Lecture 6.

NUTRIENT CYCLING (OR) BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Chemical elements (Nutrients) in an ecosystem move in a cyclic manner. The cycling of nutrients
takes place between the biotic and abiotic components, hence known as biogeochemical cycles (bio =
living, geo = earth, chemical = nutrients). Such movements of elements and inroganic compounds esential
for life are called nutirent cycles.

Every ecosystem functions to produce and sustain some primary production (plant biomass) and
secondary production (animal biomass). Every ecosystem regulates and maintains itself and resists any
stresses or disturbances up to a certain limit. This self regulation or control system is known as cybernetic
system.

“A biogeochemical cycle or nutrient cycle is a more or less circular pathway by which a

chemical element or molecule moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere,
and hydrosphere) compartments of ecosystem. ‘Bio’ refers to living organisms. ‘Geo’ refers to rocks, soil,
air and water of earth. All living organisms participate in biogeochemical cycling of elements.”

Types
a) Gaseous type:

In these type of cycles, the major reservoir of a nutrient is in the atmosphere, it is known as a
gaseous cycle. e.g. nitrogen cycle (which has its reservoir in the form of nitrogen gas (N2)
constituting about 78% of the atmosphere)

b) Sedimentary type:
In these type of cycles, the reservoir is in the earth’s crust or sediments, it is known as a
sedimentary cycle e.g., phosphorus cycle (which has its reserve as phosphate rocks)
c) Intermediate type:
Sulphur cycle is an example of an intermediate type, which has reservoir both in soil and the
atmosphere.

Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus etc. move in circular paths
through biotic and abiotic components and are known as biogeochemical cycles. Water also moves in a
cycle, known as hydrological cycle. The nutrients too move through the food chain and ultimately reach the
detritus compartment (containing dead organic matter) where various microorganisms carry out
decomposition. Various organically bound nutrients of dead plants and animals are converted into inorganic
substances by microbial decomposition that are readily used up by plants (primary producers) and the
cycle starts afresh.
1. Carbon cycle
Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air and dissolved in water is the primary source of the element carbon.
Through the process of photosynthesis, the carbon is removed from the CO2 and incorporated with other
chemical elements in complex organic molecules. The CO2 eventually finds its way back into the
atmosphere when the organics are broken down during respiration. A schematic diagram of this cycle is
shown in Figure.

The combustion of fossil fuels (oil and gasoline) for energy is a human activity that increases the
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. Carbon di oxide plays a role in absorbing radiated heat and in
regulating global atmosphere temperatures. A rise in CO2 levels in the atmosphere will tend to cause the
average temperature to increase.

The simplest of nuturient cycles is carbon cycle where general components are well recognized.
Carbon is returned to the atmosphere as fast as it is removed. The carbon moves in gaseous phase (CO 2)
from atmosphere to producers. Here, it enters the food chain and its respired ot at each trophic level and
finally released during decomposition, thus returning to the atmosphere. More than the amount of CO2
getting locked up in the biomass, is being trown into the atmosphere by the processes of combination of
fossil fuels, burning of wood and volcanic activities. The vast ocean helps greatly in maintaining the level of
CO2 in the atmosphere by absorbing the releasing the gas when its levels are high and low, respectively, in
the atmosphere. The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide is 0.03-0.04% while oceanic water can
retain up to fifty times of this level, and hence capable to regulate carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is converted into organic compounds in plants through
photosynthesis. Organic carbon from plants may go into animals. There it goes through various stages of
digestion and assimilation. It may re-enter the atmosphere from plants or animals as CO2 by oxidation or
decomposition of dead organic matter of plants and animals. In animals, carbon may get tied up in hard
parts such as shells and hence remain in the form of inorganic carbonates for long. Marine deposits of
animal carbonates and inorganic precipitation of carbonates in water may result into limestone. Limestone
can then return carbonates very slowly to the living carbon cycle through erosion and dissolution. Carbon
may also get locked into organic deposits of coal and petroleum, where it may remain for million of years
unless released by combustion.

Following are the ways by which carbon is returned to the atmosphere.

i). Biological processes: only a small part returns through the respiratory activity of producers and
consumers. Larger part is returned by the decomposers through processing of waste material and
decompostion of dead remains of different trophic levels.
ii). Non-biological processes: the main non-biological processes are combustion of fossil
fuels,burning of woodand accidental fires in forests and buildings. CO2 also comes out along with the
gases escaping from the sites of diggings of fossil fuel, coal, organic gases, etc., as geological component.
Eruption of vulcano throws out lava and gases also come out in large quantities. Carbon dioxide is a major
constituent of volcanic activity.
The interplay between atmospheric and aquatic CO2 is of great significance. The interchange
between the two phases, viz., atmospheric CO2 and dissolved CO2 in ocean occurs through diffusion. The
direction of diffusion is dependent upon relative concentraton. Passage into aquatic phase also takes place
through precipitation. A litre of rain water contains about 0.3cc of CO2.
The dissolved CO2 combines with water in the soil or in aquatic ecosystem to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3) in the reversible reaction. Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate ions
(HCO3-). The later ions, in turn, dissociate in another reversible reaction into hydrogen and carbonate
ions. The various reactions can be expressed as follows.
H2O + CO2  H2CO3
H2CO3  H+ +HCO3-
HCO3-  H+ + CO3--
Since all these reactions are reversible, the direction of the reaction is dependent on the concentration of
critical components, i.e., the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. The equilibrium is not so simple but
is much more complicated., e.g., the amount of carbon present as bicarbonate is dependent on pH of
water. At higher pH (alkaline), more carbon is present as carbonate, at lower pH (acidic), more carbon is
present in dissolved phase.
 2. NITROGEN CYCLE

About 78 percent of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas (N2), but in this molecular form it is not active
in biological systems. The nitrogen must first be fixed in the form of nitrates (NO3-), in which form it can be
utilized by plants during photosynthesis. Eventually, it is combined with other substances and converted
into proteins, consumed by heterotrophs and broken down again in the process of decay. This cycle is
illustrated in Figure. Nitrification, the process in which nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH3), is converted
to nitrate nitrogen, is of particular significance in water pollution control.

Conversions of gaseous nitrogen in to ammonia or nitrates is called nitrogen fixation

1. Physical process:
In the tropics where thunderstorms and lightening are common and this process convert
greater quantities of nitrogen in to nitrates. It is essential that on an average 35mg of N per
m2 per year are added to the soil.

2. Biological fixation:

i) Symbiotic bacteria:
The symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium sp. are the most important N fixers. These are
associated mostly with the root nodules of leguminous plants.
ii) Free living bacteria:
The most important 15 predominant species are Azotobacter (Aerobic) and Clostridium
(Anaerobic). These species fix nitrogen in ammonia form. Azotobacter is considered to be
an effective fixer of nitrogen even in the presence of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers.
 iii) Blue green algae:
There are 30-40 species available for N fixation in the paddy fields. The commonly
available species are Nostoc, Anabaena and Callothrix.

2. Ammonification
Plants incorporate fixed nitrogen into protoplasm by amino acid and protein synthesis. The organic
nitrogen compounds may then follow any one of the three routes, i.e. (i) they may be stored or modified as
proteins or nucleic acids within the plant, (ii) they may be transferred to animal tissues through consumption
and assimilation by animals. (iii) they may be decomposed to NH3 through death and bacterial action. In
annimals, these compounds may also be decomposed into urea and other excretory products. The
conversion of amino acids to ammonia is called ammonification or mineralization. This is mediated by
ammonifying bacteria such as Pseudomonas, Proteus, etc.,

3. Nitrification
The conversion of ammonia into nitrates in termed as nitrification. This process takes place in two
steps: (i) Ammonia or ammonium salts are converted to nitrite (NH4+ NO2-) This is mediated by nitrite
bacteria, Nitrosomonas. (ii) Conversion of nitrite to nitrates (NO2- NO3-) is mediated by nitrate
bacteria, Nitrobacter. Nitrates are then directly absorbed by plants and incorporated into amino acids and
proteins by organic synthesis.

4. Denitrification
The conversion of nitrates to molecular or gaseous nitrogen (N2), as well as to nitrous oxide (NO)
and nitric oxide (N2) is called denitrification. This is affected by the action of denitrifying bacteria such as
Pseudomonas, Thiobacillus and Micrococcus.

The cyclic flow of nitrogen in the ecosystem requires balanced action of bacteria involving many
species, so that sufficient levels of plant nutrients are maintained without excessive accumulation of
decomposition products like ammonia.
3. SULPHUR CYCLE
 Sulphur has its reservoir both in atmosphere (as oxides of sulphur, hydrogen sulphide) and in rocks
and sediments (as mineral pyrites). Atmospheric sulphur plays an important role, as the oxides of sulphur
react with rain water producing sulphuric acid, which comes down as ‘acid rain’. Oxides of sulphur (SOx)
are released into the atmosphere due to burning of fossil fuels. Thus human beings play a significant role in
the material cycling of sulphur. In the soil or water, there are different groups of micro-organisms which
carry out oxidation and reduction of various sulphur compounds. A special role is played by Thiobacillus
bacterium, which converts sulphides into sulphuric acid. These bacteria help in bio-leaching of metals from
ores containing pyrites (S) as impurities.
Sulphur cycle is similar to nitrogen cycle as it also involves the oxidized (SO 2) and reduced (H2S)
phases, and that plants can use it only in the form of sulphates. However, it differs from nitrogen cycle due
to the fact that residence time of sulphur in the atmosphere is too small, and reserve pool of the element is
in the soil.
In nature, sulphur exists in elemental form and in several states, including hydrogen sulphid (H 2S),
sulphites (SO2) and sulphates (SO4) Organic sulphur in plants and animals is decomposed to H2S by
bacterial action. Under aerobic conditions, Aspergillus and Neurospora, and under anaerobic conditions
bacteria like Escherichia and Proteus are largely responsible for this decomposition.

Phosphorus cycle

It is an important element present in biological molecules as nucleotides, nucleic acids,

phospholipids. In addition, animal bones and teeth contain significant quantities of phosphorus. Most of the
processes involved in the phosphorus cycle are the geologic processes of erosion and deposition.

The ultimate source of phosphorus atoms is rock. In nature, new phosphorus compounds are
released by the erosion of rock and are dissolved in water. Plants use the dissolved phosphorus
compounds to construct the molecules they need. Animals obtain phosphorus when they consume plants
or other animals. When an organism dies or excretes waste products, decomposer organisms recycle the
phosphorus compounds.

Phosphorus compounds that are dissolved in water are ultimately precipitated as mineral deposits.
This has occurred in the geologic past and typically has involved deposits in the oceans. Geologic
processes elevate these deposits and expose them to erosion, thus making phosphorus available to
organisms. Animal wastes often have significant amounts of phosphorus. In places where large numbers of
seabirds or bats have congregated for hundreds of years, their droppings (called guano) can be a
significant source of phosphorus for fertilizer. In many soils, phosphorus is in short supply and must be
provided to crop plants in fertilizer to get maximum yields. Phosphorus is also in short supply in aquatic
ecosystems.
Hydrological cycle

This cycle helps in the exchange of water among air, land, sea, living plants and animals. About
one-third of the solar energy absorbed by the earth is used to drive the hydrological cycle-massive
evaporation of water from the oceans, cloud formation and rainfall which supplies our reserves with fresh
water. At freezing temperature rainwater freezes into snow and forms hail in the presence of strong wind.
Water as rain, snow and hail is precipitated on land and water surfaces. On land surfaces water seeps into
the soil and is stored as groundwater. The natural water level or water table exists below the ground.
Another important groundwater resource is the aquifers. These exist above the impermeable rock
strata—water percolates through porous rocks and forms these underground lakes or reservoirs. From the
latter water can be pumped by digging tube wells and extracted by sinking wells. When there is good
rainfall, all the rainwater on land do not percolate into the soil. Surface water (run-off) flows into streams,
rivers, seas, lakes and reservoirs. Normal evaporation from the oceans exceeds precipitation by 10 per
cent. This excess 10 per cent moves as water vapour over land surface and balances the hydrological
cycle. Plants absorb groundwater by root pressure and transpirational pull but give off excess water
through leaves by the process of transpiration. Thus, water vapour level in the atmosphere is balanced and
at the same time ensures conduction of water and dissolved mineral salts throughout the plants. Thus, the
hydrologic cycle consists of a balanced continuous process of evaporation, transpiration, precipitation,
surface run-off and groundwater movements.

OXYGEN CYCLE
Nutrient Budget:
The availability and sources of nutrients in an ecosystem for long periods of times is called as
nutrient budget.
Types:
1. Internal nutrient budget:
The circulation of nutrients through the biotic and abiotic components of a given ecosystem
2. External nutrient budget:
It pertains to intake and output of the entire ecosystem in relation to other ecosystems.