WERABE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND

COMPUTATIONAL SCEINCE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

GENERAL PHYSICS
 CHAPTER ONE
PRELIMINARIES

Background Information
• Physical Quantities and Measurement

• Significant digits

• Vectors: composition and resolution

• COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR

• Unit Vectors
1.1. Physical Quantities and Measurement
Physical quantity is a quantifiable or assignable property ascribed to a particular phenomenon or
body.
Those quantities can be Basic Physical Quantities, and derivatives are called Derived Physical
Quantities.
Uncertainty gives the range of possible values of the measure and thus uncertainty characterizes
the spread of measurement results.

❑ We refer to the uncertainty as the error in the measurement.

❑ Errors fall into two categories:

A. Systematic Error
❑ Due to measuring devices being out of calibration.
❑ Can be too small or too large
❑ eliminated by pre-calibrating against trusted standard.
2. Random Errors
❑ Due to fluctuation of measurements about the average.
❑ It has equal probability of being too large or too small.
❑ These errors generally result from the fineness of scale division of a measuring device.
The following general rules of thumb are often used to determine the uncertainty in a single
measurement when using a scale or digital measuring device.
1. Uncertainty in a scale measuring device is equal to the smallest increment divided by 2.

Example: Meter Stick (scale device)

2. Uncertainty in a digital measuring device is equal to the smallest increment.

𝝈𝒙 = 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

Example: A reading from digital Balance (digital device) is 5.7513 kg, therefore
In general, any measurement can be stated in the following preferred form:
𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒙𝒃𝒆𝒔𝒕 ± 𝝈𝒙
Where, 𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 = best estimate of measurement, 𝜎𝑥 = uncertainty (error) in measurement
1.2. Significant digits
Rules for significant digits:
Rule 1: When approximate numbers are multiplied or divided, the number of significant digits in the final answer is
the same as the number of significant digits in the least accurate of the factors.
Example
45 𝑁
𝑥= = 6.97015 2
3.22𝑚 × 2.005𝑚 𝑚
Least significant factor (45) has only two (2) digits so only two are justified in the answer. The appropriate way to
write the answer is 𝑃 = 7.0 𝑁/𝑚2 .
Rule 2: When approximate numbers are added or subtracted, the number of significant digits should
equal the smallest number of decimal places of any term in the sum or difference.
Example: 9.65 𝑐𝑚 + 8. 𝟒 𝑐𝑚 − 2.89 𝑐𝑚 = 15. 𝟏6 𝑐𝑚
Note that: the least precise measure is 8.4cm. The appropriate way to write the answer is 15.2cm.
In general to determine significant digits in a given number
❖ All non-zero numbers are significant.
❖ Zeros within a number are always significant.
❖ Zeros that do nothing but set the decimal point are not significant.
❖ Zero’s that aren‘t needed to hold the decimal point are significant.
❖ Zeros that follow a number may be significant.
1.3. Vectors: composition and resolution
A scalar
✓ Is a quantity that is completely specified by a number and unit.
✓ It has magnitude but no direction.
✓ Scalars obey the rules of ordinary algebra. Examples: mass, time, volume, speed
A vector
▪ Is a quantity that is specified by both a magnitude and direction in space.
▪ Vectors obey the laws of vector algebra.
1.3. Vector Representation
Representation of vectors has to exactly describe the two features of a vector i.e. magnitude and direction.
There are two ways of vector representation: -Geometric and algebraic representation
A. Algebraic Method
▪ Vectors are represented algebraically by a letter (or symbol) with an arrow over its head. Velocity by 𝒗
momentum by 𝒑.
▪ The magnitude of a vector is a positive scalar and is written as either by |A| or A.
B. Geometric Method
A vector, such as a displacement vector, can be represented graphically by an arrow denoting the magnitude and
direction of the vector.
➢ All arrows of the same direction and magnitude denote the same vector.

Figure 1.1: These two vectors are equal because they have equal
 ❑ Length of the arrow indicates its magnitude
❑ The head of the arrow represent the direction of the vector.
A vector changes if its magnitude or direction or if both magnitude and direction change.
We add, subtract or equate physical quantities of same units and same characters.
1.3.2. Some Properties of Vectors
Equality of Two Vectors:
Two vectors A and B may be defined to be equal
❖ if A = B and A = B and point in the same direction.
Vector Addition
Resultant vector is a single vector that is obtained by adding two or more vectors.
❑ When two or more vectors are added, they must all have the same units.
❑ Vectors can be added geometrically or algebraically.
Thus, the resultant vector 𝑅 is the vector drawn from the tail of 𝐴Ԧ to the head of 𝐵.
 𝑅 = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 Figure 1.2: when vector 𝐵 is
added to vector 𝐴, Ԧ the resultant 𝑅
❑To add vector 𝐵 to vector 𝐴Ԧ , first draw vector 𝐴Ԧ on graph paper with its
is the vector that runs from the tail
magnitude represented by a scale, and then draw vector 𝐵 to the same of 𝐴Ԧ to the tip of 𝐵.

Ԧ see Fig. 1.2a.

scale with its tail coinciding with the arrow head of 𝐴,

❑This is known as the triangle method of addition.

• The parallelogram law states that the resultant 𝑅 of two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵

is the diagonal of the parallelogram for which the two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵
becomes adjacent sides.

Cosine law: 𝑅 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃

sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽

Sine law: = =
𝑅 𝐴 𝐵
❑ Ԧ 𝐵 and 𝑅 are concurrent as shown in
All three vectors 𝐴, Figure 1.3 parallelogram law of
vector addition
Figure 1.3.

❑ 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 are also called the components of 𝑅.

❑ The magnitude of the diagonal (resultant vector) is obtained

using cosine law and direction.

❑When two vectors are added, the sum is independent of the

order of the addition.

❑This can be seen from the geometric construction in Figure

1.2(b) and is known as the commutative law of addition:

𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴Ԧ Commutative law
❑ When three or more vectors are added, their sum is independent of the
way in which the individual vectors are grouped together.

❑ This can be seen from the geometric construction in Figure 1.4 and is
known as the associative law of addition:

𝑨 + (𝑩 + 𝑪) = (𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑪 Associative law

Subtracting Vectors

The operation of vector subtraction makes use of the definition of the

negative of a. Figure 1.4:Geometric constructions for
We define the operation 𝑨 − 𝑩 as vector −𝑩 added to vector A: verifying the associative law of
addition.
𝑨 − 𝑩 = 𝑨 + (−𝑩)

❑ Vector subtraction is really a special case of vector

addition.
Multiplying or Dividing a Vector by a Scalar.

➢ Multiplying or dividing a vector by a scalar gives a vector.

➢ If vector A is multiplied by a positive scalar quantity m, then the product

mA is a vector that has the same direction as A and magnitude mA.

Figure 1.5:This construction

▪ If vector A is multiplied by a negative scalar quantity -m, then the product
shows how to subtract vector from
- mA is directed opposite A.
vector.

For example, the vector 5A is five times as long as A and points in the same

direction as A.

If we multiply vector by the scalar -3, the result is -3A , a vector with a

magnitude three times that of A and pointing in the opposite direction.

 1.2. COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR

One method of adding a vector makes use of the projections of a vector along the axes of a
rectangular coordinate system.

➢ These projections are called components.

Consider a vector𝐴Ԧ lying in the xy-plane and making an angle θ with the positive x-axis,
see Fig 1.3. From the definitions of sine and cosine, the rectangular components of 𝐴Ԧ will
be given by:

𝐴Ԧ𝑥
cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝐴Ԧ𝑥 = 𝐴Ԧ cos 𝜃 the x component of 𝐴Ԧ
𝐴Ԧ Figure 1.3:
Components of
𝐴Ԧ𝑦
sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 = 𝐴Ԧ sin 𝜃 the y component of 𝐴Ԧ vector 𝐴Ԧ
𝐴Ԧ

Where the sign of the components 𝐴Ԧ𝑥 and 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 depends on the angle θ.
The components 𝐴Ԧ𝑥 and 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 can be added to give back 𝐴Ԧ as their resultant.

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦

Because 𝐴Ԧ𝑥 and 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of their resultant vector is obtained using
Pythagoras theorem.

2 2 −1 𝐴𝑦
𝐴= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 And 𝜃= tan
𝐴𝑥

Similarly, any three dimensional vector A can be written as the sum of its x, y and z components, the resultant is

𝑨 = 𝑨𝑥 + 𝑨𝑦 + 𝑨𝑧

And its magnitude becomes

𝐴= 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴 𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2
1.3. Unit Vectors
➢ A unit vector is a vector that has magnitude of one.
➢ it is dimensionless
➢ its sole purpose is to point a given vector in specified direction.
➢ It is usually denoted with a “hat”.
𝐴Ԧ
We can define a unit vector 𝑛ො along any vector 𝐴መ as follows: 𝑛ො =
𝐴

⇒ 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴 𝑛ො

The unit vectors in the positive direction of the x, y, and z axes of a right-handed coordinate
෠ respectively; see Fig.
system are often labeled 𝑖෠, 𝑗,Ƹ 𝑘,
Consider a vector 𝑨 lying in the xy-plane as shown in Fig below.

❖ The product of the component 𝑨𝒙 and the unit vector 𝒊Ƹ is the vector 𝑨𝒙 = 𝑨𝒙 𝒊,.
Ƹ

❖ Similarly, 𝑨𝒚 = 𝑨𝒚 𝒋Ƹ is a vector parallel to the y-axis and has a magnitude 𝑨𝒚 .

𝐀 = 𝐀 𝐱 𝐢Ƹ + 𝐀 𝐲 𝐣Ƹ
In terms of unit vectors we write 𝐴Ԧ as follows:

When we have three- dimensional vectors: 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘෠

1.3.1. Finding a Unit Vector

෠ The unit vectors 𝐴መ in the same direction as the vector 𝐴Ԧ is simply the
Consider the vector 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘,

vector 𝐴Ԧ divided by its magnitude A.

𝐴Ԧ 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘෠
𝐴መ = =
𝐴 𝐴
 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
= 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + ෡
𝒌
𝑨 𝑨 𝑨
The result makes it clear that each component of the unit vector is simply the corresponding component, of the

original vector, divided by the magnitude 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2 of the original vector.

Example: a unit vector in the direction of the of vector

෡
𝑨 = 𝟑𝒊Ƹ + 𝟓𝒋Ƹ + 𝒌

Since 𝐴𝑥 = 3, 𝐴𝑦 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑧 = 1.The magnitude 𝐴 is

𝑨= 𝑨𝒙 𝟐 + 𝑨𝒚 𝟐 + 𝑨𝒛 𝟐 =

= 𝟑𝟐 + 𝟓𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟗 + 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏 = 𝟑𝟓
The unit vector 𝐴መ is

𝐴Ԧ 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴
𝐴መ = = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧 ෡
𝑘
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

3 5 1 ෡
𝐴መ = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘
35 35 35

1.3.2. Adding Vectors by Components

Suppose we wish to add the two vectors 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘෠ and 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘෠ using the components

method, such as:

𝑅 = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵

= (Ax𝑖+ ෠ + (𝐵𝑥 𝑖+
Ƹ Ay𝑗Ƹ +𝐴𝑧 𝑘) ෠
Ƹ 𝐵𝑦 𝑗Ƹ +𝐵𝑧 𝑘)

= (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑋 )+ (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )
❑ Then the components
𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥
of the resultant vector 𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦

will be given by:

❑The magnitude of 𝑅 can

𝑅= 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2
then be obtained from its components or
2
the components of 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 using = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦

❑ The angle that 𝑅 makes with the x-axis

𝑅𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝑅𝑥
can also be obtained by

−1 𝑅𝑦
using the following relationships: ⇒𝜃 = tan
𝑅𝑥
Review Problems

1. Vector 𝑨 has magnitude of 8units and makes an angle of 𝟒𝟓° with the positive x-axis. Vector 𝑩 also has the
same magnitude of 8units and directed along the negative x-axis. Determine
a. The magnitude and direction of 𝑨 + 𝑩

b. The magnitude and direction of 𝑨 − 𝑩

෡ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑩 = 𝟐𝒊Ƹ + 𝟑𝒋Ƹ − 𝟕𝒌
2. Given the displacement vectors 𝑨 = 𝟑𝒊Ƹ − 𝟒𝒋Ƹ + 𝟒𝒌 ෡

Find the magnitudes of the vectors

a) 𝐀 + 𝐁
b) 𝟐𝑨 − 𝑩

c) Find a vector 𝑪 such that 𝑨 + 𝑩 + 𝑪 = 𝟎.

3. If 𝑨 = 𝟔𝒊Ƹ − 𝟖𝒋,Ƹ 𝑩 = −𝟖𝒊Ƹ + 𝟑𝒋𝒂𝒏𝒅

Ƹ 𝑪 = 𝟐𝟔𝒊Ƹ + 𝟏𝟗𝒋.Ƹ Find a and b Such that 𝒂𝑨 + 𝒃𝑩 + 𝑪 = 𝟎
4. Find a unit vector in the direction of the resultant of vectors
෡ 𝑩 = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + 𝟐𝒌
𝑨 = 𝟐𝒊Ƹ − 𝟑𝒋Ƹ + 𝟒𝒌, ෡ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑪 = 𝟑𝒊Ƹ − 𝟐𝒋Ƹ + 𝟒𝒌
෡
THANK YOU
FOR YOUR
ATTENTION