BASIC CONSTRUCTION

SAFETY,
CONCRETE AND
STRUCTURAL FOUNDATION
CE 2202 Lecture
Midterm Exam
● March 12, 2024 – TTh Classes
● March 13, 2024 – MW Classes
● Objective Type and Problem Solving
● Coverage – National Building Code, Basic Construction Methodology, Basic
Construction Safety, Concrete, Structural Foundation
Basic Construction Safety
1. Always wear your seatbelt when in a vehicle or heavy equipment.

2. Always inspect equipment and tools.

3. Always use fall protection when working at heights.

4. Stay of out the blind spots of heavy equipment.

5. Never put yourself in the line of fire.

6. Utilize proper housekeeping measures to keep work areas clean.

7. Make sure chemicals are properly labeled and stored.

8. Communicate hazards to others.

9. Stop work when needed to address hazards.

CEMENT, AGGREGATES, ADDITIVES

CEMENT
• a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together

• a mixture of calcium silicates and small amounts of calcium aluminates that react with water and cause the cement to set.

• most important use is the production of mortar and concrete the bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong
building material that is durable in the face of normal environmental effects
BASIC MINERALS TO MAKE CEMENT

LIMESTONE
• Cement producers usually locate their plants next to limestone
deposits.
• They vary considerably in their chemistry and thickness and
their suitability for cement manufacturing

SHALE
• Shale is a pure sedimentary rock made of very fine silt, clay and quarz.
• Shale falls in the category of mudstones
•Shale is distinguished from other mudstones because it is fissile and laminated
•They occur in formations that may be several hundred metres thick
GYPSUM
• Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dehydrate
• The largest and commercially most important deposits of gypsum and anhydrite
occur as beds, which may persist over considerable areas with little change in
quality or thickness.
•They are frequently interbedded with limestones, shales, mudstones, clays,
dolomite, rock salt and locally sylvite.
• About 20% of gypsum goes towards cement production.
CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1) Extraction
• Materials are extracted / quarried / recovered and transported to the cement
plant.

2 )Crushing and milling

• The raw materials, limestone, shale, silica and iron oxice are crushed and
milled into fine powders.

3) Mixing and preheating

• The powders are blended (the ‘raw meal’) and preheated to around 900° C
using the hot gases from the kiln. The preheating burns off the impurities.

4) Heating
• Next the material is burned in a large rotary kiln at 1500° C. Heating starts the
de-carbonation where CO2 is driven from the limestone. The partially fused
resulting is known as clinker. A modern kiln can produce around 6000 tons of
clinker a day.
CaCO3 (limestone) + heat -> CaO (lime) + CO2

5) Cooling and final grinding

• The clinker is then cooled and ground to a fine powder in a tube or ball mill. A
ball mill is a rotating drum filled with steel balls of different sizes (depending on
the desired fineness of the cement) that crush and grind the clinker. Gypsum is
added during the grinding process to provide means for controlling the setting of
the cement.

The cement is bagged transported for concrete production.

TYPES OF CEMENT

Type 1 – OPC
Type 2 – Moderate Heat of Hydration (PPC)
Type 3 – Rapid Hardening Cement
Type 4 – Low Heat Cement
Type 5 – Sulphate Resisting Cement.

Non-Hydraulic Cement
• cannot harden while in contact with water, as opposed to hydraulic cement which can
• created using materials such as non-hydraulic lime and gypsum plasters, and oxy chloride, which has liquid properties
• utilized in construction, it must be kept dry in order to gain strength and hold the structure
• when used in mortars, those mortars can set only by drying out, and therefore gain strength very slowly
• rarely utilized in modern times due to the difficulties associated with waiting long periods for setting and drying

Hydraulic Cement
• have the ability to set and harden after being combined with water
• as a result of chemical reactions, after hardening hydraulic cement mixtures retain strength and stability even when in contact with water
• made primarily from limestone, certain clay minerals, and gypsum, which are burned together in a high temperature process that drives off
carbon dioxide and chemically combines the primary ingredients into new compounds
• The ability to withstand continuous contact with water, in addition to the ability to set and harden quickly, and greater relative strength
makes hydraulic cement the main cement utilized in modern day construction.
Portland Cement
• The main form of cement used in construction worldwide today is the hydraulic cement called Portland cement
• It is a type of hydraulic cement made by heating a limestone and clay mixture to 1450 °C in a kiln and pulverizing the materials. In a
process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or
quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been included in the mix.
• The resulting hard substance, called ‘clinker’, is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make ‘Ordinary Portland
Cement’, the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC).
• It is a fine, grey or white powder that is made by grinding Portland cement clinker, a limited amount of calcium sulfate which controls the set
time, with other minor constituents.
• The cement is used as the basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco and most non specialty grout.

High alumina cement

• High alumina cement is obtained by fusing or sintering a mixture in suitable proportion of alumina and calcareous material and grinding the
resultant product to a fine powder.
• Raw materials are limestone and bauxite.
• About 20% of strength is achieved in one day.

Quick Setting Cement

• The setting time of ordinary cement is very less if gypsum is not added at the clinkering stage. Therefore when quick setting cement is
required, the gypsum is deliberately added in less quantity or not added at all.
• This type of cement is useful in flowing water and some typical grouting operations.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

Chemical Properties
• Chemical analysis
• Compound composition
• Chemical limits

Physical Properties
• Fineness
• Soundness
• Consistency
• Setting time
• False set and flash set
• Compressive strength
• Heat of hydration
• Loss on ignition
• Density
• Bulk density
• Sulfate expansion
TEST FOR CEMENT

Fineness Test

The fineness of cement can be defined as the measure of size of particles of cement or in simple form
“Specific Surface of Cement”. This test is usually carried out using IS sieve no.9 or 90 microns.

Setting Time Test

Cement when mixed with water triggers a process which results in a hardened mass of mixture wherein
hardness gradually increases with time. There are two setting times for cement- Initial Setting Time (IST) or Final Setting
Time (FST).It is tested using Vicat’s Apparatus.
ADVANTAGES VS DISADVANTAGES OF CEMENT

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Cement is used as a binding material Cement are subjected to cracking

Cement is easy to handle and apply It is very difficult to provide idoneous curing
conditions

They are suitable to contact with potable Not ideal for situations when settlement is
water expected
CEMENT, AGGREGATES, ADDITIVES
AGGREGATES
• ‘Aggregate’ is a term for any particulate material. It includes coarse particulate rock-like material consisting of a
collection of particles ranging in size from < 0.1 mm to > 50 mm. It includes gravel, crushed rock, sand, recycled
concrete, slag, and synthetic aggregate.

• Aggregates make up some 60 -80% of the concrete mix. They provide compressive strength and bulk to concrete.

• Aggregates in any particular mix of concrete are selected for their durability, strength, workability and ability to
receive finishes.

• For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or
coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete.

• The technique of Sieve Analysis is used for gradation of aggregate for use in concrete and for other applications.

• Larger aggregate diameters reduce the quantity of cement and water needed.
COMMON AGGREGATES

Crushed Stone and Manufactured Sand

• Stone is quarried, crushed and ground to produce a variety of sizes of aggregate to fit both ‘coarse’ and ‘fine’ specifications.

GRAVEL
• Gravel is formed of rocks that are unconnected to each other. ‘Gravel is composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have a general particle
size range and include size classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments.’

SAND
• Sand occurs naturally and is composed of fine rock material and mineral particles. Its composition is variable depending on the source. It is defined
by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than Silt.

LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES
• Lightweight aggregates can be from natural resources, or they can be man-made.The major natural resource is
volcanic material whilst synthetic aggregates are produced by a thermal the thermal treatment of materials with
expansive properties.These materials can be divided in three groups—natural materials, such as perlite,
vermiculite, clay, shale, and slate; industrial products, such as glass; and industrial by-products, such as fly
ash, expanded slag cinder, and bed ash.
RECYCLED CONCRETE
• Recycled concrete as aggregate will typically have higher absorption and lower specific gravity than natural aggregate and will produce concrete
with slightly higher drying shrinkage and creep. These differences become greater with increasing amounts of recycled fine aggregates.

AGGREGATE EXTRACTION
• Aggregates are extracted from natural sand or sand-and-gravel pits, hard-rock quarries, dredging submerged deposits, or mining underground
sediments.

ROCK QUARRIES
• The process of extraction from rock quarries usually involves explosives to shift the rock from the working face. Rock is crushed and passed
through a series of screens. The output is a range of sizes of rock produced to specified sizes. Crushed rock is transported from quarries by road or
rail.

MARINE AGGREGATE

Between 20 and 30 purpose-built dredging vessels work 24/7 to extract marine aggregate. There are two
types of dredging technique:
• Static dredging involves a vessel anchoring over and working a deposit using an electronic pump.
• A pump is trailed behind the vessel along the seabed.
WATER (AGGREGATE WASHING)
• Water is critical in the making of concrete. Adding water to the mix sets off a chemical reaction when it comes into contact with the cement. The
water used in the mixing of concrete is usually of a potable standard. Using non-drinking water or water of unknown purity risks the quality and
workability of the concrete.
TYPES OF AGGREGATE

Coarse Aggregate
Coarse-grained aggregates will not pass through a sieve with 4.75 mm openings.

Those particles that are predominantly retained on the 4.75 mm sieve and will pass through 3-inch screen, are called

coarse aggregate. The coarser the aggregate, the more economical the mix. Larger pieces offer less surface area of the particles than an equivalent
volume of small pieces. Use of the largest permissible maximum size of coarse aggregate permits a reduction in cement and water requirements.
Using aggregates larger than the maximum size of coarse aggregates permitted can result in interlock and form arches or obstructions within a
concrete form. That allows the area below to become a void, or at best, to become filled with finer particles of sand and cement only and results in a
weakened area.

For Coarse Aggregates in Roads following properties are desirable:

1. Strength
2. Hardness
3. Toughness
4. Durability
5. Shape of aggregates
6. Adhesion with bitumen
Fine Aggregate
The other type of aggregates are those particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve, almost entirely passing the 4.75 mm sieve, and predominantly
retained on the 75 µm sieve are called fine aggregate. For increased workability and for economy as reflected by use of less cement, the fine
aggregate should have a rounded shape. The purpose of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability
agent.
PURPOSE AND USES OF AGGREGATE

Purpose & Uses of Aggregates

In concrete, an aggregate is used for its economy factor, to reduce any cracks and most importantly to provide strength to the structure.

1. Aggregates are used as the base, subbase, and/or surface of roads in several forms
2. In roads and railway ballast, it is used to help distribute the load and assist in ground water running off the road.
3. Increases the volume of concrete, thus reduces the cost. Aggregates account for 60-75% of the volume of concrete
and 79-85% weight of PCC
4. Provide dimensional stability
5. Influence hardness, abrasion resistance, elastic modulus and other properties of concrete to make it more durable,
strong and cheaper.
6. Other uses include fills, backfills, and drainage and filtration applications.
CEMENT, AGGREGATES, ADDITIVES
ADDITIVES
• addedto the mixture of water cement and aggregate in small quantities to increase the durability of the
concrete, control setting, and hardening and fix the general concrete behavior

• can be powdered or liquid additives

•supplied in ready-to-use liquid form and are added to the concrete at the plant or at the jobsite
TYPES OF CONCRETE ADDITIVES

CHEMICAL ADDITIVES MINERAL ADDITIVES

● Reduce the construction cost ● Increase concrete strength.

● Overcome emergencies at concrete ● Economize on the mixture
operations. ● Reduce the permeability levels.
● Guarantee quality during mixing all ● Affect the nature of concrete (hardened)
through to curation process. through the use of hydraulic activity.
● Modify the features of a hardened
concrete
CLASSIFICATION OF ADDITIVES

Water reducing
They reduce the amount of water used to prepare concrete for a specific slump. Most of these additives are used in larger construction projects.
Here, the steel requires higher reinforcing rates to offer the high workability levels needed.
Additives in this category are active up to 10%

Accelerating additives
They accelerate the rate of cement hydration. These additives are most efficient during the cold seasons. Calcium chloride is used as the
accelerating additive on non-reinforced concrete.

Air-Entrainment
These additives are used to introduce microscopic air bubbles to stabilize the concrete. The resultant effect is preventing the concrete from cracking
in a cold environment.
Air also raises the cohesion force thus reducing segregation and water bleeding before the concrete fully settles.
Shrinkage reducing
These additives are used in floor slabs, bridge decks, and buildings where curling and cracks need to be significantly reduced. They provide the
durability while maintaining the beautiful nature of the structure.
Concrete shrinks occur where there is not adequate water. The shrinks cause internal stresses that may culminate to cracks. The shrinkage additives
work to ensure that this does not happen.

Corrosion-Inhibiting
These additives are used where there is a presence of chloride salts. These chloride ions may corrode with steel reinforcements resulting to rusts.
The areas that need this additive most include bridges, parking garages, and marine structures.

Super plasticizers
They are based on Sulphonated Naphthalene or Melamine formaldehyde condensates, Vinyl polymers or Polycarboxylate Ethers. They are also
known as plasticizers or high-range water reducers (HRWR), reduce water content by 12 to 30 percent and can be added to concrete with a low-to-
normal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete. The effect of Superplasticizers lasts only 30 to 60 minutes, depending on
the brand and dosage rate, and is followed by a rapid loss in workability. As a result of the slump loss, Superplasticizers are usually added to
concrete at the jobsite.
DESIGN MIXES
- is the process of selecting the ingredients for a concrete mixture and deciding on their proportions. When designing a
concrete mix, you should always consider the desired strength, durability, and workability of the concrete for the project.
- ACI CONCRETE MIX (CE 3103)

- For the Laboratory you may follow the basic estimation of concrete mix by Max Fajardo
Foundation Piles
Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, is actually a slender column or long
cylinder made of materials such as concrete or steel which are used to support the
structure and transfer the load at desired depth either by end bearing or skin
friction.

Deep foundations. They are formed by long, slender, columnar elements typically
made from steel or reinforced concrete, or sometimes timber. A foundation is
described as 'piled' when its depth is more than three times its breadth.
-Atkinson, 2007
Foundation Pile

When to Use Pile Foundation

Following are the situations when using a pile foundation system can be

● When the groundwater table is high.

● Heavy and un-uniform loads from superstructure are imposed.
● Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible.
● When the soil at shallow depth is compressible.
● When there is the possibility of scouring, due to its location near the river bed or seashore, etc.
● When there is a canal or deep drainage systems near the structure.
● When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth due to poor soil condition.
● When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by pumping or by any other measure due to heavy
inflow of seepage.
Foundation Pile

Types of Pile Foundation

Pile foundations can be classified based on function, materials and installation process, etc. Followings are the types of pile
foundation used in construction:

A. Based on Function or Use

1. Sheet Piles
2. Load Bearing Piles
3. End bearing Piles
4. Friction Piles
5. Soil Compactor Piles
B. Based on Materials and Construction Method
1. Timber Piles
2. Concrete Piles
3. Steel Piles
4. Composite Piles
Sheet Piles
This type of pile is mostly used to provide lateral support. Usually, they resist lateral pressure from loose soil, the flow of
water, etc. They are usually used for cofferdams, trench sheeting, shore protection, etc. They are not used for providing
vertical support to the structure. They are usually used to serve the following purpose-

● Construction of retaining walls.

● Protection from river bank erosion.
● Retain the loose soil around foundation trenches.
● For isolation of foundation from adjacent soils.
● For confinement of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of the soil.
Load Bearing Piles
This type of pile foundation is mainly used to transfer the vertical loads from the structure to the soil.
These foundations transmit loads through the soil with poor supporting property onto a layer which is
capable of bearing the load. Depending on the mechanism of load transfer from pile to the soil, load-
bearing piles can be further classified as flowed.
End Bearing Piles
In this type of pile, the loads pass through the lower tip of the pile. The bottom end of the pile rests on a
strong layer of soil or rock. Usually, the pile rests at a transition layer of a weak and strong slayer. As a
result, the pile acts as a column and safely transfers the load to the strong layer.
The total capacity of end bearing pile can be calculated by multiplying the area of the tip of the pile and the
bearing capacity of at that particular depth of soil at which the pile rests. Considering a reasonable factor
of safety, the diameter of the pile is calculated.
Friction Pile
Friction pile transfers the load from the structure to the soil by the frictional force between the surface of the pile and the soil
surrounding the pile such as stiff clay, sandy soil, etc. Friction can be developed for the entire length of the pile or a definite
length of the pile, depending on the strata of the soil. In friction pile, generally, the entire surface of the pile works to transfer
the loads from the structure to the soil.
The surface area of the pile multiplied by the safe friction force developed per unit area determines the capacity of the pile.

While designing skin friction pile, the skin friction to be developed at a pile surface should be sincerely evaluated and a
reasonable factor of safety should be considered. Besides this one can increase the pile diameter, depth, number of piles
and make pile surface rough to increase the capacity of friction pile.
Soil Compactor Piles
piles driven at placed closed intervals to increase the bearing capacity of soil by
compacting.
Timber Piles

Timber piles are placed under the water level. They last for approximately about 30 years. They can be rectangular or circular in
shape. Their diameter or size can vary from 12 to 16 inches. The length of the pile is usually 20 times of the top width.

They are usually designed for 15 to 20 tons. Additional strength can be obtained by bolting fish plates to the side of the piles.

Advantages of Timber Piles-

● Timber piles of regular size are available.

● Economical.
● Easy to install.
● Low possibility of damage.
● Timber piles can be cut off at any desired length after they are installed.
● If necessary, timber piles can be easily pulled out.
Timber Piles
Disadvantages of Timber Piles-

● Piles of longer lengths are not always available.

● It is difficult to obtain straight piles if the length is short.
● It is difficult to drive the pile if the soil strata are very hard.
● Spicing of timber pile is difficult.
● Timber or wooden piles are not suitable to be used as end-bearing piles.
● For durability of timber piles, special measures have to be taken. For example- wooden piles are often treated with
preservative.
Concrete Piles

Pre-cast Concrete Pile

The precast concrete pile is cast in pile bed in the horizontal form if they are rectangular in shape. Usually, circular piles are cast
in vertical forms. Precast piles are usually reinforced with steel to prevent breakage during its mobilization from casting bed to
the location of the foundation. After the piles are cast, curing has to be performed as per specification. Generally curing period
for pre-cast piles is 21 to 28 days.

Advantages of Pre-cast Piles

● Provides high resistance to chemical and biological cracks.

● They are usually of high strength.
● To facilitate driving, a pipe may be installed along the center of the pile.
● If the piles are cast and ready to be driven before the installation phase is due, it can increase the pace of work.
● The confinement of the reinforcement can be ensured.
● Quality of the pile can be controlled.
● f any fault is identified, it can be replaced before driving.
● Pre-cast piles can be driven under the water.
● The piles can be loaded immediately after it is driven up to the required length.
Concrete Piles
Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles

● Once the length of the pile is decided, it is difficult to increase or decrease the length of the pile afterward.
● They are difficult to mobilize.
● Needs heavy and expensive equipment to drive.
● As they are not available for readymade purchase, it can cause a delay in the project.
● There is a possibility of breakage or damage during handling and driving of piles.

Cast-in-Palace Concrete Piles

This type of pile is constructed by boring of soil up to the desired depth and then, depositing freshly mixed concrete in that place
and letting it cure there. This type of pile is constructed either by driving a metallic shell to the ground and filling it with concrete
and leave the shell with the concrete or the shell is pulled out while concrete is poured.
Concrete Piles
Advantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

● The shells are light weighted, so they are easy to handle.

● Length of piles can be varied easily.
● The shells may be assembled at sight.
● No excess enforcement is required only to prevent damage from handling.
● No possibility of breaking during installation.
● Additional piles can be provided easily if required.

Disadvantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

● Installation requires careful supervision and quality control.

● Needs sufficient place on site for storage of the materials used for construction.
● It is difficult to construct cast in situ piles where the underground water flow is heavy.
● Bottom of the pile may not be symmetrical.
● If the pile is un-reinforced and uncased, the pile can fail in tension if there acts and uplifting force.
Concrete Piles
 Steel Piles
Steel piles may be of I-section or hollow pipe. They are filled with concrete. The size may vary from 10
inches to 24 inches in diameter and thickness is usually ¾ inches. Because of the small sectional area,
the piles are easy to drive. They are mostly used as end-bearing piles.
Advantages of Steel Piles

● They are easy to install.

● They can reach a greater depth comparing to any other type of pile.
● Can penetrate through the hard layer of soil due to the less cross-sectional area.
● It is easy to splice steel piles
● Can carry heavy loads.

Disadvantage of Steel Piles

● Prone to corrosion.
● Has a possibility of deviating while driving.
● Comparatively expensive.
Composite Piles

Composite Piles are those piles of two different materials are driven one over the other, so as to enable them to act
together to perform the function of a single pile. In such a combination, advantage is taken of the good qualities of both the
materials. These prove economical as they permit the utilization of the great corrosion resistance property of one material
with the cheapness or strength of the other.
TYPES OF FOOTINGS
1. SPREAD FOOTING
is defined as the structural members used to

support the column and walls as well as transmit

and distribute the load coming on the structure to the soil

beneath it.
2. STRAP FOOTING
is also a type of shallow foundation, consisting of two or more column footings connected

by a concrete beam. This type of beam is called a strap beam.

3. COMBINED FOOTING
is basically a combination of various footings, which utilizes the properties of different

footing in a single footing based on the requirement of the structure. It carries two or more

columns along a straight line.

4. STRIP FOOTING

is a type of shallow foundation that

is used to provide a continuous, level strip of

support to a linear structure.

5. MAT FOOTING

It is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under an entire structure or a

large part of the structure.

FOOTING FORMWORKS
What is Formworks?
● In construction, formwork is the use
of support structures and moulds to
create structures out of concrete
which is poured into the moulds.
● Formwork can be made using
moulds out of steel, wood,
aluminum, and/or prefabricated
forms.
Footing Formworks
● Formworks for foundation
● Foundation can be for columns or
walls. So, based on type of
structural member, the shape and
size of footing are designed. Thus
formwork size and shape depends
on the type and dimension of the
footing.
 Materials Used
Formwork are mainly of two types:

● Wooden formwork
○ Lumber (2” x 2” x 12” or 2” x
2” x 8” or 2” x 3” x 12”)
○ Plywood Wooden Formwork
○ Common wirenails (CWN)
● Steel formwork
○ Steel sheets
○ Angle Iron
○ Tee Iron

Steel Formwork
Components of Footing Forms: