11

GENERAL
BIOLOGY II

3 Quarter
rd

Relevance,
Mechanisms,
Evidence/Bases, and
Theories of
Evolution (WEEK 2)
GENERAL BIOLOGY II
Content Standards:

The learners demonstrate an understanding of Relevance, Mechanisms, Evidence/Bases,

and Theories of Evolution.
Performance Standards:
The learners should be able to make a diagram (e.g., pictogram, poster) showing the
evolution of a domesticated crop.

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

1. Describe general features of the history of life on Earth, including generally accepted date
and sequence of the geologic time scale and characteristics of major groups of organisms
present during these time periods. STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-8
2. Explain the mechanisms that produce change in populations from generation to generation
(e.g., artificial selection, natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, recombination)
STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-9

Lesson RELEVANCE, MECHANISMS,

EVIDENCE/BASES AND
1 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
History of Life on Earth
The history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living, and fossil organisms evolved,
from the earliest emergence of life to the present. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago
(abbreviated as Ga, for gigaannum) and evidence suggests that life emerged prior to 3.7 Ga.
The earliest life forms we know of were microscopic organisms (microbes) that left signals of
their presence in rocks about 3.7 billion years old. The signals consisted of a type of carbon
molecule that is produced by living things.
Planet Earth is 4,600 million years old. We all know this is very old indeed, but big numbers
like this are always difficult to get your head around.
Important Events in the Earth’s History
• 4600 mya (million years ago) – Planet Earth formed. Dust left over from the
birth of the sun clumped together to form planet Earth. The other planets in our
solar system was also formed in this way at about the same time.
• 4500 mya – Earth’s core and crust formed. Dense metals sank to the centre of the Earth
and formed the core, while the outside layer cooled and solidified to form the Earth’s crust.
• 4400 mya – The Earth’s first oceans formed. Water vapour was released into the Earth’s
atmosphere by volcanism. It then cooled, fell back down as rain, and formed the Earth’s first
oceans. Some water may also have been brought to Earth by comets and asteroids.
• 3850 mya – The first life appeared on Earth. It was very simple single-celled organisms.
Exactly how life first arose is a mystery.
• 1500 mya – Oxygen began to accumulate in the Earth’s atmosphere. Oxygen is made by
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) as a product of photosynthesis. For 2,200 million years this
oxygen was removed from the atmosphere as it reacted with iron, sank to the bottom of the
sea and became trapped in rock layers. 1,500 million years ago the free iron ran out and
oxygen began to be released into the atmosphere.
• 700 mya – The first animals evolved. These were simple single-celled animals.
• 530 mya – The first vertebrates (fish) evolved.
• 400 mya – The first land plants evolved. Oxygen in the atmosphere reacted to form ozone,
which formed a layer. This served as a protective barrier to the harmful rays coming from
space and which allowed plants to colonise the land.
 • 350 mya – The first land vertebrates evolved. With plants present on the land to provide a
food source, animals rapidly followed. The first to venture onto the land were primitive
amphibians, and reptiles evolved soon afterwards.
• 225 mya – The first dinosaurs evolved from lizards.
• 65 mya – The dinosaurs went extinct. The dinosaurs, and many other species with them,
were wiped out by the after-effects of a meteorite impact, or perhaps several impacts. The
impact(s) set off chains of earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions, which threw lots
of dust and acid into the atmosphere, creating an impact winter. The dust blocked out the
sunlight so plants could no longer photosynthesise, and food chains collapsed. After the
extinction of the dinosaurs, mammals evolved rapidly and filled the evolutionary niches
they left behind.
• 130,000 years ago (0.13 mya) – Modern humans evolved. Homo sapiens
evolved in Africa from earlier humans. They left Africa around 35,000 years ago and
spread around the globe. Human evolution is still pretty mysterious, due to gaps in the
fossil record.

Geologic Time Scale

Geologic Time Scale is a tabular representation of the major divisions of the history of Earth.

Dividing Earth History into Time Intervals

Geologists have divided Earth's history into a series of time intervals. These time intervals are
not equal in length like the hours in a day. Instead, the time intervals are variable in length. This
is because geologic time is divided using significant events in the history of the Earth.
Examples of Boundary "Events"

For example, the boundary between the Permian and Triassic is marked by a global extinction in
which a large percentage of Earth's plant and animal species were eliminated. Another example
is the boundary between the Precambrian and the Paleozoic, which is marked by the first
appearance of animals with hard parts.

The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for events in Earth history. It subdivides all time into
named units of abstract time called—in descending order of duration—eons, eras, periods,
epochs, and ages.

Eons
The eon is the broadest category of geological time. Earth's history is characterized by four eons;
in order from oldest to youngest, these are the Hadeon, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic.
Collectively, the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic are sometimes informally referred to as the
"Precambrian." (The Cambrian period defines the beginning of the Phanerozoic eon; so, all rocks
older than the Cambrian are Precambrian in age.)

We live during the Phanerozoic, which means "visible life." This is the interval of geological time
characterized by abundant, complex fossilized remains. Being the youngest eon of time, it is also
very well represented by rock at Earth's surface (because of the Principle of Superposition; see
Section 1). Because of these two factors, most paleontologists and geologists study fossils and
rocks from the Phanerozoic eon.
Eras
Eons of geological time are subdivided into eras, which are the second-longest units of geological
time. The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

Most of our knowledge of the fossil record comes from the three eras of the Phanerozoic eon. The
Paleozoic ("old life") era is characterized by trilobites, the first four-limbed vertebrates, and the
origin of land plants. The Mesozoic ("middle life") era represents the "age of dinosaurs," though
also is noteworthy for the first appearances of mammals and flowering plants. Finally, the
Cenozoic ("new life") era is sometimes called the "age of mammals" and is the era during which
we live today.

The older Archean and Proterozoic eons are similarly divided into several eras. For example, the
youngest era of the Proterozoic eon is called the Neoproterozoic.

Periods

Just as eons are subdivided into eras, eras are subdivided into units of time called periods. The
most well known of all geological periods is the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era (the movie
Jurassic Park, of course, has something to do with that).

The Paleozoic era is divided into six periods. From oldest to youngest, these are the Cambrian,
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian.
The Mesozoic era is divided into the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.

Finally, the Cenozoic era is divided into three periods: the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary.

Epochs and Ages

Periods of geological time are subdivided into epochs. In turn, epochs are divided into even
narrower units of time called ages. For the sake of simplicity, only the epochs of the Paleogene,
Neogene, and Quaternary periods are shown on the time scale at the top. It is important to note,
however, that all of the periods of the Phanerozoic era are subdivided into the epochs and ages.

The Paleogene period is divided into--from oldest to youngest--the Paleocene, Eocene, and
Oligocene epochs. The Neogene is divided into the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. Finally, the
Quaternary is divided into the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Some geologists now think that-
-since humans are having such a notable impact on the Earth and its life--a new, youngest
epoch should be added to the Quaternary: the Anthropocene. There is still considerable
discussion in the geological community about whether this epoch should be added, as well as
debate about what characteristics should define its beginning.
 Mechanisms that produce change
Lesson
in populations from generation to
2
generation

Geological time with major evolutionary events in the fossil record

The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle says that allele frequencies in a population will
remain constant in the absence of the four factors that could change them. Those factors are
natural selection, mutation, genetic drift, and migration (gene flow). In fact, we know they are
probably always affecting populations.

Natural Selection
Natural selection occurs when one allele (or combination of alleles of different genes) makes an
organism more or less fit, that is, able to survive and reproduce in a given environment. If an
allele reduces fitness, its frequency will tend to drop from one generation to the next. We will
look in detail at different forms of natural selection that occur in populations. Alleles are
expressed in a phenotype. Depending on the environmental conditions, the phenotype confers an
advantage or disadvantage to the individual with the phenotype relative to the other phenotypes
in the population. If it is an advantage, then that individual will likely have more offspring than
individuals with the other phenotypes, and this will mean that the allele behind the phenotype
will have greater representation in the next generation. If conditions remain the same, those
offspring, which are carrying the same allele, will also benefit. Over time, the allele will increase
in frequency in the population.

Mutation
Mutation is a source of new alleles in a population. Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of
the gene. A mutation can change one allele into another, but the net effect is a change in
frequency. The change in frequency resulting from mutation is small, so its effect on evolution is
small unless it interacts with one of the other factors, such as selection. A mutation may
produce an allele that is selected against, selected for, or selectively neutral. Harmful mutations
are removed from the population by selection and will generally only be found in very low
frequencies equal to the mutation rate. Beneficial mutations will spread through the population
through selection, although that initial spread is slow. Whether or not a mutation is beneficial or
harmful is determined by whether it helps an organism survive to sexual maturity and
reproduce. It should be noted that mutation is the ultimate source of genetic variation in all
populations—new alleles, and, therefore, new genetic variations arise through mutation.
Although mutation is the original source of all genetic variation, mutation rate for most
organisms is low. So, the impact of brand-new mutations on allele frequencies from one
generation to the next is usually not large.

Genetic Drift
Another way a population’s allele frequencies can change is genetic drift ([Figure 1]), which is
simply the effect of chance. Genetic drift is most important in small populations. Drift would be
completely absent in a population with infinite individuals, but, of course, no population is this
large. Genetic drift occurs because the alleles in an offspring generation are a random sample of
the alleles in the parent generation. Alleles may or may not make it into the next generation due
to chance events including mortality of an individual, events affecting finding a mate, and even
the events affecting which gametes end up in fertilizations. If one individual in a population of
ten individuals happens to die before it leaves any offspring to the next generation, all of its
genes—a tenth of the population’s gene pool—will be suddenly lost. In a population of 100, that
1 individual represents only 1 percent of the overall gene pool; therefore, it has much less impact
on the population’s genetic structure and is unlikely to remove all copies of even a relatively rare
allele.

Imagine a population of ten individuals, half with allele A and half with allele a (the individuals
are haploid). In a stable population, the next generation will also have ten individuals. Choose
that generation randomly by flipping a coin ten times and let heads be A and tails be a. It is
unlikely that the next generation will have exactly half of each allele. There might be six of one
and four of the other, or some different set of frequencies. Thus, the allele frequencies have
changed and evolution has occurred. A coin will no longer work to choose the next generation
(because the odds are no longer one half for each allele). The frequency in each generation will
drift up and down on what is known as a random walk until at one point either all A or all a are
chosen and that allele is fixed from that point on. This could take a very long time for a large
population. This simplification is not very biological, but it can be shown that real populations
behave this way. The effect of drift on frequencies is greater the smaller a population is. Its effect
is also greater on an allele with a frequency far from one half. Drift will influence every allele,
even those that are being naturally selected.
Genetic drift involves changes in allele frequency due to chance events – literally, "sampling
error" in selecting alleles for the next generation. Drift can occur in any population of non-
infinite size, but it has a stronger effect on small populations.
Gene Flow
Another important evolutionary force is gene flow, or the flow of alleles in and out of a population
resulting from the migration of individuals or gametes. While some populations are stable, others
experience more flux. Many plants, for example, send their seeds far and wide, by wind or in the
guts of animals; these seeds may introduce alleles common in the source population to a new
population in which they are rare.
Gene flow involves the movement of genes into or out of a population, due to either the movement
of individual organisms or their gametes (eggs and sperm, e.g., through pollen dispersal by a
plant). Organisms and gametes that enter a population may have new alleles, or may bring in
existing alleles but in different proportions than those already in the population. Gene flow can be
a strong agent of evolution.

Artificial Selection

Artificial selection is the identification by humans of desirable traits in plants and animals, and
the steps taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in future generations. Artificial selection
works the same way as natural selection, except that with natural selection it is nature, not human
interference, that makes these decisions.
In laying out the evidence for his theory of evolution by natural selection in his 1859 book, On the
Origin of Species, the British naturalist and biologist Charles Darwin highlighted the physical
traits and behaviors of several species of bird called finches. During a voyage in the 1830s, Darwin
had observed these birds on the Galápagos Islands, a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean west
of South America.

Sometimes summed up by the phrase “survival of the fittest,” natural selection is based on the
following principles: In nature, organisms produce more offspring than are able to survive and
reproduce. Offspring with traits that make them more likely to survive, mature, and reproduce in
the environment they inhabit pass on their traits to the next generation.

As this happens generation after generation, natural selection acts as a kind of sieve, or a remover
of undesirable traits. Organisms therefore gradually become better-suited for their environment.
If the environment changes, natural selection will then push organisms to evolve in a different
direction to adapt to their new circumstances.

How does this relate to finches? On the Galápagos Islands, some finches appeared so different
from others that Darwin did not realize at first that they were all finches. In fact, they were different
species of finches with a variety of traits. Some finches, for instance, had long, narrow beaks, while
others had short, thick beaks. Darwin concluded that the traits of the different populations of
finches had changed over time, and that these variations were related to different environments in
the islands. Each type of beak had evolved for a specific task. Where there was a large supply of
seeds on the ground, for instance, short-beaked finches became more common, because these
beaks were better at cracking open the seeds. Where cactus plants were more common, finches
developed long, narrow beaks to extract pollen and nectar from cactus flowers.

Darwin’s finches constituted powerful evidence for natural selection. But Darwin was also inspired
greatly by the evolution that he saw in the traits of pigeons, not due to natural selection but rather
as the shape and size of their beaks and the color of their feathers.

Dog breeding is another prime example of artificial selection. Although all dogs are descendants
of the wolf, the use of artificial selection has allowed humans to drastically alter the appearance
of dogs. For centuries, dogs have been bred for various desired characteristics, leading to the
creation of a wide range of dogs, from the tiny Chihuahua to the massive Great Dane.

Artificial selection has long been used in agriculture to produce animals and crops with desirable
traits. The meats sold today are the result of the selective breeding of chickens, cattle, sheep, and
pigs. Many fruits and vegetables have been improved or even created through artificial selection.
For example, broccoli, cauliflower, and cabbage were all derived from the wild mustard plant
through selective breeding. Artificial selection appeals to humans since it is faster than natural
selection and allows humans to mold organisms to their needs.
Recombination

Mutation plays an important role in evolution. The ultimate source of all genetic variation is
mutation. Mutation is important as the first step of evolution because it creates a new DNA
sequence for a particular gene, creating a new allele. Recombination also can create a new DNA
sequence (a new allele) for a specific gene through intragenic recombination. Mutation acting as
an evolutionary force by itself has the potential to cause significant changes in allele frequencies
over very long periods of time. But if mutation were the only force acting on pathogen populations,
then evolution would occur at a rate that we could not observe.

Recombination is a process by which pieces of DNA are broken and recombined to produce new
combinations of alleles. This recombination process creates genetic diversity at the level of genes
that reflects differences in the DNA sequences of different organisms.

In eukaryotic cells, which are cells with a nucleus and organelles, recombination typically occurs
during meiosis. Meiosis is a form of cell division that produces gametes, or egg and sperm cells.
During the first phase of meiosis, the homologous pairs of maternal and paternal chromosomes
align. During the alignment, the arms of the chromosomes can overlap and temporarily fuse,
causing a crossover. Crossovers result in recombination and the exchange of genetic material
between the maternal and paternal chromosomes. As a result, offspring can have different
combinations of genes than their parents. Genes that are located farther apart on the same
chromosome have a greater likelihood of undergoing recombination, which means they have a
greater recombination frequency.

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

What is the geologic time scale?

Test I. Complete the following. Write your answers in the spaces provided.
1. What is the geologic time scale? ________________________________
2. What is the major unit of geologic time? ________________________
3. What are the more recent divisions of geologic time called? ______
4. How old do many scientists estimate Earth to be? ______________
5. During which divisions of geologic time are you living? __________
6. How many eras of geologic time make up the geologic time scale? __________
7. How have scientists been able to develop a geologic time scale? ___________________

Test II. Classify each organism listed in the table below in the era of geologic time in which it first
appeared on Earth. Place a check mark in the correct column to indicate your answer. Use
reference materials if necessary.

LIVING THINGS AND GEOLOGIC TIME

Organism Cenozoic Mesozoic Paleozoic Precambrian
1. Bacteria
2. Seed plants
3. Modern human
4. Flowering plant
5. Mammoth
6. Reptiles
7. Tyrannosaurus rex
8. Fishes
9. Horse
10. Insects
 Test III.
A. Choose among the given choices the best answer for the given condition below. Write the letter
of the correct answer.
A. Natural Selection
B. Mutation
C. Genetic Drift
D. Recombinaton
E. Gene Flow

_____________ 1. New individuals move into a population

_____________ 2. Camouflage enables the insect to evade predators
_____________ 3. A prominent tail helps the peacock attract a mate
_____________ 4. By chance, some wildflowers in the population reproduce, while others do not
_____________ 5. The bird’s beak is well-suited for cracking seeds.

B. Which among the choices best describe the image? Choose among the given choices the best
answer for the given image below. Write the letter of the correct answer.
A. Natural Selection
B. Mutation
C. Genetic Drift
D. Recombinaton
E. Gene Flow

1. ___________

2. ____________

3. _____________
 4. ____________

Test IV. Match each term in column A with its definition in column B. Write the letter of the
correct answer.
COLUMN A COLUMN B

_____1. Natural Selection a. occurs when one allele (or combination of

alleles of different genes) makes an organism
more or less fit, that is, able to survive and
reproduce in a given environment.

_____2. Mutation
_____3. Gene Flow b. is the identification by humans of desirable
traits in plants and animals, and the steps
taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in
future generations.
c. a process by which pieces of DNA are broken
and recombined to produce new combinations
of alleles.
d. occurs because the alleles in an offspring
generation are a random sample of the alleles
in the parent generation.
e. a source of new alleles in a population.

_____4. Recombination f. involves the movement of genes into or out of a

population, due to either the movement of
individual organisms or their gametes

_____5. Genetic Drift

_____6. Artificial Selection

Test V. Choose the best answer from the choices.

1. The Geologic Time Scale is a record of what?

a. old geologists
b. sweet geology music
c. the known history of rocks and fossils
d. a list of every living thing ever
2. Paleozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic are all
a. Epochs b. Eras c. Periods d. Eons
3. Which is the most recent era of time- the one that we are currently in?
a. Mesozoic b. Paleozoic c. Cenozoic . Precambrian
4. True or False: Geologists subdivide periods into eras.
a. False b. True
5. Which division on the geologic time scale is the shortest?
a. epoch b. era c. eon d. period
6. The Era with the largest extinction we know of is the...
a. Mesozoic era b. Precambrian era c. Paleozoic era d. Cenozoic era
7. The Era when humans first appeared was
a. Cenozoic b. Mesozoic c. Paleozoic d. Precambrian
8.What were the dominant animals of the Mesozoic Era?
a. fish b. reptiles c. mammals d. bacteria
9. In a population of ladybugs, black bugs are more successful in escaping predators. Overtime,
this gene becomes more popular in the population and the ladybug population loses its red color.
a. Natural Selection b. Mutation c.Genetic Drift d. Gene Flow
10. A lion gets chased off from his pride, then joins another pride. He mates with a lioness and
make 6 lion cubs.
a. Natural Selection b. Mutation c.Genetic Drift d. Gene Flow
11. A hurricane wipes out half the population of blue jays in Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.
a. Natural Selection b. Mutation c.Genetic Drift d. Gene Flow
12. A hurricane wipes out half the population of blue jays in Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.
a. Natural Selection b. Mutation c.Genetic Drift d. Gene Flow
13. A hawk captures a black mouse in a desert, and leaves a tan mouse behind
a. Natural Selection b. Mutation c.Genetic Drift d. Gene Flow
14. Ten years ago, in a small population of ducks, two sizes of eyes were observed, large and small.
Three ducks have large eyes and 7 have small. 2 of the large-eyed ducks are randomly hit by cars
and killed. Today, no large-eyed ducks are present in the population.
a. Natural Selection b. Mutation c.Genetic Drift d. Gene Flow
15. A population of flowers on one side of a river transports pollen to the flowers on the other side
of the river, producing offspring.
a. Natural Selection b. Mutation c.Genetic Drift d. Gene Flow
16. Which of the following is true of genetic drift?
a. It can decrease genetic diversity in a population
b. It is necessary in order for a population to be in equilibrium
c. It can increase genetic diversity in a population
d. It plays a much larger role in determining the genetic makeup of populations than natural
selection
17. Which of the following cannot introduce new alleles into a population's gene pool?
a. Mutation
b. Natural Selection
c. Gene Flow
d. All of the above introduce new alleles into the population
18. Modern whales developed their traits through natural selection. What occurs during the
process of natural selection?
a. Organisms choose mates from other species to create new species
b. Breeders selectively cross organisms with desired traits
c. Only the fittest organisms can survive and reproduce
d. Organisms remain exactly the same over time.
19. When individuals move in or out of a population.
a. Gene Flow b. Genetic Drift c.Mutation d.Natural Selection

Performance Task:

Make a diagram (e.g., pictogram, the poster) showing evolution of a domesticated crop.

Sample Pictogram
Rubric:

REFERENCES

https://www.britannica.com/science/geologic-time
https://geology.com/time.htm
https://www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/learn/geological-time/geological-time-scale/
https://www.dynamicearth.co.uk/media/1824/geological-timeline-pack-2.pdf
http://www.arrsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Geologic-Time-Scale.pdf
https://www.teachervision.com/geology/what-geologic-time-scale
conceptsofbiologyopenstax
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-selection/hardy-weinberg-
equilibrium/a/hardy-weinberg-mechanisms-of-evolution
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/artificial-selection/
https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/recombination-226/
https://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/disimpactmngmnt/topc/PopGenetics/Pages/Mutation.aspx
https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5704deb56465226c4b1632dd/geologic-time-scale
https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5c36a84d2116fd001abf296a/mechanisms-of-evolution
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/304907837247074593/

Prepared:

JENNIFER M. PAGDANGANAN
Teacher III

Checked:

Rosita A. Elopre
Master Teacher I

Noted:

Ma. Victoria C. Vivo Ed.D

Principal IV