Lecture Note

Graph Coloring

The intuitive idea behind the colouring of a graph is simply paint its vertices such
that no two adjacent vertices have same color. What is the minimum number of colors
necessary? This constitutes a coloring problem.
After the vertices have been painted, they can be categorized into the groups or
its; for example, one set having all the blue colors, another of red and so forth. This is a
partitioning problem. The colouring and partitioning can either be carried out on vertices
or on edges of the graph and for planer graphs; these can be performed in the regions.
Colouring and petitioning have several important applications such as; coding theory,
partitioning of logic in digital computer, scheduling and assignments etc.

Definition 1. A colouring of a simple graph is the assignment of a colour to each vertex

of the graph so that no two adjacent vertices are assigned the same colour.

A graph can be coloured by assigning a different colour to each of its vertices. However,
for most graphs, a colouring can be found that uses fewer colours than the number of
vertices in the graph. A colour with colours such that no two adjacent vertices have the
same colour is called properly coloured graph.
R G B B Y
R R R
R

Y B Y B R B
Fig.-1
Definition 2: A graph G is said to be k-colourable if each vertex can be assigned one of k
colours so that adjacent vertices get different colours.

Here, we are interested with the proper colouring that requires the minimum number of
colours. The minimum colouring of a graph is generally difficult to compute, but the
following theorem provides an upper bound.

Theorem 1: A graph G with maximum degree at most k is (k+1)-colourable.

Proof: We use the induction principle on the number of vertex n of G. Let P(n) be the
proposition that an n-vertex graph with maximum degree at most k is (k+1)-colorable. A
1-vertex graph G has maximum degree 0 and is 1-colorable, so P(1) is true.
Let us assume that P(n) is true and G be an (n+1) vertex graph with maximum degree at
most k. Remove a vertex v from G. The maximum degree of G-v is at most k and G-v is
(k+1)-colorable by our assumption P(n). Now add back the vertex v to G. We can assign
v a different color from all adjacent vertices, since v has degree at most k and k+1 color
are available. Therefore, G is (k+1)-colorable. The theorem follows by induction.

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Definition 3: The chromatic number of a graph G denoted by (G) is the least number of
colors needed for its proper coloring. Such a graph is called -chromatic.

It is easily verified that the graph in Fig.(i),(ii) and (iii) are all 3-chromatic.

In coloring graphs we are concentrates with colouring of connected graphs only (as in
disconnected graphs, colouring of the vertices in one component does not effect the
other). Self-loops are also not considered for the colouring. Parallel edges between two
vertices can be replaced by a simple edge without effecting adjacency of vertices. Thus,
for colouring problems we need to consider only simple connected graphs.

Some important observations:

(i) A graph consisting of only isolated vertices is 1-chromatic.

(ii) A graph with one or more edges (without a self-loop) is at least 2-chromatic.
(iii) (Kn) = n where Kn is the complete graph with n vertices.
(iv) (Km. n) = 2 where Km,n is the complete bipartite graph with m, n vertices.
2 if n is even
(v) (Cn) = where Cn is the cycle graph with n vertices.
3 if n is odd
3 if n is even
(vi) (Wn) = where Wn is the wheel graph with n vertices.
4 if n is odd

In general, it is extremely difficult to determine the chromatic number of a graph. For

graphs with a small number of vertices it is not too difficult to guess the chromatic
number.
Here, we give an algorithm by Welch and Powell for coloring of a graph G. We
emphasize that this algorithm does not always yield a minimum coloring of G.

Algorithm: (Welch and Powell)

Let G is a simple connected graph.

Step-1. Order the vertices of G according to decreasing degrees.

Step-2. Assign the first color c1 to the first vertex and then, in sequential order, assign c1
to each vertex, which is not adjacent to a previous vertex.
Step-3. Repeat step-2 with a second color c2 and the subsequence of non-color vertices.
Step-4. Repeat step-3 with a third color c3, then a forth color c4 and so on until all
vertices are colored.
Step-5. Stop.

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Example: Consider the graph G in the following figure. Ordering the vertices according
to decreasing degree yields the following sequence:
v1 , v4 , v7 , v2 , v3 , v5 , v6 , v8.

v2 v3 v4

v1
v5 v6

v7 v8
Fig.-2
The first color is assigned to vertex v1 and v2.
The second color is assigned to vertex v4, v5 and v8.
The third color is assigned to vertex v7, v3 and v6.
All the vertices have been assigned a color and so G is 3-colorable. Observe that G is not
2-colorable since vertices v2, v3, v4 that are connected to each other, must be assigned
different colors. Accordingly (G) = 3.

Theorem 2: Every tree with two or more vertices is 2-chromatic.

Proof: Chose any vertices v in the given tree T. Let T be a rooted tree at vertex v.
suppose the first color is assigned to the root v. Paint all the vertices adjacent to v with
second color. Next paint the vertices adjacent to this using first color. Continue this
process till every vertex in T has been painted. Hence all the vertices at odd distance from
v have second color. While v and vertices at even distances from v have first color.

Theorem 3: A graph is 2 chromatic if and only if it is bipartite.

Proof : Let G be a 2 chromatic graph, i.e (G) = 2.

Let V1 denote the set of all vertices for which first color is assigned and V2 be the set of
all vertices for which second color is assigned. Then V = V1 V2 is a partition of V in G.
Otherwise at least two vertices in V1 or V2 have the same color. Therefore, G is bipartite.
Conversely, let us assume that G is bipartite. Let (V1, V2) be the partition of V in G. Then
a 2 coloring for G can be given by coloring the vertices in V1 by one color and the
reaming vertices in V2 by another color. Hence G is 2 chromatic.

Theorem 4: For any graph G, (G) 1 + (G) where (G) is the maximum degree of a
vertex in G.

Proof: Let H be the smallest induced subgraph of G such that (H) = n. Then (H - v) =
n – 1 for any vertex v H. It follows that d(v) n – 1 so that n - 1 dmax(H) dmax(G) =
(G).

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Five color theorem of a planar graph:

Theorem (Heawood) 5: Every planar graph is 5-colorable.

Proof: Let G be a simple connected planer graph with n-vertices. If n 5, the result is
obvious. Let n 5. We complete the proof by induction hypothesis. Since G is a
connected planer graph. It must have a vertex of degree less than or equal to 5. Let v be a
vertex of G such that d(v) 5. Let G/ = G - v. Then by induction hypothesis G/ is 5-
colorable. When v has degrees 1, 2, 3 and 4 there is no difficulty, since we can give to v
one more color.
We are left with the case when d(v) = 5 and all the five colors are used in coloring
vertices v1, v2, v3, v4, v5 which are adjacent to v in G. Let vi be colored by ci (say) for i
=1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
v5 v1 c3

v2 c1
v4 v
c3
v3

c1
c1
c3

Fig.-3

Suppose there is a path between the vertices v1 and v3 colored alternately with color c1
and c3 as shown in fig. 1. Then, a similar path between v2 and v4 cannot exist, since this
path, if it exist will intersect the path between v1 and v3, contradicting that G is planer.
We can interchange the colors of all vertices connected to v2, giving color c4 to v2, while
v2 has still color c4. Thus we can point v with color c2 and hence the graph G= G/ + v is 5-
colorable. Similarly, if we have assumed that no path exists between v1 and v3, we could
paint v3 with color c1 and v with color c3 and we set a 5-coloring of G.

Theorem (Four-color theorem) 6: The chromatic number of a planer graph is no greater

than four. Coloring the vertices of the geometric dual of a planar graph is equivalent to
the coloring of the regions of the map, each vertex inheriting the color of the region, to
which it belongs and vice versa. in this set-up , the four color conjecture states that every
planar graph is four colorable. The conjecture appeared in an article by Alfred Kempe
(1879). The problem was originally posed by Guthrie in 1852. it was finally proved by
the American mathematician Kenneth Apple and Wolfgang Haken in 1976. The proof
depends on a substantial amount of computer calculations. A computer free proof of the
theorem is unknown. Apple and Haken showed that if the four color theorem was false,
then there must be a counter example among one of approximately 2000 different types
of planer graph and they then showed that none of these types could lead a counter

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

example. They used over 1000 hours of computer time in their proof. This proof
generated a large amount of controversy, since computer played such an important role in
it. For example, could there be an error in a computer program that led to in correct
results. Was their argument really a proof if it dependent on what could be unreliable
computer output

1 1
Note: Every graph with e edges satisfies (G) 2e .
2 4

Example : Find the chromatic number of the following graph

a b
e
g c

f d

Fig.-4

Solution: d(b) = d(g) = d(c) = 3 and

d(a) = d(d) = d(f) = 4,d(e)=5.
Using the inequality (G) 1+ (G)
(G) 5.

Now since G has a triangle sub graph 3 (G) 5.

Suppose (G) = 5 then G should have 5 vertices with degree at least 4, but there are only
3 vertices in G . (G) 5.
Hence 3 (G) 4.
Now G is not 3 colourable since a, e, g, f which are connected each other, must be
assigned different colours.
Therefore (G) = 4.

Definition: The edge chromatic number of a graph G is maximum number of colors to

color all the edges of G, so that edges with common end points are colored differ colors.
Note that if (G) is less than or equal to the edge chromatic number of G.

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Example:
v2

e1 e2
e3
v1
e4 e5
v3 e6 v4

Fig.- 5

Here, edge chromatic number is 3 though (G) = 4.

Chromatic polynomial: chromatic polynomials are concerned with description of the

property of the proper coloring of a graph. The evaluation or computation of the total
number of ways of proper coloring of a graph G of n vertices of using or fewer colors is
expressed by means of polynomial.

Example: let us consider the following linear graph.

v3 v4

v1 v2

Fig.- 6: Linear Graph with 4 vertices (L4)

We may color the vertex v1 with any one of colors the second vertex v2 can be color
properly in -1 ways. Father we may color the third vertex v3 using any of - 1 color
which has not been used in v2 similarly in v4.
Hence the fundamental principle of counting the total number of different coloring from
colors of the graph L4 is PG1 (λ) = ( - 1)3 .
Theorem 1: A n vertex graph is a tree if and only if it's chromatic polynomial
PG ( ) = ( - 1)n-1 .[to proved the theorem by indication (example - 1)]

Theorem 2: A graph G of n vertices is complete graph if its chromatic polynomial is

PG ( ) = ( - 1) ( - 2)…………….. ( - n + 1).
Proof: let V (G) = {v1, v2, …., vn}. v1 can be color in different ways. Now for each
coloring of v1 there remain - 1colors v2 (adjacent to v1 because G is complete).
Therefore v2 can be colored in - 1 ways. For each coloring of v1 and v2, v3 can be
colored in ( - 2) ways and so on.
Hence PG( ) = ( -1) ( -2)…………….. ( - n + 1).

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Theorem 3: If G is a disconnected graph with components G1, G2, ……….., Gi then the
product PG1 (λ) , PG 2 (λ) ,…… PG r (λ) , of there respect polynomials equal to PG ( ).
Proof: Left as an exercise.

Theorem 4: If v1 and v2 be the two nonadjacent vertices of a graph G then its polynomial
PG ( ) = PG1 (λ) + PG 2 (λ) . Where G1 and G2 are obtain from G by adding an edge
between v1, v2 and by fusion of v1, v2 respectively.
Proof: PG ( ) = the number of different colorings from colors = (the number of
colorings of G in which u and v receive different colors) + (the number of coloring in
which u and v receive the same color)
= (number of coloring of G1) + (number of coloring of G2)
= PG1 (λ) + PG 2 (λ) .

Theorem 5: For any graph G, PG( ) is a polynomial of degree V(G) .

Proof: By above theorem PG ( )= PG (λ) + PG (λ) where G1 has the same number of
1 2
vertices as G but has one more edge and G2 has one vertex less than G. containing this
process from G1 and G2 we will arrive at a finite number of graphs say H1, H2, ……..,
Hm, where each Hi (i = 1,2,……….m) will be complete and max V(H i ) = V(G) . Since
m
PG ( ) = PH i ( ) , PG ( ) is a polynomial in of degree V(G) .
i 1

Example: the following figure illustrates how the chromatic polynomial of a graph G is
as a sum of chromatic polynomial of complete graphs.

= +
v

+ + +

= (K5+K4) + (K4 +K3)

= ( - 1)( - 2)( - 3)( - 4) + 2 ( - 1)( - 2)( - 3) + ( - 1) ( - 2)
= ( - 1)( - 2)( -5)( + 7).

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Theorem 6: For each graph G, the constant term in PG( ) is zero.
Proof: For each graph G, (G) > 0 because the vertex set V(G) of G is not a null set. If
PG( ) has a constant term r, then PG(0) = a 0. This implies that G is properly colorable
by 0 colors, which is G contradiction.

Exercise:

1. Prove that chromatic polynomial of any tree with n vertices is k(k – 1)n -1.
2. Find the chromatic polynomials of the following graphs and hence determine their
chromatic numbers.

Graph matching and covering

Within a class of students (containing some girls and some boys), each girl likes some
boys and does not like others. Under what conditions can each girl are paired up with a
boy that she likes? Many applications of graphs involve such pairings. We can model the
situation with a bipartite graph, since it has a vertex partition into two sets. If a girl likes a
boy, put an edge between them. Here our goal is to find a matching (or assignment) for
the girls. That is, a subset of edges such that exactly one edge is incident to each girl and
at most one edge is incident to each boy.

Definition 1: A subset M of the edge set E of a graph G(V, E) is said to be a matching if

no two edges in M are incident on the same vertex.

The size of a matching M is the no of edges in M. A matching M is said to be a maximal

if there is no matching M/ strictly containing M. for example, in a triangle any single
edge is a maximal matching. But the graph in fig have two maximal matching (the
matching edges are shown in heavy lines) clearly, a graph may have different maximal
matching with different sizes. But we are interested in the maximal matching with largest
size.

Definition 2: A matching M is said to be a maximum matching of G(V,E) if there is no

matching M/ such that
M M ( M is the size of M).

The cardinality (size) of a maximum matching M is denoted by V(G) is called matching

number (edge independence number ) of G.

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Definition 3: if M is a matching in a graph G(V,E) a vertex v V is said to be M
saturated if there is an edge in M incident on v. Vertex v is said to be M unsaturated if
there is no edge in incident on v.

If M saturates all the vertices of G then M is said to be a perfect matching.

Definition 4: If G(V,E) is a bipartite graph with V=V1 V2 then a matching M of G

saturating all vertices in V1 is called a complete matching.

A complete matching (if it exists) is the largest matching. Whereas the converse is not
necessary true.

Definition 5: Given a matching M E in a graph G(V, E), an M-alternating path P is a

path in G whose edges are alternating in M and out side of M (i.e. if an edge in P is in M
then the next edge of P is outside M and vice-versa).

An alternating path P, with respect to M is termed as M-augmenting if its end vertices are
not incident with any edge of M (that is end vertices are M-unsaturated).

Proposition 1: replacing M  E(P) by E(P) – M produces a new matching M/ with one

more edge than M.

Theorem 1: A matching M E in a graph G(V,E) is a maximum matching if and only if

G has on M-augmenting path.

Proof: Assume, for contradiction, that there exists an M-augmenting path P. Then by
deleting the edges of E(P) M and adding the edges of E(P) M we get a new matching
M/ =(M - E(P)) (E(P) - M) . It is easy to verify that M/ is indeed a valid matching in G.
Further M = M + 1. This contradicts the fact that M is a maximum matching.
Conversely, suppose M is a matching without any M-augmenting path in G. let M be any
maximum matching in G. By the necessary proof, M has no M -augmenting path in G.
Hence the component of M M (=M M - M M ) can only be single vertex. This
implies that M = M and hence M is also a maximum matching.

Hall’s marriage problem:

Given a finite set of girl each of whom knows several boys, under what condition
can we marry of the girls in such a way that each girl marries a boy he knows. The
problem was solved by P. Hall in 1935, and knows as Hall’s marriage theorem.
Hall’s marriage theorem states necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a
matching in a bipartite graph. Hall’s, theorem is a very useful mathematical tool in graph
theory.
Here we proof the Hall’s theorem using girl marry-boy terminology. For example the
relation between the girls and boys as shown below:

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

 girls boys known to the girl
g1 b2, b4
g2 b1
g3 b2, b3, b4
g4 b1, b4, b5

For us to have any chance at all of matching up the girls, the following ‘marriage
condition’ must hold:
‘Every sub set of girls marry at least as large a set of boys’.
For example, we cannot find a matching if some 4 girls like only 3 boys. Hall’s theorem
says that this necessary condition is actually sufficient, if the marriage condition holds,
then a matching exist.

Hall’s theorem: Let G= (V1 V2, E) be a bipartite graph such that V1 V2 . Ten G has
a complete matching saturating every vertex of V1 if an only if S N(S) for every set
S V1, where N(S) is the neighborhood subset of V2 that are adjacent to some vertex in
S, i.e.
N(S) = v V2 : there exist u S, {u, v} E .

Graph Covering:

In graph theoretic concept, it is natural to say that an edge {u, v} of a graph G

covers the vertices u and v. Similarly, a vertex of G is said to covers the edges with which
it is incident. From this viewpoint, it is natural to ask, what is the minimum number of
vertices (edges) needed to cover all the edges (vertices) of G? One can ask a converse
question. What is the maximum number of vertices (edges), which are mutually non-
adjacent? Such sets of vertices (edges) are termed as independent vertices (edges).
Covering with vertices and edges are closely related with independent set and
matching.

Definition 1: A vertex covering of a graph G(V, E) is a set of vertices Q V(G) so that

every edge of G is adjacent to at least one vertex in Q. We say Q covers the edges of G.

Definition 2: A vertex covering Q V(G) of a graph G is said to be minimal covering if

no vertex can be removed without destroying its ability to cover G.

A graph has many minimal coverings and they may be different sizes. The number of
vertices in a minimal covering of the smallest size is called vertex covering number and
denoted by V(G).

Example 1: In fig-(a) we mark a vertex covering of size 2 and in Fig-(b) show a vertex
covering of size 4. Hence V(G) = 2.

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Since no vertex can cover two edges of a matching, the size of every vertex covering is at
least the size of every matching. Therefore, a matching and a vertex covering of the same
size prove that each is optimal. But such proofs exist bipartite graphs only.

Example 2: In the graph of Fig-(a) we mark a vertex covering of size 2 and show a
matching of size 2 in heavy lines. The optimal values are same since the graph is
bipartite. But in Fig-(b) the optimal values differ by 1.

Theorem 1: If G is a bipartite graph, then the maximum size of a matching in G equal to

the minimum size of a vertex covering of G.

Properties:
1. For any graph G the set of its vertices is trivially a vertex covering of G.
2. Every vertex covering contains a minimal covering.
3. For any graph G(V, E), V(G) + maximum independent set = number of
vertices in V.
4. For a complete bipartite graph Gm,n has V(Gm,n) = min{m, n}.

Independent sets and Covering: Independent number of a graph is the maximum size of
an independent set of vertices. No vertex covers two edges of a matching. Similarly, no
edge contains two vertices of an independent set. This yields another dual covering
problem, called edge covering. For example, a spanning tree or Hamiltonian circuits in a
graph are edge coverings.

Definition 3: An edge covering of a graph G(V, E) is a set of edges L E(G) so that

every vertex of G is adjacent to at least one edge in L. We say L covers the vertices of G.
An edge covering L in G is said to be minimal covering if no edge of L can be
removed without destroying its ability to cover the graph.
The minimum edge covering is the smallest cover. The edge covering number
E(G) for the graph G is the size of the minimum edge covering.

Example 3: In fig.- a graph and two of its minimal covering are shown in heavy lines.

Properties:
1. For any graph G the set of its vertices is trivially a vertex covering of G.
2. An edge covering exist if and only if the graph has no isolated vertex.
3. An edge covering of an n-vertex graph will have at least n/2 edges. ( x
denotes the smallest integer not less than x).
4. Every pendant edge in a graph is included in every edge covering of the
graph.
5. Every edge covering contains a minimal covering.
6. The set of edges E(G) – L(G) is an edge covering if and only if for every
vertex v, the degree of vertex in G(V, E-L) (degree of vertex v in G(V, E)) –
1.
7. A minimal covering of an n-vertex graph can contain no more than n-1 edges.
8. For a complete bipartite graph Gm,n has E(Gm,n) = max{m, n}.

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Theorem 2: An edge covering L of a graph G is minimal if and only if L contains no
path of length three or more.

Objective Questions:

1. How many vertices does a regular graph of degree 4 with 10 edges have? Ans 5

2. For which values of n are the following graphs bipartite?

(i) Kn (ii) Cn (iii) Wn (iv) Qn
ans-a) for all n 1, b) for all n 3, c) for n =3, for all n 0

3. For which values of n are the following graphs regular?

(i) Kn (ii) Cn (iii) Wn (iv) Qn

4. For which values of m and n is Km,n regular?

5. Let G be an arbitrary graph with n vertices and k components. If a vertex is

removed from G, the number of components in the resultant graph must
necessarily lie between
(i) k and n (ii) k - 1 and k + 1 (iii) k - 1 and n - 1 (iv) k + 1 and n – k

6. Determine which of the following statements are true.

(i) A subgraph of a complete graph is complete.
(ii) A subgraph of a bipartite graph is bipartite.
(iii) Every subgraph of a planar graph is planar.
(iv) Any complete graph is regular.

7. Determine which of the following statements are true.

(i) Every Eulerian graph is Hamiltonian.
(ii) Every Hamiltonian graph is Eulerian.
(iii) The Peterson graph is not Eulerian.
(iv) The Peterson graph is not Hamiltonian.

8. Determine which of the following statements are true.

(i) The Peterson graph is nonplanar.
(ii) K5 is nonplanar.
(iii) K3,3 is nonplanar
(iv) Dual graph of a planar graph is nonplanar.

9. Determine which of the following statements are true.

(i) The chromatic number of Kn is n.
(ii) The chromatic number of any cycle is 2.
(iii) The chromatic number of any nontrivial tree is 2.
(iv) Every planar graph is 4 colorable.

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

 Permutations

Permutations - The different arrangements that can be made with a given number of
things taking some or all of them at a time are called permutations. The symbol n P r or
P(n,r) is used to denote the number of permutations of n things taken r at a time.

permutation is the arrangement of objects with ordering of same and different objects in
different ways. Permutation is always greater than combination as in combination we
neglect the ordering of the same objects in different ways, so as peter said abve ordering
is very important in permutation.

Explain Circular permutation

When things are arranged in places along a line with first and last place, they form a
linear permutation. So far we have dealt only with linear permutations. When things are
arranged in places along a closed curve or a circle, in which any place may be regarded as
the first or last place, they form a circular permutation.
The permutation in a row or along a line has a beginning and an end, but there is nothing
like beginning or end or first and last in a circular permutation. In circular permutations,
we consider one of the objects as fixed and the remaining objects are arranged as in linear
permutation.

Thus, the number of permutations of 4 objects in a row = 4!, where as the number of
circular permutations of 4 objects is (4-1)! = 3!.
The following arrangements of 4 objects O1, O2, O3, O4 in a circle will be considered as
one or same arrangement.

Observe carefully that when arranged in a row, O1 O2 O3 O4, O2O3O4 O1, O3O4O1O2,
O4O1O2O3 are different permutations. When arranged in a circle, these 4 permutations
are considered as one permutation.

Theorem:
The number of circular permutations of n different objects is (n-1)!.

Proof:
Each circular permutation corresponds to n linear permutations depending on where we
start. Since there are exactly n! linear permutations, there are exactly permutations.
Hence, the number of circular permutations is the same as (n-1)!.

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences

Example 1:
1. Three boys and three girls are to be seated around a table in a circle. Among them, the
boy X does not want any girl as neighbour and girl Y does not want any boy as
neighbour. How many such arrangements are possible?

Suggested answer:

The arrangement is as shown in the figure, the boy X will have B2, B3 as neighbours. The
girl Y will have G2, G3 as neighbours. The two boys B2, B3 can be arranged in two ways.
The two girls G2, G3 can be arranged in two ways.
Hence, the total number of arrangements = 2 x 2 = 4.

Example 2:
In how many different arrangements can 6 gentlemen and 6 ladies sit around a table if

i) there is no restriction and

ii) no two ladies sit side by side?

Suggested answer:
i) Here, the total number = 6 + 6 = 12.

12 persons can be arranged in circular permutation as (12 - 1)! = 11! ways.

ii) When 6 gentlemen are arranged around a table, there are 6 positions, each being
between two gentlemen for 6 ladies, when no two ladies sit side by side. Now, the
number of ways in which 6 gentlemen can be seated around a table = (6 - 1)! = 5!.

Then, corresponding to each seating arrangement for the gentlemen, the 6 ladies can be
seated in 6! ways.
The required number of arrangements = (5!)(6!)

= (120)(720) = 86400

Dr. S. Basu, Dept. of Applied Sciences