that the contribution of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ maternal factors associated with infertility to the adverse outcomes may be more impor-
4.0/). tant than the ART procedures themselves [8–12]. The results from multiple pregnancies

Children 2022, 9, 1511. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9101511 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/children

Children 2022, 9, 1511 2 of 17

are similar [13]. However, multiple gestations have been shown to have worse neonatal
outcomes compared to singleton pregnancies [13].This has resulted in a move towards the
transfer of a single embryo (SET), aiming to minimize the perinatal risks associated with
children born after ART.
When evaluating the effects of ART, we must keep in mind the heterogeneity of proce-
dures utilized to treat infertility. Assisted reproduction techniques incorporate a variety
of infertility treatments aiming to achieve conception such as artificial insemination, in-
trauterine insemination, ovulation induction, in vitro fertilization, intracytoplasmic sperm
injection, cryopreservation of gametes and embryos and oocyte donation. It is evident that
due to the great number of different procedures there is an increased number of possible
associations to be evaluated.
The aim of this review is to amass the research on the neurodevelopmental outcomes
of newborns conceived with the use of assisted reproduction methods and compare it with
newborns conceived naturally. Assisted reproduction techniques have been associated
with an increase in the prevalence of fetal morbidities [4–7] and adverse perinatal out-
comes. Hence, it is of the upmost importance to evaluate whether the neurodevelopmental
outcomes of children born after ART are affected in comparison with children conceived
naturally. In this review we will summarize all the latest data and evaluate the possi-
ble association of neurodevelopmental disorders with the different methods of assisted
reproduction.

2. Materials and Methods

This review was planned, organized, and developed following the Preferred Re-
porting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines
(Figure 1) [14]. We conducted a comprehensive search of the PubMed, Crossref and Google
Scholar electronic databases for articles up to June 2022, using the search terms assisted re-
production techniques (ART), neurodevelopment disorders, neurodevelopment outcomes,
mental health, verbal ability, autism spectrum disorders (ASD), and cerebral palsy (CP) in
conjunction with fertility treatments, assisted conception, natural conception (NC), in vitro
fertilization (IVF), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), frozen embryo and vitrified
oocytes. Titles, summaries, and abstracts of all identified studies were checked for study
design, type of association and outcome. The full text of relevant articles was carefully read
and analyzed. Narrative and systematic reviews were excluded from our review, while
cohort studies, case control studies and clinical trials were included in our study.
ldren 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Children 2022, 9, 1511 3 of 17

Figure 1. Flowchart of the selection of the included studies.

Figure 1. Flowchart of the selection of the included studies.

3. Results
Given the variability of Assisted Reproduction Technologies used in current practice,
3. Results to present the results comparing the neurodevelopmental outcomes of ART vs.
we elected
natural conception in general and then analyze specific aspects of ART such as intracyto-
Given
plasmic theinjection
sperm variability
(ICSI),of Assisted
which has beenReproduction Technologies
the focus of a lot of used
research in the past fewin curre
weyears.
elected to present
Furthermore, the results
we compared the comparing the neurodevelopmental
incidence of autism in offspring born via natural outcome
conception versus ART. All the studies analyzed below are also available in Table 1.
natural conception in general and then analyze specific aspects of ART such a
plasmic sperm injection (ICSI), which has been the focus of a lot of research
few years. Furthermore, we compared the incidence of autism in offspring bor
ral conception versus ART. All the studies analyzed below are also available i

Table 1. Overview of studies on the neurodevelopmental outcomes of infants conceive

sisted reproduction techniques versus naturally conceived children.
Country/Re- Assisted concep- Neurodevelopmental Follow-up
Study Design Duration Sample Size Results
gion tion outcomes (years)
Control
Art
Group
Mortality &
Αge no differ-
ence
Children 2022, 9, 1511 4 of 17

Table 1. Overview of studies on the neurodevelopmental outcomes of infants conceived via assisted reproduction techniques versus naturally conceived children.

Neurodeve-
Assisted Follow-Up
Study Country/Region Design Duration Sample Size lopmental Results Cofounders
Conception (Years)
Outcomes
Art Control Group
Mortality & Age no
difference
Higher rate of functional
Developmental disability singletons
Population-
Abdel-Latif New South Wale Delay born by IVF born at
based Gestational Age
et al., Australian 1998–2004 IVF 217 1256 Cerebral palsy 2–3 22-26w (aOR 1.79, 95%
retrospective Multiple birth
2013 [15] Capital Territory Deafness CI 1.05 to 3.05, p = 0.03)
cohort study
Blindness but not at 27–28w (aOR
0.81, 95% CI 0.37 to 1.77;
p = 0.59) than those
after SC.
Maternal age
Agarwal Prospective
Tertiary care Prospective Sex
et al., 13 months ICSI 76 261 register based 2 No risk
perinatal centre cohort study Gestational age
2005 [16] cohort study
parity
ALL
TECHNIQUES
Integrated
Stimulation
Research
(n = 53)
Balayla Network in Cognitive scores
Prospective UI (n = 79) No significant difference
et al., perinatology of 2010–2012 278 2088 Motor scores 0–2
Cohort Study IVF (n = 32) (p > 0.05)
2017 [17] Quebec and Language score
ICSI (n = 105)
Eastern Ontario
In vitro
(Canada)
maturation
(n = 9)
Intelligence
Neurodeve-
Bay et al., (md: 0.6 95% CI: 2.2–3.4)
Denmark Follow-up 2003–2008 All 205 1577 lopmental 0–5
2014 [18] Overall attention (0.1,
assessment
95% CI: 0.2–0.4)
Statistically significant
Maternal age
Prospective increase in mental
Bay et al., Mental Smoke
Denmark Register Based 1995–2003 All 33139 555828 8–17 disorders after ovulation
2013 [19] disorders Psychiatric history
Cohort study induction (1.20, 1.11 to
Educational level
1.31;absolute risk 4.1%)
Children 2022, 9, 1511 5 of 17

Table 1. Cont.

Neurodeve-
Assisted Follow-Up
Study Country/Region Design Duration Sample Size lopmental Results Cofounders
Conception (Years)
Outcomes
Prospective ART (n = 96) Cognitive Sociodemographic
Carson
United population Induced development- No significant Factors
et al., 2000–2002 All Techniques 11873 3&5
Kingdom based cohort Ovulation verbal difference Multiple
2011 [20]
study (I = 167) ability pregnancy
Social life
Smoke
Massachusetts 10147 (ART) No significant
Diop et al., longitudinal Maternal age
Taiwan 2004–2013 All 8072 441898 ASD 0–3 difference
2019 [21] cohort study Prenatal care
California (subfertile) (p < 0.05)
Chronic hypertension
diabetes
Developmental
coordination-
Short Sensory
Farhi et al., Follow-up profileAutism- No significant
Israel All 358 401 7–8
2021 [22] Study Attention- difference
deficit
hyperactive
disorder
Fountain Demographic
Observation 48865 (ART) No increased risk for
et al., California 1997–2007 All 59262251 ASD Adverse prenatal &
cohort study 32922 (IVF) ASD after ART
2015 [23] perinatal outcomes
Goldsmith
Western No significant Gestational Age
et al., Cohort study 1994–2002 All 2914 208746 Cerebral pulsy 0–5
Australia difference Multiple birth
2018 [24]
Multiple Birth
Ivf
Hvidtjørn Maternal Age
Population (14991—2.5%) 33.139 HRR 1.45 (95% CI:
et al., Denmark 1995–2003 588.967 Cerebral palsy 5–13 Parity
based follow-up OI (5.6%) 0.96–2.19).
2010 [25] Birthweight
(18148—3.1%)
Smoke
Multiple Births
Smoke
9w: no difference Gestational AgeLow
Husen et al., Embryonic brain
Rotterdam Cohort Study IVFICSI 50 116 9w & 11w 11w: slightly larger at Birth weightPreterm
2021 [26] development
ART embryos BirthHypertensive
DisordersCongenital
Anomalies
Children 2022, 9, 1511 6 of 17

Table 1. Cont.

Neurodeve-
Assisted Follow-Up
Study Country/Region Design Duration Sample Size lopmental Results Cofounders
Conception (Years)
Outcomes
No significant Sex
Jenabi et al., Case control association between IVF History of preterm
IRAN AlL 100 (ASD) 200 ASD 2–10
2020 [27] study and ASDs (OR): 0.9, 95% birth
(CI): 0.7–1.3 Maternal age
Iranian
Kermani Premature
Assisted Developmental No significant difference
et al., Case control All Techniques 400 420 0–9 months Multiple
reproduction Assessment (p > 0.05)
2011 [28] pregnancy
center
Knoester Leiden Not concerned:
83 ICSI
et al., university Follow-up 1996–1999 ICSI 86 IQ score 5–8 Lower at Art Small sample
83 IVF
2008 [29] medical center Parents IQ
No significant
association was found
Lehti et al.,
Finland Control study 1991–2005 ALL 4164 (autistic) 16582 ASD 0–16 between IVF and ASDs
2013 [30]
(OR: 0.9, 95%), (CI:
0.7–1.3)
Gestational age
Leslie et al., ICSI 84 IVF Developmental
Australian Cohort study 80 1&5 No significant difference Twins
2003 [31] IVF 89 ICI disorders
Educational level
Cognitive
Leunens
Abilities Maternal Age
et al., Belgium Follow-Up ICSI 109 90 0–10 No risk
Motor Need of ICU
2008 [32]
Development
Neurodevelo-
pmental health
Ludwig Prospective (motor skills,
Tertiary care No significant difference
et al., control ICSI 276 273 emotional 5.5
perinatal centre (p < 0.05)
2009 [33] single-blinded behavioral
development,
intelligence)
Lung et al., 744 (ART) No increased risk for
Taiwan Cohort study ALL 20095 ASD 0–5.5
2018 [34] 415 (ASD) ASD after ART
Children 2022, 9, 1511 7 of 17

Table 1. Cont.

Neurodeve-
Assisted Follow-Up
Study Country/Region Design Duration Sample Size lopmental Results Cofounders
Conception (Years)
Outcomes
no difference in RR of
preterm birth (0.96
(0.88–1.03)), very
preterm birth (0.86 Age
Maheshwari Fresh vs. Frozen (0.70–1.05)), and Parity
Retrospective
et al., UK 1991–2011 embryo 16521 95911 Birth weight 0 congenital anomalies Year of treatment
Cohort Study
2016 [35] (IVF, ICSI) (0.86 (0.73–1.01)) Duration of
RR of having a high treatment
birth weight baby was
higher (1.64 (1.53–1.76))
on frozen
Ovarian
Ovarian Hyper- Gestational Age
Middelburg hyper/tion
Prospective 3/2005- stimulation Neurological 4, 10 & 18 Demographic
et al., Groningen (n = 68) 90 No significant difference
cohort study 12/2006 IVF Condition months Factors
2009 [36] Natural cycle
ICSI Maternal Age
(I = 57)
Ovarian
Netherland Gestational Age
Middelburg hyperstimula-
University Prospective 3/2005- IVF Neuromotor Demographic
et al., tion (n = 68) 540 0–3 months No significant difference
Medical Center Cohort Study 12/2006 ICSI Development Factors
2010 [37] Natural cycle
Groningen Maternal Age
(n = 57)
Place & Prospective Psychomotor
4/1998- ICSI ICSI (n = 66) Gestational Age
Englert, Brussels longitudinal 59 Intellectual 0–5 No significant difference
3/2020 IVF IVF (n = 52) Birth Weight
2003 [12] study Development
Ponjaert- Psychological
Belgium Gender
Kristoffersen Multicentre outcomes No significant difference
Sweden ICSI 300 260 0–5 Maternal age
et al., control study cognitive (p < 0.05)
USA Gestational age
2004 [38] abilities
Father’s age
Mental health
Punamäki Mother’s parity
Prospective IVF 164 IVF Social
et al., Finland 278 7–8 No significant difference Gestational age
Follow-up study ICSI 76 ICSI Cognitive
2016 [9] Need of Intensive
abilities
Care Unit
Swedish Autism
Sandin et al., Prospective 30,959
National Health 1982–2007 All techniques 2.5 M Mental 0–10 No difference Multiple Birth
2013 [39] Cohort Study (1.2%)
Archive retardation
Children 2022, 9, 1511 8 of 17

Table 1. Cont.

Neurodeve-
Assisted Follow-Up
Study Country/Region Design Duration Sample Size lopmental Results Cofounders
Conception (Years)
Outcomes
Hyper/tion
IVF (n = 66)
Schendelaar IVF (Hyper/tion Natural cycle Neurodeve- Perinatal
et al., Groningen Cohort study & IVF (n = 56) 101 lopmental 0–2 No significant difference outcomes
2011 [2] Natural cycle) Subfertile-no assessment Social factors
IVF (n = 87)

Neurodeve-
lopmental
Sutcliffe Retrospective disorders Maternal age
No significant difference
et al., Austalia vs. UK case-control ICSI 58 & 208 (UK) 38 & 221 (UK) perinatal 15 months Sex
(p < 0.05)
2003 [40] study outcomes Social class
congenital
abilities
Neurodeve-
lopmental
Sutcliffe disorders Maternal age
Case-Control No significant difference
et al., UK ICSI 208 221 perinatal 17 months Sex
study (p < 0.05)
2001 [41] outcomes Social class
congenital
abilities
Takeshige All born Mental &
et al., Japan Follow-up 2000–2020 ICSI 116 (national Physical 0–6 No significant difference
2021 [42] average) development
Wagenaar Attention
Case control
et al., German All 139 143 Visual-motor 9–18(mean: 13.5) No significant difference
study
2009 [43] function
Population- Neurodeve- Male sex
Wang et al., Taipei Medical
based cohort 2004–2016 ICSI 737 23148 lopmental 3–5 No Risk Intensive care
2021 [44] University
study disorders unit admission
Children 2022, 9, 1511 9 of 17

Table 1. Cont.

Neurodeve-
Assisted Follow-Up
Study Country/Region Design Duration Sample Size lopmental Results Cofounders
Conception (Years)
Outcomes
Fine motor
Gross motor
IVF
Communication
Ovarian No significant difference
Yeung et al., Prospective Personal-social Multiple birth
New York State 2008–2010 induction 1830 4011 0–3 (aOR, 1.33; 95% CI,
2016 [45] Cohort Study functionality Birth weight
Intrauterine 0.94–1.89)
Problem-
insemination
Solving
Ability
Aalborg- 1984–1987
Zhu et al., Behavioral
Odense, Aarhus, Cohort study 1990–1992 all 7–21 No significant difference
2011 [46] problems
Danish National 1996–2002
ART: assisted reproduction techniques; IVF: in-vitro fertilization; UI: uterine insemination; ICSI: Intracytoplasmic sperm injection; ASD: autism spectrum disease; NC: natural conception;
SC: subsequent conception; IQ: intelligence quotient; OR: odds ratio; aOR: advanced odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; RR: relative risk; ICU: intensive care unit.
Children 2022, 9, 1511 10 of 17

3.1. ART versus Natural Conception

There are a lot of studies that have evaluated the neurodevelopmental outcomes of
offspring conceived by ART vs. children conceived naturally. A very important prospective
cohort study conducted by the Integrated Research Network in Perinatology of Quebec and
Eastern Ontario in Canada compared cognitive, motor, and language neurodevelopmental
outcomes between ART and natural conception groups at 24 months of age [17]. This
study recruited 2366 pregnant women, of whom 278 conceived with ART between 2010 to
2012. This study, also known as the 3D-Study (Découvrir, Développer, Devenir), revealed
no difference in cognitive scores, composite motor scores and language scores during the
neurodevelopmental assessment at the age of 2 years old. Furthermore, no difference
was observed when independent ART techniques were compared nor when comparing
in vivo (ovarian stimulation or intrauterine insemination) or in vitro (in vitro fertilization,
intracytoplasmic sperm injection, or in vitro maturation) techniques [17].
Another very important population-based, prospective cohort study was conducted
using the Swedish national health archive [39]. This study included children born between
1982 and 2007 and followed for a clinical diagnosis of autistic disorder or mental retardation
until the end of 2009 [39]. Out of more than 2.5 million infants born, 30.959 (1.2%) were
conceived by ART, and they were followed up for a mean of ten years. There was no
statistically significant association for either outcome after restricting analysis to singleton
pregnancies [39].
Two studies from Denmark, with data from 1995 to 2003 and 2003 to 2008, respectively,
compared IQ scores and selective or sustained attention scores between children con-
ceived via ART and children born after natural conception [18,25]. These studies included
588,967 children (33,139 ART) and 1782 children (205 infertility group & 1577 sponta-
neously) respectively [18,25]. No statistically different outcomes were documented after
correcting for confounding factors such as birthweight, maternal age and parity.
Two smaller cohort studies evaluated the effects of ovarian stimulation on the neu-
rodevelopmental outcomes of offspring. The Groningen ART cohort study which included
a total of 254 children (66 ovarian stimulation/IVF, 87 natural conception-subfertile and
101 reference group) and the Netherland prospective cohort study which included a total of
665 singletons (68 after controlled ovarian stimulation-IVF/ICSI, 57 natural cycle-IVF/ICSI,
90 naturally conceived singletons of subfertile couples and 450 control group) both con-
cluded that the neurological outcome is not influenced by ovarian hyperstimulation [2,36].
The New York prospective cohort study included 5841 children (1830 ART & 2074 twins)
through 36 months of age [46]. It analyzed five developmental domains (fine motor, gross
motor, communication, personal-social functioning, and problem-solving ability), as mea-
sured by the parental completion of the Ages and Stages Questionnaires at 4, 8, 12, 18,
24, 30, and 36 months of age [46]. The study indicated that infertility treatment was not
associated with an increased risk of the children failing in any developmental domain after
excluding multiple deliveries [46].
Finally, a case control study from an Iranian Assisted Reproduction Center, which
included 400 children conceived via ART and 420 controls conceived naturally, compared
the neurodevelopmental status at 9 months old [28]. This study revealed no difference in
the neurodevelopmental status at nine months between naturally conceived children and
children born with ART.
It is apparent that in the absence of confounding factors, the literature overwhelmingly
shows that the neurodevelopmental outcomes of children born after infertility treatment
are on par with the neurodevelopmental outcomes of naturally conceived offspring.

3.2. Long-Term Follow Up

For the most part, studies that compare the neurodevelopmental outcomes of children
born with ART vs. naturally conceived offspring focus in the first three years of life.
However, given that several mental disorders are diagnosed later in life, it is important to
Children 2022, 9, 1511 11 of 17

assess the neurodevelopmental outcome of children during the first two decades of their
life [20,47].
Zhu et al, utilized data from three population-based birth cohorts (the Aalborg-Odense
Birth Cohort, the Aarhus Birth Cohort, and the Danish National Birth Cohort) from Den-
mark to compare the incidence of behavioral problems in children born to fertile and
infertile couples [20]. The children studied were between the ages of 7 and 21 years. No
statistically significant difference was detected regarding behavioral problems regardless
of the presence of infertility and the infertility treatment used [20].
Another large population-based cohort study from the United Kingdom investigated
the possible influence of infertility treatment to the cognitive development of offspring at
the ages of 3 and 5 [42]. It included 18.818 children and concluded that neither subfertility
nor ART adversely affected children’s cognitive development at ages 3 and 5 [42].
Similarly, other smaller studies observed no statistically significant differences in
the neurological outcomes after long-term follow up of offspring conceived via ART vs.
children conceived naturally. Takeshige et al. compared neurological outcomes of off-
spring conceived from vitrified oocytes after ICSI with the national average data from
Japan at regular intervals between three months and six years of age [22]. No statistically
significant differences were observed regarding the neurological outcomes [22]. Punamaki
et al. prospectively followed up 255 singleton children born after ART (164 IVF/76 ICSI)
and compared their cognitive development and mental health at the age of 7–8 years
old with 278 naturally conceived children without detecting any statistically significant
differences [9]. Wagenar et al. compared 139 adolescents born after IVF with 143 control
adolescents regarding attention, information processing and visual-motor function, and
did not detect any statistically significant differences [43]. A recent study from Farhi et al.
compared different neurodevelopmental measures of children conceived by ART (n = 358)
compared to spontaneously conceived offspring (n = 401), concluding that there is no
statistically significant difference between the two groups [22]. Finally, Bay et al. conducted
a prospective register-based cohort study in Denmark and included all the children born in
Denmark between 1995 and 2003, with follow-up in 2012 when they were aged between
8 and 17 years old [19]. The numbers of the children studied were 33,139 conceived after
fertility treatment and 555,828 after spontaneous conception. Conversely to the previously
mentioned studies, the study from Denmark revealed a statistically significant increase
in mental disorders in offspring born after ovulation induction/intrauterine insemination
(iui) compared to naturally conceived offspring [19]. However, the same was not true
about in vitro fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) in the same
population [19]. No specific type of hormone drug treatment was related to the higher risk
of mental disorders [19].

3.3. ICSI vs. Natural Conception

The term intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is used to describe the assisted
reproductive method that involves choosing a single sperm cell and injecting it manually
into the ovum [48].
There are a lot of studies evaluating the neurodevelopmental outcomes of children born
after ICSI in comparison either with natural conception or other assisted reproduction tech-
niques. The majority of both cohort [16,26,31,38,39,42,44] and case control studies [40,41] are in
accordance with the notion that children conceived via ICSI are not at higher risk of mental
disorders.
One of the largest population-based cohort studies was conducted by the Taipei
Medical University between 2004 and 2016 [44]. It included 23,885 children, (23,148 born
after natural conception and 737 after ICSI) and concluded that there is no difference in
the risk of developing neurodevelopmental disorders among the two groups [44]. On par
with the previous study, a prospective cohort study conducted by Agarwal et al. compared
the neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years of age between 76 offspring conceived via
Children 2022, 9, 1511 12 of 17

ICSI and 261 matched controls, and concluded that neurodevelopmental and functional
outcomes were similar in both groups [16].
A study conducted by Ponjaert-Kristoffersen et al. matched three hundred singleton
children conceived via ICSI with spontaneously conceived controls from Belgium, Sweden,
and the USA [38]. They compared their psychological well-being and cognitive develop-
ment at the age of 5 and concluded that there was no statistically significant difference
between the two groups [38]. A cohort study conducted in Australia included 89 children
born after ICSI, 84 born after IVF and 80 conceived naturally [31]. The results of this study
suggest that children conceived using ICSI do not have an increased risk of delayed mental
development at 5 years of age [31].
Ludwig et al. conducted a prospective controlled single-blinded study to assess
the neurodevelopmental health of children born after ICSI [33]. The study included
276 children born after ICSI and 273 naturally conceived singletons at 5.5 years old [33].
The results showed no difference regarding neurologic examination, motor skills, emo-
tional/behavioral development, and intelligence [33]. Similarly, Sutcliffe et al. compared
the outcomes of 208 children conceived via ICSI with 221 naturally conceived children
at 17 months old. As with previously mentioned studies, no significant difference was
detected regarding the neurodevelopmental ability of children conceived after ICSI vs.
children conceived naturally [41]. A smaller study from the same lead author of a cohort of
Australian children yielded the same results [40].
A small number of studies have associated ICSI with poorer neurodevelopmental
outcomes of the offspring. However, most of these studies have included a very small
number of patients and have neglected to account for confounding factors.
The study by Sandin et al. included a very large number of patients (2.5 million,
30.959 of whom born after ART) and followed them for a considerable amount of time
(10 years) [39]. However, initial results showing an increase in the prevalence of mental
retardation and autistic disorder in children born after ART were swiftly dismissed when
restricting the analysis to singleton pregnancies [39]. As for the effects of ICSI on the devel-
opment of offspring, after adjusting for singleton pregnancies, a statistically significantly
association of ICSI with mental retardation was observed [39]. However, there are certain
limitations one needs to consider in order to properly interpret these results. Firstly, the
prevalence of mental retardation is very low, and the risk associated with the procedure is
very small. Secondly, important confounding factors such as parental socioeconomic status
were not evaluated during the analysis. Hence, the results of this study must be interpreted
carefully.
Knoester et al. conducted a study of singletons born between June and December 1996
at Leiden University Medical Center aged between 5 and 8 years old [29]. The researchers
compared the IQ scores of 252 infants (83 born after ICSI, 83 born after IVF and 86 sponta-
neously conceived), and found that cognitive development was lower among singletons
born after ICSI compared to the other two categories [29]. Although the results seem
alarming, one has to consider the limited sample size, possible selection bias, unavailable
parental IQ scores, and lack of clinical significance of the mean difference in IQ, which was
between 3 and 7 points [29].

3.4. Autism Spectrum Disorders and ART

An aspect of the neurodevelopmental outcome of children which has come under a
lot of attention in recent years is autism. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological
and developmental disorder that affects the way people interact, communicate with others,
learn, and behave [49]. It is important to investigate if offspring after ART are at an
increased risk of autism spectrum disorders compared to those conceived naturally.
There are a few case-control studies that claim no association between autism spectrum
disorders and ART. One study was conducted in Finland and studied 4164 cases with autism
and 16,582 matched controls born in 1991–2005 [30]. Another study was conducted in Iran,
and it included 100 cases with ASD and 200 controls between 2 and 10 years of age [27].
Children 2022, 9, 1511 13 of 17

Larger studies, which reached the same conclusions, were conducted in Massachusetts,
Taiwan, and California. The Massachusetts study included 10,147 children born after ART,
8072 offspring born from subfertile couples without the use of assisted reproduction and
441,898 children born from fertile couples and concluded that compared to children born to
fertile women, children born to ART, ICSI, or IVF, or subfertile women are not at increased
risk of receiving an ASD diagnosis [21]. The Taiwan Birth Cohort Study, using a national
birth cohort dataset, reached the same conclusion regarding the lack of association between
ART and ASD [34]. An observational cohort study from California studied all 5,926,251 live
births from 1997 to 2007 and revealed no association between ART and ASD, while adjusting
for possible confounding factors [23]. Another large population-based prospective cohort
study using the Swedish national health registers from 1982 to 2007 showed no association
between ART and ASD overall, while other possible associations between ASD and specific
techniques such as ICSI were not statistically significant when the analysis was restricted
to singleton pregnancies [39]. Finally, a prospective cohort study based on data from the
Danish National Health Register which included all children born alive between 1995 and
2003 showed a comparable risk for ASD between children conceived naturally and children
born after IVF or ICSI [19]. A marginal but statistically significant association was noted
between induced ovulation and intrauterine insemination and ASD, which was not the
case with any other study [19].
After reviewing all available research on the possible association between ART and
ASD, the overwhelming majority of data support the absence of association. Hence,
development of ASD should not be a concern for couples resorting to ART, as no association
has been documented for the majority of ART techniques. However, since a possible mild
association was noted in one of the published studies, further evaluation is warranted to
determine the validity of the association between ovulation induction/iui and ASD.

4. Discussion
This review summarizes the existing literature on the neurodevelopmental outcomes
in offspring born after ART compared to those conceived naturally. Despite the initial
perception that there is an association between ART and neurodevelopmental disorders,
the elimination of confounding factors results in a lack of such an association in the majority
of studies.
When discussing neurodevelopmental outcomes, it is of great importance to analyze
long-term outcomes. Several studies have looked into long-term neurodevelopmental
outcomes of children born after ART. Long-term outcomes include comparisons of neu-
rodevelopmental outcomes not only during early childhood but for the first two decades
of their life [9,20,22,29,42,43,45,46]. None of the studies showed a greater risk of mental
disorders for children born from ART, with the exception of a follow-up study from Den-
mark that showed a low but statistically significant risk of mental disorders after ovulation
induction [19].
ICSI, being based on the non-natural selection of sperm, came under a lot of research
regarding offspring outcomes. Recent data suggest that children born after ICSI do not
have an increased risk of developing mental disorders [16,26,32,38–42,44]. However, two
studies [38,44] observed a higher incidence of mental and psychological disorders in male
offspring born after ICSI, and one study suggested a possible relationship between ICSI
and mental retardation [39].
The majority of the studies that reported a possible association between ART and
neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring did not take into account multiple gestation,
maternal age, prematurity, birthweight, socioeconomic and health lifestyle differences.
One of the most important contributors to poor neurodevelopmental outcomes is multiple
gestation [23,25,35,45]. In many cases, limiting the analysis to singleton pregnancies dimin-
ishes any previously occurring statistically significant differences [45]. Furthermore, apart
from multiple gestations, subfertility factors such as maternal age and paternal infertility
have been associated with poorer neurodevelopmental outcomes in offspring [39]. Both
Children 2022, 9, 1511 14 of 17

Schendelaar et al. and Goldsmith et al. showed that poorer neurodevelopmental outcomes
are associated with infertility rather than the assisted reproduction procedures [2,24]. Other
factors highly associated with an increased prevalence of mental disorders include preterm
delivery and low birth weight, [15,18,37,45]. Another weakness of the studies that show
poorer neurodevelopmental outcomes after ART is the fact that the type of procedure
linked to poorer neurodevelopmental outcomes varies between studies (ICSI, ovulation
induction, intrauterine insemination etc.). Finally, the increase in the prevalence of neu-
rodevelopmental disorders after ART, as described in studies with statistically significant
results, is predominantly marginal, and given the low incidence of neurodevelopmental
disorders in the general population, its clinical significance is debatable.
On the other hand, one should not overlook the facts that some of the studies that
have observed statistically significantly worse neurodevelopmental outcomes in children
conceived after various ART procedures include a large number of patients [19,39]. These
studies, despite their weaknesses, have been conducted with the proper methodology and
have taken into account a number of confounding factors. It should be noted that adjusting
the analysis for multiple confounding factors may be necessary, but it results in lowering
the power of the study and hence results are less likely to be statistically significant.
This review summarizes the existing literature on the potential relationship between
assisted reproduction techniques and the risk of increased incidence of neurodevelopmen-
tal disorders in the offspring compared to pregnancies conceived naturally. Our study has
some limitations. Firstly, great heterogeneity was observed among most of the analyzed
studies. This is not surprising, as the included studies investigated diverse populations,
from numerous geographic regions, different age groups, fertility treatments, ART proce-
dures and delivery year (1984–2020). Consequently, the antenatal care varied depending on
the country and year of delivery. However, it is important that the majority of the studies
adjusted the statistical analysis for the most common confounding factors such as multiple
gestations, birthweight, gestational age and maternal age. However, other confounding
factors such as the socioeconomic status of the parents, mental health and educational level,
which may affect the incidence of neurodevelopmental outcomes in the offspring, were
not always considered. Finally, the term neurodevelopmental disorder is very diverse, in-
cluding abnormalities ranging from mild disorders to very serious, debilitating conditions.
Hence, comparison between different studies is even more challenging.

5. Conclusions
The greater part of the literature shows no association between ART procedures and
poorer neurodevelopmental outcomes in offspring. However, there is a small number of
studies that have demonstrated possible associations between various ART procedures and
different neurodevelopmental disorders. The interpretation of these studies must be made
carefully, as accounting for confounding factors may negate the proposed association. In
any case, even when an association is proposed between ART and a worse neurodevelop-
mental outcome, the clinical impact is expected to be very small. Hence, ART procedures
should be considered safe regarding the incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders in
offspring.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R., G.D.; methodology, P.A., A.P.; validation, P.A., M.T.,
M.S.; formal analysis, P.P., A.P.; investigation, P.P., A.K., T.N.; resources, P.P., T.N.; data curation, A.K.,
Z.F.; writing—original draft preparation, P.P., A.P., Z.F.; writing—review and editing, P.A., M.T., P.A.;
visualization, G.D., A.R.; supervision, G.D., A.R.; project administration, G.D., A.R.; All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Children 2022, 9, 1511 15 of 17

Acknowledgments: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References
1. Luke, B. Pregnancy and birth outcomes in couples with infertility with and without assisted reproductive technology: With an
emphasis on US population-based studies. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2017, 217, 270–281. [CrossRef]
2. Schendelaar, P.; Middelburg, K.J.; Bos, A.F.; Heineman, M.J.; Jongbloed-Pereboom, M.; Hadders-Algra, M. The Groningen ART
cohort study: The effects of ovarian hyperstimulation and the IVF laboratory procedures on neurological condition at 2 years.
Hum. Reprod. 2011, 26, 703–712. [CrossRef]
3. Storgaard, M.; Loft, A.; Bergh, C.; Wennerholm, U.B.; Söderström-Anttila, V.; Romundstad, L.B.; Aittomaki, K.; Oldereid, N.;
Forman, J.; Pinborg, A. Obstetric and neonatal complications in pregnancies conceived after oocyte donation: A systematic review
and meta-analysis. BJOG Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2017, 124, 561–572. [CrossRef]
4. Scherrer, U.; Rimoldi, S.F.; Rexhaj, E.; Stuber, T.; Duplain, H.; Garcin, S.; de Marchi, S.F.; Nicod, P.; Germond, M.; Allemann, Y.;
et al. Systemic and Pulmonary Vascular Dysfunction in Children Conceived by Assisted Reproductive Technologies. Circulation
2012, 125, 1890–1896. [CrossRef]
5. Meister, T.A.; Rimoldi, S.F.; Soria, R.; von Arx, R.; Messerli, F.H.; Sartori, C.; Scherrer, U.; Rexhaj, E. Association of Assisted
Reproductive Technologies with Arterial Hypertension During Adolescence. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2018, 72, 1267–1274. [CrossRef]
6. Guo, X.Y.; Liu, X.M.; Jin, L.; Wang, T.T.; Ullah, K.; Sheng, J.Z.; Huang, H.-F. Cardiovascular and metabolic profiles of offspring
conceived by assisted reproductive technologies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Fertil. Steril. 2017, 107, 622–631.e5.
[CrossRef]
7. Eisenberg, E. Long-term outcomes in children born after assisted conception. Semin. Reprod. Med. 2012, 30, 123–130. [CrossRef]
8. Hayashi, M.; Nakai, A.; Satoh, S.; Matsuda, Y. Adverse obstetric and perinatal outcomes of singleton pregnancies may be related
to maternal factors associated with infertility rather than the type of assisted reproductive technology procedure used. Fertil.
Steril. 2012, 98, 922–928. [CrossRef]
9. Punamäki, R.L.; Tiitinen, A.; Lindblom, J.; Unkila-Kallio, L.; Flykt, M.; Vänskä, M.; Poikkeus, P.; Tulppala, M. Mental health and
developmental outcomes for children born after ART: A comparative prospective study on child gender and treatment type. Hum.
Reprod. 2016, 31, 100–107. [CrossRef]
10. Sazonova, A.; Kllen, K.; Thurin-Kjellberg, A.; Wennerholm, U.B.; Bergh, C. Factors affecting obstetric outcome of singletons born
after IVF. Hum. Reprod. 2011, 26, 2878–2886. [CrossRef]
11. Pinborg, A.; Loft, A.; Schmidt, L.; Andersen, A.N. Morbidity in a Danish national cohort of 472 IVF/ICSI twins, 1132 non-IVF/ICSI
twins and 634 IVF/ICSI singletons: Health-related and social implications for the children and their families. Hum. Reprod. 2003,
18, 1234–1243. [CrossRef]
12. Place, I.; Englert, Y. A prospective longitudinal study of the physical, psychomotor, and intellectual development of singleton
children up to 5 years who were conceived by intracytoplasmic sperm injection compared with children conceived spontaneously
and by in vitro fertilization. Fertil. Steril. 2003, 80, 1388–1397.
13. Qin, J.; Wang, H.; Sheng, X.; Liang, D.; Tan, H.; Xia, J. Pregnancy-related complications and adverse pregnancy outcomes in
multiple pregnancies resulting from assisted reproductive technology: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Fertil. Steril. 2015, 103,
1492–1508.e7. [CrossRef]
14. Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G.; Altman, D.; Antes, G.; the PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for
systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009, 6, e1000097. [CrossRef]
15. Abdel-Latif, M.E.; Bajuk, B.; Ward, M.; Oei, J.L.; Badawi, N. Neurodevelopmental outcomes of extremely premature infants
conceived after assisted conception: A population based cohort study. Arch. Dis. Child.-Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2013, 98, F205–F211.
[CrossRef]
16. Agarwal, P.; Loh, S.K.E.; Lim, S.B.; Sriram, B.; Daniel, M.L.; Yeo, S.H.; Heng, D. Two-year neurodevelopmental outcome in
children conceived by intracytoplasmic sperm injection: Prospective cohort study. BJOG Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2005, 112,
1376–1383. [CrossRef]
17. Balayla, J.; Sheehy, O.; Fraser, W.D.; Séguin, J.R.; Trasler, J.; Monnier, P.; MacLeod, A.; Simard, M.-N.; Muckle, G.; Bérard, A.
Neurodevelopmental Outcomes After Assisted Reproductive Technologies. Obstet. Gynecol. 2017, 129, 265–272. [CrossRef]
18. Bay, B.; Mortensen, E.L.; Kesmodel, U.S. Fertility treatment and child intelligence, attention, and executive functions in 5-year-old
singletons: A cohort study. BJOG Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2014, 121, 1642–1651. [CrossRef]
19. Bay, B.; Mortensen, E.L.; Hvidtjørn, D.; Kesmodel, U.S. Fertility treatment and risk of childhood and adolescent mental disorders:
Register based cohort study. BMJ 2013, 347, f3978. [CrossRef]
20. Carson, C.; Kelly, Y.; Kurinczuk, J.J.; Sacker, A.; Redshaw, M.; Quigley, M.A. Effect of pregnancy planning and fertility treatment
on cognitive outcomes in children at ages 3 and 5: Longitudinal cohort study. BMJ 2011, 343, d4473. [CrossRef]
21. Diop, H.; Cabral, H.; Gopal, D.; Cui, X.; Stern, J.E.; Kotelchuck, M. Early Autism Spectrum Disorders in Children Born to Fertile,
Subfertile, and ART-Treated Women. Matern. Child Health J. 2019, 23, 1489–1499. [CrossRef]
Children 2022, 9, 1511 16 of 17

22. Farhi, A.; Glasser, S.; Gabis, L.V.; Hirsh-Yechezkel, G.; Frank, S.; Brinton, L.; Scoccia, B.; Ron-El, R.; Orvieto, R.; Lerner-Geva,
L. How Are They Doing? Neurodevelopmental Outcomes at School Age of Children Born Following Assisted Reproductive
Treatments. J. Child Neurol. 2021, 36, 262–271. [CrossRef]
23. Fountain, C.; Zhang, Y.; Kissin, D.M.; Schieve, L.A.; Jamieson, D.J.; Rice, C.; Bearman, P. Association between assisted reproductive
technology conception and autism in California, 1997–2007. Am. J. Public Health 2015, 105, 963–971. [CrossRef]
24. Goldsmith, S.; Mcintyre, S.; Badawi, N.; Hansen, M. Cerebral palsy after assisted reproductive technology: A cohort study. Dev.
Med. Child Neurol. 2018, 60, 73–80. [CrossRef]
25. Hvidtjørn, D.; Grove, J.; Schendel, D.; Sværke, C.; Schieve, L.A.; Uldall, P.; Ernst, E.; Jacobsson, B.; Thorsen, P. Multiplicity and
early gestational age contribute to an increased risk of cerebral palsy from assisted conception: A population-based cohort study.
Hum. Reprod. 2010, 25, 2115–2123. [CrossRef]
26. Husen, S.C.; Koning, I.V.; Go, A.T.J.I.; Groenenberg, I.A.L.; Willemsen, S.P.; Rousian, M.; Steegers-Theunissen, R.P.M. IVF with or
without ICSI and the impact on human embryonic brain development: The Rotterdam Periconceptional Cohort. Hum. Reprod.
2021, 36, 596–604. [CrossRef]
27. Jenabi, E.; Seyedi, M.; Hamzehei, R.; Bashirian, S.; Rezaei, M.; Razjouyan, K.; Khazaei, S. Association between assisted reproductive
technology and autism spectrum disorders in Iran: A case-control study. Clin. Exp. Pediatr. 2020, 63, 368–372. [CrossRef]
28. Kermani, R.M.K.; Nedaeifard, L.; Nateghi, M.; Fazeli, A. Neurodevelopmental Status of Infants Conceived Assisted Reproductive
Techniques in Royan Institute. J. Fam. Reprod. Health 2011, 5, 79–83.
29. Knoester, M.; Helmerhorst, F.M.; Vandenbroucke, J.P.; van der Westerlaken, L.A.J.; Walther, F.J.; Veen, S. Cognitive development
of singletons born after intracytoplasmic sperm injection compared with in vitro fertilization and natural conception. Fertil. Steril.
2008, 90, 289–296. [CrossRef]
30. Lehti, V.; Brown, A.S.; Gissler, M.; Rihko, M.; Suominen, A.; Sourander, A. Autism spectrum disorders in IVF children: A national
case-control study in Finland. Hum. Reprod. 2013, 28, 812–818. [CrossRef]
31. Leslie, G.I.; Gibson, F.L.; McMahon, C.; Cohen, J.; Saunders, D.M.; Tennant, C. Children conceived using ICSI do not have an
increased risk of delayed mental development at 5 years of age. Hum. Reprod. 2003, 18, 2067–2072. [CrossRef]
32. Leunens, L.; Celestin-Westreich, S.; Bonduelle, M.; Liebaers, I.; Ponjaert-Kristoffersen, I. Follow-up of cognitive and motor
development of 10-year-old singleton children born after ICSI compared with spontaneously conceived children. Hum. Reprod.
2008, 23, 105–111. [CrossRef]
33. Ludwig, A.; Katalinic, A.; Thyen, U.; Sutcliffe, A.G.; Diedrich, K.; Ludwig, M. Neuromotor development and mental health
at 5.5 years of age of singletons born at term after intracytoplasmatic sperm injection ICSI: Results of a prospective controlled
single-blinded study in Germany. Fertil. Steril. 2009, 91, 125–132. [CrossRef]
34. Lung, F.W.; Chiang, T.L.; Lin, S.J.; Lee, M.C.; Shu, B.C. Assisted reproductive technology has no association with autism spectrum
disorders: The Taiwan Birth Cohort Study. Autism 2018, 22, 377–384. [CrossRef]
35. Maheshwari, A.; Raja, E.A.; Bhattacharya, S. Obstetric and perinatal outcomes after either fresh or thawed frozen embryo transfer:
An analysis of 112,432 singleton pregnancies recorded in the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority anonymized dataset.
Fertil. Steril. 2016, 106, 1703–1708. [CrossRef]
36. Middelburg, K.J.; Heineman, M.J.; Bos, A.F.; Pereboom, M.; Fidler, V.; Hadders-Algra, M. The Groningen ART cohort study:
Ovarian hyperstimulation and the in vitro procedure do not affect neurological outcome in infancy. Hum. Reprod. 2009, 24,
3119–3126. [CrossRef]
37. Middelburg, K.J.; Haadsma, M.L.; Heineman, M.J.; Bos, A.F.; Hadders-Algra, M. Ovarian hyperstimulation and the in vitro
fertilization procedure do not influence early neuromotor development; a history of subfertility does. Fertil. Steril. 2010, 93,
544–553. [CrossRef]
38. Ponjaert-Kristoffersen, I.; Tjus, T.; Nekkebroeck, J.; Squires, J.; Verté, D.; Heimann, M.; Bonduelle, M.-L.; Palermo, G.; Wennerholm,
U.-B. Psychological follow-up study of 5-year-old ICSI children. Hum. Reprod. 2004, 19, 2791–2797. [CrossRef]
39. Sandin, S.; Nygren, K.G.; Iliadou, A.; Hultman, C.M.; Reichenberg, A. Autism and mental retardation among offspring born after
in vitro fertilization. JAMA 2013, 310, 75–84. [CrossRef]
40. Sutcliffe, A.G.; Saunders, K.; McLachlan, R.; Taylor, B.; Edwards, P.; Grudzinskas, G.; Leiberman, B.; Thornton, S. A retrospective
case-control study of developmental and other outcomes in a cohort of Australian children conceived by intracytoplasmic sperm
injection compared with a similar group in the United Kingdom. Fertil. Steril. 2003, 79, 512–516. [CrossRef]
41. Sutcliffe, A.G.; Taylor, B.; Saunders, K.; Thornton, S.; Lieberman, B.A.; Grudzinskas, J.G. Outcome in the second year of life after
in-vitro fertilisation by intracytoplasmic sperm injection: A UK case-control study. Lancet 2001, 357, 2080–2084. [CrossRef]
42. Takeshige, Y.; Takahashi, M.; Hashimoto, T.; Kyono, K. Six-year follow-up of children born from vitrified oocytes. Reprod. BioMed.
Online 2021, 42, 564–571. [CrossRef]
43. Wagenaar, K.; van Weissenbruch, M.M.; Knol, D.L.; Cohen-Kettenis, P.T.; Delemarre-Van De Waal, H.A.; Huisman, J. Information
processing, attention and visual-motor function of adolescents born after in vitro fertilization compared with spontaneous
conception. Hum. Reprod. 2009, 24, 913–921. [CrossRef]
44. Wang, C.W.; Chang, T.H.; Chuang, N.C.; Au, H.K.; Chen, C.H.; Tseng, S.H. Association between intracytoplasmic sperm injection
and neurodevelopmental outcomes among offspring. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0257268. [CrossRef]
45. Yeung, E.H.; Sundaram, R.; Bell, E.M.; Druschel, C.; Kus, C.; Ghassabian, A.; Bello, S.; Xie, Y.; Louis, G.B. Examining Infertility
Treatment and Early Childhood Development in the Upstate KIDS Study. JAMA Pediatr. 2016, 170, 251–258. [CrossRef]
Children 2022, 9, 1511 17 of 17

46. Zhu, J.L.; Obel, C.; Basso, O.; Henriksen, T.B.; Bech, B.H.; Hvidtjãrn, D.; Olsen, J. Infertility, infertility treatment and behavioural
problems in the offspring. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 2011, 25, 466–477. [CrossRef]
47. Barfield, W.D. Public Health Implications of Very Preterm Birth. Clin. Perinatol. 2018, 45, 565–577. [CrossRef]
48. Chen, H.; Feng, G.; Zhang, B.; Zhou, H.; Wang, C.; Shu, J.; Gan, X.; Lin, R.; Huang, D.; Huang, Y. A new insight into male fertility
preservation for patients with completely immotile spermatozoa. Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 2017, 15, 74. [CrossRef]
49. NIMH. Autism Spectrum Disorder. Available online: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/autism-spectrum-disorders-asd
(accessed on 3 August 2022).