COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCE

Name: Birhanu Zeleke

Mechanical Unit Operation
Course Code Iche 3091
 CHAPTER 2 Size Reduction
Size Reduction
Mechanism of size reduction
Material properties
Energy and power requirement for size reduction
Equipment for size reduction

 Materials are rarely found in the size range required,

and it is often necessary either to decrease or to
increase the particle size.
 When, for example, the starting material is too coarse,
and possibly in the form of large rocks, and the final
product needs to be a fine powder, the particle size will
have to be progressively reduced in stages.
• Size refers to the physical dimension of the solid
and reduction refers to the decrement.
• Size reduction refers to the process of reducing the
size of the solid from the physical dimension of
higher order to the smaller order.
• Comminution is the generic term used for size
reduction.
• Earlier, the size reduction was considered as art,
later in recent years it was considered as science
and studied deeply and developed different types
of equipment for different purposes.
 Importance of Size reduction
• To liberate the valuable mineral that was interlocked with other
material of ore.
• To increase the surface area of the particle in order to increase
the rate of physical and chemical processes. In most reactions
and unit operations (leaching) involving solid particles, the rate
increases by increasing the area of contact between the solid and
second phase. The area of contact increase by increasing the
surface area of the solid by reducing its size.
• To improve the dissolution rate, solubility and dispersion
properties.

• To accomplish the intimate mixing of solids in solid-solid

operation, the mixing is more complete if particle size is small.
• To meet the stringent specifications regarding the size of
commercial products.
 Mechanisms of size reduction
• Size reduction machines more commonly reduce the
size of the solids by four mechanisms.
• Impact: Particle breaks by the single rigid force,
gives coarse, medium and fine particles
• Compression: Particle disintegrates by two rigid
forces, used for coarse reduction of hard solids
• Attrition/Rubbing: Particle scrap between two
surfaces, give fine and very fine particles
• Cutting: Particle of required size can be obtained
without fines.
• Some non-mechanical mechanisms such as
explosives, thermal shock and ultrasonic sounds are
also resulted in the reduction of solids.
 Four stages of particle reduction
• Coarse reduction: Large sized rocks are reduced to
lumps of 150-250 mm size particles.
• Intermediate reduction: 150-250 mm sized
particles are reduced to 15-50 mm size.
• Fine reduction: 15-50 mm particles are reduced to
1-5 mm particles
• Very fine reduction: 1-5 mm particles are reduced
to particles of less than 1 mm size.
 Phenomena of size reduction

Volume phenomena: Particles of larger size

reduces to particles of smaller size where the
volume of the particle is significantly reduced.
Surface phenomena: Particles surfaces are
rubbed by attrition and there is less reduction
in volume.
 Material properties – Size reduction
• The more important properties of the feed apart from
its size that affect the size reduction operation are as
follows:

• Hardness: Hardness signifies the resistance to break.

The hardness of the material affects the power
consumption and the wear on the machine.
• With hard and abrasive materials it is necessary to
use a low-speed machine and to protect the bearings
from the abrasive dusts that are produced. Pressure
lubrication is recommended.
• Internal Structure: Every solid material has
specific structure of atoms. The atoms are
arranged in the crystal structure in a definite
geometric pattern. Normal granular materials
such as coal, ores and rocks can be effectively
crushed employing the normal forces of
compression, impact, and so on. With fibrous
materials a tearing action is required.
• Moisture content: It is found that materials do not
flow well if they contain between about 5 and 50 per
cent of moisture. Under these conditions the
material tends to cake together in the form of balls.
If the moisture content is too less it results in good
size reduction but with lot of dust, to avoid the dust
sometimes it is prefer to go for wet grinding.
• Soapiness: In general, this is a measure of the
coefficient of friction of the surface of the material.
If the coefficient of friction is low, the crushing may
be more difficult.
• Temperature sensitivity
 Size reduction Equipments
 Equipment for the size reduction are listed below. The best
equipment should be selected from the equipments available in
the market based on the following criteria
 Selection criteria
 Equipment should produce particles of desired size
 It should accept maximum input size of the particle
 The capacity ( kg/h) of the equipment should be more
 The equipment should not choke
 It should give prolonged service life
 The operation of the equipment should be easy and safe
 Maintenance of the equipment should be easy and low coat
 The equipment is of low cost
 # Energy and power requirement for
size reduction
The cost of power is major operating expense in size reduction,
an estimation of energy required is important in the selection of
equipment.

Although it is impossible to estimate accurately the amount of

energy required in order to effect a size reduction of a given
material, a number of empirical laws have been proposed.

 Kick’s law
 Rittinger’s law
 Bond’s law
Kick’s law: It states that “Power required for crushing
operation is directly proportional logarithmic ratio of feed and
product particle diameter”

Mathematically, the law can be written as

𝑃 𝐸 𝐷𝑓
= = 𝐾𝑘 ln 𝐷𝑝
𝑚 𝑚
Where P = Power required by machine
𝑚 = mass flow rate of feed to machine
E = Energy required by machine
m = mass of the feed to the machine
Kk = kick’s constant
Df = diameter of the feed
Dp= diameter of the product
Rittinger’s law: It states that “ Power required for crushing
operation is directly proportional to new surface created”

Mathematically, the law can be written as

𝑃 𝐸 1 1
= = 𝐾𝑟 −
𝑚 𝑚 𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑓
Where P = Power required by machine
𝑚 = mass flow rate of feed to machine
E = Energy required by machine
m = mass of the feed to the machine
Kr = Rittinger’s constant
Df = Volume-surface mean diameter of the feed
Dp= Volume-surface mean diameter of the product
Bond’s’s law: It states that “ Power required for crushing operation is
indirectly proportional to square root of particle size”

Mathematically, the law can be written as

𝑃 𝐸 1 1
= = 𝐾𝑏 −
𝑚 𝑚 𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑓

Where P = Power required by machine

𝑚 = mass flow rate of feed to machine
E = Energy required by machine
m = mass of the feed to the machine
Kb = Bond’s constant
Df = Volume-surface mean diameter of the feed
Dp= Volume-surface mean diameter of the
product
Bond’s constant is defined in terms of work index, the
relationship between Kb and
work index Wi is given as Kb = 0.3162 Wi
Work index is defined as “the amount of energy in
KWH per ton of feed material, required to reduce
feed to a size that passes through 100 µm screen.
 CHAPTER 3
Size Enlargement
o For many purposes, lumps of materials of
intermediate sizes are the most desirable forms,
neither too small nor too large. For instance, beds of
overly small granules of catalysts exhibit too great
resistance to flow of reacting fluids, and too small
particles in suspensions settle out or filter too slowly.

o The main types of processes used industrially for

particle size enlargement are five in number, defined
as follows:
1. Compaction is achieved either by compression or
extrusion. Compression is done either into a mold to
give a final shape or into a sheet or block that is later
broken up to proper sizes. Extrudates are formed
under pressure in dies of a variety of cross sections;
as they leave the die they are broken up or cut to size.
2. Agglomeration is accomplished under tumbling or
otherwise agitated conditions, with or without
binding agents. Size is controlled by adjusting the
residence time and by gradual addition of feed and
binder, slurry or solution.
3. Globulation is the formation of droplets of
solution, slurry, or melt followed by solidification by
prilling, spray drying, or fluidized bed operation.
Control of particle size is best achieved in fluidized
beds.
4. Heat bonding is of two types: nodulization in
which material is tumbled while heated to give hard
rounded granules and sintering in which the product
is an integrated mass that is subsequently broken to
size.

5. Flocculation, coagulation and growth of particles

in dilute slurries, to assist in subsequent
sedimentation and filtration.
2. Size Enlargement
(Agglomeration)
 Agglomeration
 In the broadest sense of the term agglomeration includes all processes
in which fine particles, dispersed in either gas or liquid, aggregate to
form a coarser product. The collection of particles that results is
called an agglomerate or granule.

 Depending on the process, the size of the agglomerate is between

0.02 and 50 mm.

 In most cases, the preferred particle shape is spherical. In many

processes the product is a cylindrical section such as a tablet or some
other regular geometrical shape.
 Agglomeration is used in many industries, such
as:
 Fertilizer production
 Iron ore
 Nuclear fuel
 Pulverized fuel ash
 Ceramics
 Lightweight aggregate production
 Carbon blacks
 Catalysts
 Pesticides and pharmaceutical products.
 Reasons for the production and use of
agglomerates:
1. Plant contamination and nuisance dusts in the
workplace are reduced.
2. Hygiene is easier to maintain.
3. Air quality is easier to achieve and in some cases
controls can be avoided.
4. The danger of dust explosions is reduced.
5. Dust and sludge can be recycled or disposed of
without pollution.
6. Removal of Particles from liquid.
7. Increase bulk density for storage
 Agglomeration processes
 The desired product properties determine which enlargement process is used.
 Agglomeration processes are classified by the principal mechanism by which
the particles are made to come together.
 state of material desired agglomerate size, size distribution, agglomerate shape
required and porosity, required throughput. (Special attention )
 Spray Agglomeration (Spray Methods)
 Growth Agglomeration (Agitation Methods)
 Pressure Agglomeration (Pressure Methods,
Compaction)
 Sintering (Thermal Methods)
 Selective Agglomeration (Spherical Agglomeration)
 Granulation Equipment
 Three categories of granulator are in common use:
1. Tumbling
2. Mixer
3. Fluidized

 Typical product properties, scale and application

36
37
Tumbling Granulator

38
A tumbling motion is imparted to the particles in
an inclined cylinder(drum granulator) or pan(disc
granulator)

Operate in continuous mode and

Able to deal with large through put

Solid and liquid feed are delivered continuously

to the granulator.

39
 Mixer Granulator

 The motion of particle is brought about by some form of agitator rotating at low
or high speed on vertical or horizontal axis.
 Rotation speed vary from 50rpm(Horizontal) to 3000 rpm(Vertical).
40
Fluidized Bed Granulator

41
Advantage:-
 Good heat and mass transfer
 Mechanical simplicity
 Ability to combine the drying stage with
granulation
 Ability to produce small granules from powder
feeds

 However, Running cost and attrition rates can be

high compared with other devices.

42
 Agglomeration

Granulation Briquetting

Size Enlargement Tabletting

Compaction Pellitization

Flocking

43
 Binding forces
• The forces of cohesion between small particles are
difficult to measure directly due to their very low
magnitude and limitations resulting from small.

• Van der Waals' forces play a major role in

compression agglomeration. Positive bonds occur
in fibrous materials such as paper and felt.

• How do You Correlate Surface area and Agglomeration?

 Strength of agglomerates
What Is Agglomerating? Agglomeration is the
process of forming powdered and particle-based
materials into a larger mass.
Agglomerates are loosely held together by physical
and chemical forces, depending on the method or
process used for adhesion.
Common examples of agglomeration in
agriculture are soil and fertilizers.
 Cont.……………
 These materials are agglomerated to prevent
segregation and improve handling characteristics.
 Some glass and plastic manufacturing
processes also include an intermediary stage
during which powdery materials are
agglomerated.
 Cont.………….
• The agglomerate strength was obtained from the
compression of single agglomerates at a
selected speed rate using an Instron testing
machine.
• The dispersion performance (FPFLoaded) was
determined at flow rates of 60 and 100 l
min−1 using an Aeroliser® coupled to a multistage
liquid impinger. Fine particle fraction.
 Equipment for size enlargement
Briquetting Machines
 Briquetting machines are used to create
briquettes of material by compacting
smaller pieces together.
 Fluid Beds
 Fluid beds are often used when small tablets are
required.
 Pellet Mills
 Pellet mills compact powder in a confined space
via a process called pressure agglomeration. The
first step in pressure agglomeration is the
application of a small force to rearrange the
particles in order to fill any large voids.
 Next, the pressure is increased in the compression
step, causing brittle particles to break and malleable
particles to deform.
 This step decreases the amount of air surrounding
each particle.
 Disc Granulators
General Information/Equipment Design
Disc granulators, or pelletizing discs as
they are known in the ore industry.
 Mixer Granulators
 in mixer granulators, first the powder is chopped
and mixed to produce a fine, free-flowing powder.
Then a liquid binder is blended with the powder to
produce granules.
 Powder Blenders
 Powder blenders use mixer agglomeration to
enlarge the size of powders.
 In a powder blender, the powder is gently sprayed
with liquid as it is fed into a rotating drum.
 https://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/wp-
content/uploads/sites/564/2022/04/Powder-
blenders.gif
 Pugmills
 Pug mills are an example of mixer agglomeration .
Pugmills are also referred to as blungers, pug
mixers, and paddle mixers.
 They have two shafts aligned horizontally, as
shown below.
 https://youtu.be/0WyODtaXBs4
 Rotating Drums
A rotating drum is a common piece of
thermal agglomeration equipment. ?????
Other thermal agglomeration equipment
includes traveling grate machines, furnaces,
and kilns.
 https://youtu.be/fEwfIP23Q1o
 State ff for all Size enlargement
equipment's. (5%)

o Advantages and Disadvantages

o Equipment Design

o Applications Example

o Working Principle