Re-Viewing Visual Literacy in the

“Bain d’ Images” Era

By Maria D. Avgerinou

“How far can this empirical, unguided venture

guarantee that young people are not partial
and passive receivers of visual messages?”

Welcome to the necessitating new ways of interpretation for not

only the world-as-a-text has been challenged by
“Bain d’ Images” Era! the world-as-a-picture, but also deconstructing
Today, the pervasiveness of visual mass media and understanding the world in purely linguistic
is abundantly obvious to even the most casual terms is neither satisfactory nor adequate any lon-
observer. Whether we acknowledge it or not, we ger.
live in an era of visual culture, the so-called “bain For the majority of people, however, being
d’ images” (image bath), which influences enor- constantly bombarded by images does not nec-
mously our perception of self and the surrounding essarily lead to a conscious recognition of this
world, our attitudes, beliefs, values, and general phenomenon. Surprisingly enough, it can have a
life-style. Serving a variety of neither necessarily rather counterproductive effect. Indeed, the ‘does
transparent nor always well-meant purposes, the a fish know it is wet’ seems an alarmingly common
images that continuously inundate our environ- symptom of most people’s unsuspected immunity
ment, be it private or public, come in different against the epidemic visuality of contemporary
forms and through several channels of visual com- expressions of culture. On the other hand, being
munication. The almost ubiquitous TV set is not conscious of the phenomenon of visual culture
the only one to blame. Equally responsible for this does not necessarily entail thorough comprehen-
flood of visual messages are the Internet and new sion of, or facility to analyze it. In this author’s
information and communication technologies as view, being merely aware or completely unaware
well as film and advertising industries. of the incontestable hegemony of visual culture,
Mirzoeff argues (1998) that the visual culture seem to amount to the same danger: that is, one
defines and delimits our post-modern present in carrying on living by the erroneous assumption
that “the … culture that we call postmodernism is that what has long been known as “print culture”
best imagined and understood visually, just as the still rules the domains of human thought, atti-
nineteenth century was classically represented in tude, and emotion, and still dictates the form of
the newspaper and the novel” (p. 5). He goes on their expression. Clearly, if this is currently the
to argue that postmodernism is “the crisis caused case, the visual culture cognoscenti are then pre-
by modernism and modern culture confronting sented with a strong ethical issue, but also a mis-
the failure of its own strategy of visualising” (p. 4). sion to establish visual environments for guided
In other words, although a significant intellectual learning in order to formally train and empower
shift has occurred concerning the notion of repre- people visually.
sentation that once characterized modernism, the One last yet crucial point to raise at this junc-
existing text-oriented means to interpret represen- ture is that the current generation of children and
tation have not themselves changed. As a conse- young people are very familiar with the expres-
quence, this post-modern present has emerged, sions of our visual culture due to spending more

28 TechTrends • March/April 2009 Volume 53, Number

time watching TV programs and interacting with ing the ability to think, learn, and express oneself
their computer stations than attending school. Yet, in terms of images” (1982, p. 169). Avgerinou
as Felten rightly points out: “Living in an image- (2001a, 2001b, 2003) identified the most signifi-
rich world…does not mean students (or faculty cant points of convergence among VL theorists:
and administrators) naturally possess sophisticated • A visual language exists.
visual literacy skills, just as continually listening to • Visual language parallels verbal language.
an iPod does not teach a person to critically ana- • VL is a cognitive ability but also draws on the
lyze or create music” (2008, p. 60). Considine de- affective domain.
velops a similar argument by recognizing the irony • The terms “ability,” “skill,” and “competency”
(his word) of young people being both creators have been invariably and interchangeably used
and consumers of messages but who nevertheless to describe VL.
“are not at the same time skilled in understanding • The VL skills have been specified as (a) to read/
the codes, conventions, values or consequences of decode/interpret visual statements, and (b) to
those messages” (2008, p.65). write/encode/create visual statements.
Consequently, how far can this empirical, un- • The VL skills are (a) learnable, (b) teachable, (c)
guided venture guarantee that young people are not capable of development and improvement.
partial and passive receivers of visual messages; that • The VL skills are not isolated from other sen-
they are able to make a critical selection between sory skills.
the necessary and the unnecessary; that they can • Visual communication, visual thinking, and vi-
recognize the different functions (i.e., to inform, sual learning are inextricably linked to VL.
to persuade, to instruct, and to entertain) of visual • VL has accepted and incorporated theoretical
media and appreciate that in some instances, these contributions from other disciplines.
functions are combined; and that they do distin- • VL’s main focus is intentional communication
guish superficial, glamorous, and pseudo-sophisti- in an instructional context.
cated messages from the truly meaningful ones? Through a series of empirical studies aiming
at the refinement and validation of the VL Index
The Rear View Window: (Avgerinou & Ericson, 1999; Avgerinou, 2001a,
Visual Literacy (VL) Definitions 2001b), the same researcher concluded that “in
Despite the fact that “The definition of VL has the context of human, intentional visual commu-
been an elusive goal since the early days” of the In- nication, visual literacy refers to a group of largely
ternational Visual Literacy Association “(and even acquired abilities, i.e., the abilities to understand
before that)” (IVLA, 1997, p. 4), a multitude of (read), and to use (write) images, as well as to
definitions for the concept and the associated skills think and learn in terms of images” (Avgerinou,
has arisen from each and every theoretical and ap- 2003, p. 36). Furthermore, she identified and de-
plied perspective originating from the foundations lineated (2001a, 2001b, 2003, 2007) eleven VL
of the field, and at the same time defining and competencies:
shaping its eclectic nature and scope. Most notably, 1. Knowledge of Visual Vocabulary: knowledge of
Fransecky and Debes (1972) asserted that VL is the basic components (i.e., point, line, shape,
“the group of vision competencies a human being form, space, texture, light, color, motion) of
can develop by seeing and at the same time having visual language.
and integrating other sensory experiences. The de- 2. Knowledge of Visual Conventions: knowledge
velopment of these competencies is fundamental of visual signs and symbols, and their socially
to normal human learning” (IVLA, 2004). When agreed meanings (within the western culture).
developed, they enable a visually literate person to 3. Visual Thinking: The ability to turn informa-
discriminate and interpret the visual actions, ob- tion of all types into pictures, graphics, or forms
jects, and/or symbols, natural or man-made, that that help communicate the information.
are [encountered] in [the] environment. Through 4. Visualization: the process by which a visual im-
the creative use of these competencies, [we are] age is formed.
able to communicate with others. Through the ap- 5. (Verbo-)Visual Reasoning: Coherent and log-
preciative use of these competencies, [we are] able ical thinking that is carried out primarily by
to comprehend and enjoy the masterworks of vi- means of images.
sual communications (IVLA, 1997, p. 7). 6. Critical Viewing: Applying critical thinking
According to Ausburn and Ausburn, VL can skills to visuals.
be defined as a group of skills which enable an 7. Visual Discrimination: The ability to perceive
individual to understand and use visuals for in- differences between two or more visual stimuli.
tentionally communicating with others (1978, 8. Visual Reconstruction: The ability to recon-
p. 291); while Braden and Hortin defined VL as struct a partially occluded visual message in
“the ability to understand and use images, includ- its original form.

Volume 53, Number 2 TechTrends • March/April 2009 29

 9. (Sensitivity to) Visual Association: The ability Our world today is about connecting the digi-
to link visual images that display a unifying tal dots. The challenge is in dealing with the
theme. Also: (Sensitivity to) Verbo-Visual As- complexity—the dots are multidimensional of
sociation: The ability to link verbal messages varying sizes and colors, continuously chang-
and their visual representations (and vice ver- ing, and linked to other, as yet unimagined
sa) to enhance meaning. dots. Nonetheless, to successfully connect the
10. Reconstructing Meaning: The ability to visualize dots at any level in cyberspace means we must
and verbally (or visually) reconstruct the mean- be literate, both digitally and visually (p. 14).
ing of a visual message solely on the evidence of If we accept that the world is evolving and
given information which is incomplete. changing at an increasing pace (Brown & Adler,
11.Constructing Meaning: The ability to con- 2008) and through multidimensional trajecto-
struct meaning for a given visual message on ries, and if the students themselves have changed
the evidence of any given visual (and perhaps (Solomon & Schrum, 2007), then shouldn’t we be
verbal) information. redefining our curricula to better serve the needs
It should then follow that a person who has re- associated with the new status quo?
ceived some type of formal training on VL and has In what ways has the world mentality change?
developed the above skills would be considered as Oblinger (2003) put forth the following attributes
visually literate and thus capable of successfully han- of the information-age mindset:
dling those demands of today’s world that pertain • Computers are no longer technology.
directly or indirectly to VL. Although this might • The Internet is better than TV.
have been the case in the past, when it comes to • Reality is no longer real.
the 21st century, the era of digital information and • Doing is more important than knowing.
proliferation of visual media, the aforementioned • Learning more closely resembles Nintendo than
VL skills find themselves in pressing need of recon- logic.
sideration (Avgerinou, 2008). If we concur with • Multitasking is a way of life.
Begotray’s statement that “incredibly affordable ac- • Typing is preferred to handwriting.
cess to information technology has provided new • Staying connected is essential.
possibilities for developing visual literacy” (2002, • There is zero tolerance for delay.
p. 6), we should therefore be aware of the fact that • Consumer and creator are blurring.
technological developments have a profile altering The Business and Higher Education Forum
effect on the role of VL. As McInnish and Wright (2005) stated that workers of the 21st Century
point out, the evidence of the ever-changing role must have science and mathematics skills, creativ-
of VL is provided by “the growing number of ap- ity, information and communication technolo-
plications used to express its concepts” (2005, p. 3). gies (ICT) skills, and the ability to solve complex
Burmark reports that according to newspaper sur- problems. Jenkins (2007) expanded the definition
veys “print material had an average of 13 seconds of the 21st century skills to include:
in which to capture attention; thresholds of interest • Play: The capacity to experiment with one’s sur-
had to be reached quickly, and the first, most criti- roundings as a form of problem solving.
cal threshold was visual interest” (2002, p. 5). Of • Performance: The ability to adopt alternative
course, similar thresholds apply to electronic and identities for the purpose of improvisation and
digital media such as TV, films, the Internet, etc. discovery.
Those thresholds keep being redefined by the quali- • Simulation: The ability to interpret and construct
ties and needs of the Net Generation, the digital dynamic models of real-world processes.
natives (Prensky, 2001). • Appropriation: The ability to meaningfully
sample and remix media content.
The New Digital Landscape • Multitasking: The ability to scan one’s environ-
ment and shift focus as needed to salient details.
Mindset and Natives • Distributed Cognition: The ability to interact
We are indeed moving at a very fast pace from meaningfully with tools that expand mental ca-
print to digital! Toledo (2007) explains that in the pacities.
20th century the dominant approach to education • Collective Intelligence: The ability to pool
focused on helping students acquire knowledge and knowledge and compare notes with others to-
develop cognitive skills that could be deployed later ward a common goal.
in appropriate situations. That approach to educa- • Judgment: The ability to evaluate the reliability
tion worked well in a relatively stable, slowly chang- and credibility of different information sources.
ing world in which careers typically lasted a lifetime. • Trans-media Navigation: The ability to follow
However, this is not case of the 21st century. Accord- the flow of stories and information across mul-
ing to Jones-Kavalier and Flannigan (2008): tiple modalities.

30 TechTrends • March/April 2009 Volume 53, Number

• Networking: The ability to search, synthesize, Whether we concur with the DVL neologism
and disseminate information. and argument, we still need to extend and ex-
• Negotiation: The ability to travel across diverse pand the VL skills to embrace the needs of the
communities, discerning and respecting mul- digital learner, and prepare them successfully for
tiple perspectives, and grasping and following the work force as we know it today. According to
alternative norms. Learning Point Associates (2007), students can
At the same time, the nature of information interpret, use, and create images and video us-
has changed (Jakes & Brennan, 2006), and it is ing both conventional and 21st century media
now described by a new set of characteristics: In- in ways that advance thinking, decision making,
formation is digital, networked, overwhelming, communication, and learning. The same research-
immediate, manipulatable, participatory, and vi- ers also propose an expanded list of skills that stu-
sual. The epitome of the information as defined dents who are visually literate today should pos-
in our era are Web 2.0 applications (see Figure sess. According to that list, students should:
1) such as social networking in multi-user virtual • Have working knowledge of visuals produced
environments and distributed communities (e.g., or displayed through electronic media.
Facebook, MySpace, Bebo, Second Life, Flickr), • Understand basic elements of visual design,
blogs, wikis, visual journalism, e-documentaries, technique, and media.
digital photography (iMovie, digitalstoryteller.org, • Be aware of emotional, psychological, physio-
Pinnacle Studio, MovieMaker 2), etc. logical, and cognitive influences in perceptions
Brown & Adler (2008) maintain that the par- of visuals.
ticipatory media of Web 2.0 have changed the very • Comprehend representational, explanatory, ab-
nature of learning from the Cartesian view (where stract, and symbolic images.
knowledge was perceived as “substance” that peda- • Apply Knowledge of Visuals in Electronic Me-
gogy would transmit) to the social view of learning dia.
(“we participate therefore we are”). • Be informed viewers, critics, and consumers of
[Web 2.0] has blurred the line between produc- visual information.
ers and consumers of content and has shifted • Be knowledgeable designers, composers, and
attention from access to information toward producers of visual information.
access to other people. …Indeed, the Web 2.0 • Be effective visual communicators.
is creating a new kind of participatory medium • Be expressive, innovative visual thinkers and
that is ideal for supporting multiple modes of successful problem solvers.
learning (Brown & Adler, 2008, p. 18). In an attempt to identify educational applica-
tions related to the aforementioned skills, Metros
The Re-View Window: Visual (as cited in Bleed, 2006) provides the following
Literacy in the New Digital examples of VL infusion into today’s school cur-
Landscape riculum:
Learning outcomes stating that students will
The need to re-view and re-conceptualize VL be able to:
within the 21st century’s digital landscape, comple-
mentary mindset, and skills has become more than
critical. Some researchers even go as far as advocat-
ing for an emerging Digital Visual Literacy (DVL)
concept (and discipline), defined as the ability “both
to create and understand certain types of informa-
tion, in this case visual information created with a
computer” (Spalter & vanDam, 2008, p. 94). As-
serting that, despite certain overlaps in both theory
and practice, DVL qualitatively differs from other
literacies (e.g. multimedia literacy or screen literacy)
because of its focus on the visual, Spalter and van-
Dam (2008) further describe DVL as the ability to:
• Critically evaluate digital visual materials (two-
dimensional, three-dimensional (3D), static,
and moving).
• Make decisions on the basis of digital visual rep-
Figure 1: Web 2.0 Mind Map (Angermeier, 2005). Used with permission of
resentations of data and ideas. Wikimedia Commons.
• Use computers to create effective visual commu-
nications.

Volume 53, Number 2 TechTrends • March/April 2009 31

 • Identify their learning styles. Children can learn to make out a great deal in
• Comprehend the meaning of VL in the context the field of vision. What we select and look at
of information literacy. in this field of vision is what for the individual
• Create graphic representations of data, infor- becomes reality. They can learn that reality is
mation, knowledge, and wisdom (charts, maps, governed by our visual literacy. Children can
concept maps, & storyboards). learn that whatever we make of it, we are in-
• Use digital camera, iMovie, or equivalent, and clined to make it what we want it to be. We are
other presentation and multimedia software to not only bringing to the field of vision what we
create a short movie. already know and are, but we are also selecting
• Provide classmates with constructive face-to- just what of that field we want to look at, and
face and online feedback. while we are looking at it, tending to make it
Although several scholars (Kellner, 1998; just what we want it to be (1976, pp. 32-3).
Kress, 2003; Gee, 2004) rightly point out The need for VL training has become more
that a multitude of literacies than understandable and self-evident. Some years
(such as print, visual, aural, ago, VL skills were considered as students’ fu-
“VL has been media, computer, cultural, ture needs. Today, that future is our present: The
communication and information revolution has
identified as the social, and eco-literacy) is
necessary to survive the brought about a rather imperialistic in nature, vi-
essential literacy by daily challenges of the 21st sual culture. Those “future” needs are already here,
undoubtedly imperative; moreover, they cannot
century life, VL seems to
the Partnership for be among the most critical be fulfilled solely on what the verbal-oriented, left-
ones. Indeed, VL has been brained schooling and society has to offer (Pink,
21st Century Skills.” identified as the essential 2006). For instance, it is more than obvious that
literacy by the Partnership the way the mind is conditioned to think in the
for 21st Century Skills. With the development of verbal-oriented, left-brained school which has sys-
Web 2.0, it is particularly important that VL be tematically promoted linear, logical, recall-based
brought into new teaching methods via teacher thinking, has failed to address the full potential
training (Begotray, 2002); but also that schools of such important skills as creative thinking and
focus on helping students acquire the skills neces- problem solving. Thus, educators have to face the
sary to navigate, evaluate, and communicate with demand for VL training more rigorously than in
visual information. Jakes (2007) reminds us that the past. They have to start taking systematic steps
students will create content, including visual con- towards the direction of introducing the life-skill
tent, with or without schools. Successful schools of VL to their teaching.
will take advantage of this interest and the tech- Let us also highlight the importance of chang-
nological mastery of today’s student, and will seek ing the current perception as to what learning is,
methodologies and opportunities for incorporat- and of what it should be composed. Although VL
ing VL instruction into the everyday curriculum. is without doubt capable of addressing efficiently
It is therefore timely and critical to begin a sys- and effectively most current learning issues, VL
tematic dialogue toward revisiting and revamping training will not assume the position it deserves
VL’s definition, scope, purposes, skills, and ap- unless a more holistic view of learning is adopted.
plications so that connections can be established Educators need to recognize that all teaching and
between the evolving definition(s) of VL and learning experiences involve communication and
minimum related competencies recommended that communication cannot any longer be limited
by associations and educational agencies. to spoken or written word. In other words, “there
is more to read in our society than just print”
Conclusions (Considine, 1987, p. 640). This leads us to an ex-
panded and inclusive view of the very notion of
So far, this author has advanced the view that literacy which, combining verbal and visual text
the world is currently on the threshold of a new via a constantly evolving array of new technolo-
status quo—the hegemony of the image. Yet, this gies, results in what Kress (2003) advances as mul-
seems a mixed blessing, for people, and especially timodality, or multiple modes of representation,
young people, are not equipped with the neces- and Gee refers to as “multimodal principle,” that
sary critical viewing and thinking skills to survive is, “meaning and knowledge are built up through
it. Nevertheless, this unfortunate situation can and various modalities (images, texts, symbols, interac-
should be altered. To achieve this aim, we need to tions, abstract design, sound, etc.), not just words”
use our most powerful weapon, that is, the concept (2004, p. 210).
of VL. As Clark and Clark pointed out:

32 TechTrends • March/April 2009 Volume 53, Number

 Therefore, it is our narrow, outdated Maria D. Avgerinou is an assistant professor Bleed, R. (2005). Visual literacy in higher edu-
(perhaps out of fear of experimenting at the school of education, DePaul University, cation. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from
with the “unknown”) perception of teaching courses in educational research, hu- http://www. educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/
what should constitute learning and lit- man development, and educational technology, ELI4001.pdf
and directing the center for educational tech- Braden, R. A. & Hortin, J. A. (1982). Identify-
eracy that also needs to be altered radi-
nology and excellence in e-learning, teaching ing the theoretical foundations of visual lit-
cally. Otherwise, this perception will and research. Her research interests, publica- eracy. Journal of Visual/Verbal Languaging,
continue undermining any attempt to tions, and professional presentations focus on 2(2), 37-51.
alter VL’s currently marginalized posi- visual literacy (definition, and assessment of Brown, J. S., & Adler, R. P. (2008, January/Feb-
tion, and strongly establish its status skills), online and blended learning, and action ruary). Minds on fire: Open education, the
in the school curricula. In the same research in teacher education. Among other long tail, and learning 2.0. EDUCAUSE
vein, Felten emphasizes that “in our professional affiliations and activities, she is the Review, 43(1), 16-32. Retrieved Febru-
rapidly changing world, visual literacy, 40th president of the International Visual Liter- ary 10, 2008, from http://connect.edu-
whether conceptualized as a distinct set acy Association (IVLA), and a Board Member cause.edu/Library/EDUCAUSE+Review/
of capacities or as part of a larger mul- of AECT’s Distance Learning Division. MindsonFireOpenEducationt/
timodal literacy, should be recognized 45823?time=1206929786
among the fundamental goals of a lib- References Burmark, L. (2002). Visual Literacy: Learn to see,
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Ausburn and Ausburn’s (1978, p. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from http:// Clark, E. D., & Clark, M. P. (1976, March).
295) list of potential benefits of devel- en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Web_2.0_ The theoretical context of visual literacy:
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21st century: Ausburn, L. J., & Ausburn, F. B. (1978). Vi- knowledge. Paper presented at the Interna-
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• Improved image of self and relation- tion problem. In R. E. Griffin, V. S. Wil- 26, 2008, from http://www.ivla.org/pdf_
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Last but not least, this author wish- dissertation. The University of Bath, UK.
es to emphasize that the development reprint).
British Library Documentation System. Jakes, D. (2007, April). Web 2.0 and the new
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all key skills associated with those de- Educational Research Association Confer- blog/2007/06/12/need-for-21st-century-skills/
mands. ence, New Orleans, Louisiana.

Volume 53, Number 2 TechTrends • March/April 2009 33

Jones-Kavalier, B. R., & Flannigan, S. L. (2008). McInnish, T. W., & Wright, V. H. (2005). Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital im-
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