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Dual Capacitive Probe Method for Non-contact High Voltage Measurements

Thesis · March 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.34358.16961

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Dual Capacitive Probe Method for
Non-contact High Voltage
Measurements

by

Nygmetzhan Kuzenbayev

An Honours report submitted for the Degree of

BEng in Electrical Power and Energy

at the

Heriot-Watt University

March 2016
“Non scholae sed vitae discimus”

ii
Abstract

Safe and reliable transmission is vital for the operation of the electrical power
system. Transmission line fault may occur at any location along the line.
Therefore, voltage monitoring of power lines is necessary. Novel dual capacitive
non-contact high voltage measurement method is described in this research paper.
The measurement system was designed and manufactured. It was tested in high
voltage laboratory facilities of the university. Error estimations were performed in
order to determine the accuracy of the system.

iii
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my project supervisor, Dr Paul Record, for his guidance and
assistance through the project, and Barry Lorimer for his help with conducting the
experiments. I would also like to thank my family and friends for their patience
and support.

iv
Statement of Authorship

I, Nygmetzhan Kuzenbayev,

State that this work submitted for assessment is my own and expressed in my own
words. Any uses made within it of works of other authors in any form (e.g. ideas,
figures, text, tables) are properly acknowledged at their point of use. A list of the
references employed is included.

30/03/2016

v
Table of Contents

1. Introduction ......................................................................................................1

2. Background Theory .........................................................................................3

2.1. Overview ...............................................................................................3

2.2. Electrical power systems .......................................................................3

2.3. Power system faults ..............................................................................4

2.4. Electric field ..........................................................................................4

3. Literature Review.............................................................................................7

3.1. Introduction ...........................................................................................7

3.2. Conventional high voltage measurement techniques ............................7

3.2.1. Overview ..............................................................................7

3.2.2. Sphere gap ............................................................................8
3.2.3. Electrostatic voltmeter .........................................................9
3.2.4. Resistive divider ...................................................................9
3.2.5. Capacitive divider ..............................................................10
3.2.6. Series impedance ammeter .................................................11
3.2.7. Voltage transformers ..........................................................11
3.2.8. Conclusion .........................................................................12

3.3. Capacitive sensor technologies ...........................................................12

3.3.1. Introduction ........................................................................12

3.3.2. No-electrical contact capacitive sensors ............................13

3.3.3. Electric field measurements based on capacitive coupling 15
3.3.4. Non-contact capacitive sensors ..........................................17
3.3.5. Conclusion .........................................................................20

3.4. Dual capacitive sensor method developed by Tsang ..........................20

3.5. Conclusion ..........................................................................................22

4. Design Description .........................................................................................23

vi
 4.1. Overview .............................................................................................23
4.2. Design concept ....................................................................................23
4.3. Design of the sensors ..........................................................................25
4.4. Design of the electronic circuit ...........................................................26
4.5. Power supply .......................................................................................28

5. Simulations .....................................................................................................29

5.1. Introduction .........................................................................................29

5.2. Electric field simulation ......................................................................29

5.3. Simulations of the electronic circuit ...................................................31

5.4. Conclusion ..........................................................................................34

6. Experiments ....................................................................................................35

6.1. Overview .............................................................................................35

6.2. Experimental equipment .....................................................................35

6.3. Experimental procedure ......................................................................36

7. Results .............................................................................................................37

7.1. Overview .............................................................................................37

7.2. Measurements of capacitances ............................................................37

7.3. Voltage measurements ........................................................................38

7.4. Error estimations .................................................................................40

8. Discussion ........................................................................................................44

9. Conclusion.......................................................................................................45

References .............................................................................................................46

Bibliography .........................................................................................................48

Appendix I ............................................................................................................49

vii
List of Figures

Fig. 2.1. Segments of an electrical power system. ..................................................3

Fig. 2.2. Electric field from the three-phase power line with the presence of the
tower. .......................................................................................................................5

Fig. 2.3. Electric field from the three-phase power line without the presence of the
tower. .......................................................................................................................6

Fig. 3.1. Sphere gap. ...............................................................................................9

Fig. 3.2. Resistive divider circuit. .........................................................................10

Fig. 3.3. Capacitive divider circuit. .......................................................................10

Fig. 3.4. Series impedance ammeter method. .......................................................11

Fig. 3.5. High voltage measurement technique using a voltage transformer. .......12

Fig. 3.6. Single capacitive probe method. .............................................................13

Fig. 3.7. The equivalent principle of the sensor by Wei et al. ..............................13

Fig. 3.8. Block diagram of the sensor presented by Shenil et al. ..........................14

Fig. 3.9. Optical voltage sensor by Levesque. ......................................................15

Fig. 3.10. Positive sequence space potential profile from the three-phase power
line made by Li. .....................................................................................................15

Fig. 3.11. The relationship between the induced current in the point probe and the
applied voltage. .....................................................................................................16

Fig. 3.12. Cross-section of the scale model of the remote electric field
measurement by Gerrard et al. ..............................................................................17

Fig. 3.13. Single-contact voltage sensor by Bobowski et al. ................................18

Fig. 3.14. The layout of the D/I voltage measurement system by van Heesch et al.
................................................................................................................................19

viii
Fig. 3.15. Schematic diagram of the electro-optic sensor presented by Han et al. 19

Fig. 3.16. Structure of the electro-optic sensor described by Han et al. ...............20

Fig. 3.17. Dual capacitive probe method by Tsang. ..............................................21

Fig. 4.1. Design concept of the system. ................................................................23

Fig. 4.2. Cross-sectional view of the sensor. .........................................................25

Fig. 4.3. Implemented sensors. ..............................................................................26

Fig. 4.4. Design model of the electronic circuit. ...................................................26

Fig. 4.5. Implemented electronic circuit. ..............................................................28

Fig. 4.6. 9V batteries for power supply. ................................................................28

Fig. 5.1. Electric potential distribution from the live conductor simulated using
COMSOL Multiphysics version 4.2a. ...................................................................30

Fig. 5.2. Electric field distribution from the live wire simulated in COMSOL. ...30

Fig. 5.3. Electric field distribution around the sensor. ..........................................31

Fig. 5.4. High-pass passive filter simulation model. .............................................32

Fig. 5.5. Simulated bode plot of the high-pass filter. ............................................32

Fig. 5.6. Scheme of the simulated test-circuit. ......................................................33

Fig. 5.7. Simulated input currents to the circuit. ...................................................33

Fig. 5.8. Simulated output voltage of the circuit. ..................................................34

Fig. 6.1. Experimental equipment: (a) conductor; (b) multimeter; (c) control desk;
(d) transformer; (e) capacitive divider. .................................................................36

Fig. 7.1. Voltage measurements – Graph 1. ..........................................................39

Fig. 7.2. Voltage measurements – Graph 2. ..........................................................39

Fig. 7.3. Voltage measurements – Graph 3. ..........................................................40

ix
Fig. 7.4. Errors against applied voltages (Blue series – 1st set of measurements,
orange series – 2nd, black series – 3rd). ...............................................................42

x
List of Tables

Table 3.1. High voltage measurement techniques. .................................................8

Table 7.1. Measured capacitance values. ..............................................................37

Table 7.2. Voltage measurement results. ..............................................................38

Table 7.3. Values of uncertainties in experimental data and slopes for each
measurement. ........................................................................................................40

Table 7.4. Comparison between actual and measured values of applied voltages.
................................................................................................................................42

xi
1. Introduction

Electrical power system consists of generation, transmission, distribution and

supply. The purpose of the transmission of electrical power is to deliver electricity
over long distances. Safe and reliable transmission is vital for the operation of the
electrical power system. Transmission line fault may occur at any location along
the line. Insulator breakdown, lightning, gust and ice may lead to power line
faults. Rapid change in normal voltage of the power line is a consequence of a
fault. Therefore, voltage monitoring of power lines is necessary.

Conventional high voltage measurement techniques are mostly intrusive, which

means that direct contact with the power line is required. However, the insulation,
which is essential for intrusive measurement systems, is expensive. As a result,
there is a continuously increasing demand for contactless methods of measuring
high voltages from power lines.

The aim of the project is to design a self-powered, non-contact high voltage

measuring device with an appropriate accuracy, which is ±5%. The main
objectives of the project are as follows:

 Review the literature on currently available contactless voltage

measurement techniques
 Decide on the system design to be implemented
 Design capacitive sensors
 Build an electronic circuit for filtering and amplification of the sensed
signals
 Design a power supply for the system
 Test and advance the implemented system
 Perform an error analysis based on experimental data
 Write an interim and a final reports

The system was manufactured and performance of the system was tested in high
voltage laboratory facilities of the university.

The outline of the presented report is given below:

1
 Chapter 2: Background theory. Chapter 2 presents an overview of the
background theory for the project. Brief introduction to electrical power
systems and power system faults, as well as an overview of electric field
theory is presented in Chapter 2.
 Chapter 3: Literature review. Chapter 3 is dedicated to a literature
review on conventional high voltage measuring techniques and contactless
capacitive sensor technologies. Full contact, no-electrical contact and non-
contact sensors are discussed in Chapter 3.
 Chapter 4: Design description. Chapter 4 describes concept and design
of the system. Due to the fact that the system is complex and consists of
different modules, this chapter is divided into several sections. Description
includes capacitive sensors and electronic circuit design.
 Chapter 5: Simulations. In Chapter 5, computer simulations completed
during the project are described and discussed. Electronic circuit and
electric field distribution simulations were performed using LT Spice
Simulation Software by Linear Technology and COMSOL Multiphysics
Modelling Software respectively.
 Chapter 6: Experiments. Experimental set-up for the project is described
in this chapter of the report. Laboratory equipment and its limitations are
discussed. Experimental procedure is outlined.
 Chapter 7: Results. Chapter 7 presents experimental results obtained
during conducted tests. Error estimations are also included.
 Chapter 8: Discussion. Chapter 8 discusses project results and presents
recommendations on further research.
 Chapter 9: Conclusion. Conclusion of the report is given in Chapter 9.

2
2. Background Theory

2.1. Overview

Brief introduction to electrical power systems and power system faults is given in
this chapter of the report. Basic background theory of electric fields is included in
this part as well.

2.2. Electrical Power Systems

Electrical power system is a network that is, generally, divided into four
segments, such as generation, transmission, distribution and supply (Fig. 2.1), and
three main electrical components of a power system are generators, transformers
and transmission lines.

Fig. 2.1. Segments of an electrical power system [1].

Electrical generator is a machine that extracts electricity from mechanical energy.

Due to the fact that power stations are not always located near to consumers,
generated electricity is required to be delivered over long distances. In order to
reduce losses in long-distance transmission lines, transformers step up the voltage.
Then, step-down transformers are necessary to provide the local distribution
network with electricity at required voltage levels.

There are two types of transmission lines: overhead power lines and underground
cables. Underground cables are useful in highly populated regions. Three-phase
overhead transmission lines transport electricity at hundreds of kilovolts.
Typically, overhead lines consist of three flexible conductors from both steel and
aluminium that are supported by pylons. Some of the transmission lines have

3
neutral conductors installed above phase conductors providing an electrostatic
shield against lightning. According to [2], the total length of overhead
transmission lines owned by National Grid plc was approximately 7,200
kilometres.

2.3. Power System Faults

Rapid change in the normal voltage and current is a consequence of a power

system fault. There is a number of possible reasons of such faults, namely,
lightning, gust, ice, etc. Mechanical failure of components may result in short
circuit, which damages electrical equipment. Therefore, there are several
protective devices, for example, circuit breakers that operate like electrical
switches and isolate faulted components from the rest of a power system.
However, there is a lack of voltage and current monitoring equipment installed
along transmission lines [3]. Several types of contactless voltage and electric field
monitoring devices will be discussed in the next chapter.

Five types of three-phase power system faults are listed below [4]:

 A single line connected to earth

 Two lines connected to earth
 All lines connected to earth
 Two lines connected to each other
 All lines connected to each other

2.4. Electric Field

Electric charges and changing magnetic fields generate an electric field, which is a
part of an electromagnetic field and its intensity E at a given point of the field can
be expressed as electric force F applied on a unit charge q:

𝑭
𝑬=𝑞 (2.1)

Electric and magnetic fields analysis can be done using Maxwell’s differential
equations:

4
 𝜌
∇. 𝑬 = 𝜀 (2.2)
0

∇. 𝑩 = 0 (2.3)

𝜕𝑩
∇ × 𝑬 = − 𝜕𝑡 (2.4)

𝜕𝑬
∇ × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 ( 𝑱 + 𝜀0 𝜕𝑡 ) (2.5)

Transmission lines generate low-frequency (50 Hz / 60Hz) electromagnetic fields.

Calculation of the electric field from the high-voltage power lines was presented
in [5]. The electric field distributions around the OHTL conductors with and
without the presence of the pylon were simulated, and produced illustrations are
shown below (Fig. 2.2 and Fig. 2.3):

Fig. 2.2. Electric field from the three-phase power line with the presence of the tower [5].

5
Fig. 2.3. Electric field from the three-phase power line without the presence of the tower
[5].

6
3. Literature Review

3.1. Introduction

The main objective of this project is to design and develop non-contact high
voltage measuring device. There are several reasons of continuously increasing
demand for contactless voltage measurements from power lines, specifically,
these devices are relatively small, inexpensive and safe compared to traditional
measurement techniques.

According to Gerrard [6], currently existing voltage measurement devices can be

divided into three groups:

 Full contact sensors

This includes conventional measurement techniques, where the electrical
connection to the voltage source is necessary.
 No-electrical contact sensors
Voltage sensors with no electrical connection to the source, but physically
connected to the power line.
 Non-contact sensors
Neither physical nor electrical contact with the power line is required.

This chapter of the report presents and describes:

 Traditional AC high voltage measurement techniques

 Capacitive sensor technologies
 Dual capacitive sensor method developed by Tsang

3.2. Conventional high voltage measurement techniques

3.2.1. Overview

Generally, conventional high voltage measurement methods are based on the

techniques to measure low voltages. The following table shows methods of
measuring high voltages (Table 3.1).

7
 Type of voltage Method

DC 1. Sphere gap
2. Electrostatic voltmeter
3. Series resistance ammeter
4. Resistive divider
AC (high frequency), impulse 1. Sphere gap
2. Peak voltmeters
3. Potential dividers with a
cathode ray oscillograph
AC (50/60 Hz) 1. Sphere gap
2. Electrostatic voltmeter
3. Resistive divider
4. Capacitive divider
5. Series impedance ammeter
6. Voltage transformers
Table 3.1. High voltage measurement techniques.

Mentioned above methods were described and discussed in depth by Kuffel and
Zaengl [4], Schwab [7] and Abdel-Salam et al. [8]. Listed above techniques to
measure AC low-frequency high voltages are reviewed in this section.

3.2.2. Sphere gap

Two smooth metal spheres of equal diameters, one of which is connected to high
voltage and another one connected to earth, are separated from each other (Fig.
3.1). When the unspecified high voltage is applied, the spacing between two
spheres is decreased until the spark appears. If the field between the spheres is
uniform, breakdown voltage is proportional to the separating distance. The
voltage source must be able to tolerate a complete short circuit, which is the result
of a spark.

8
 Fig. 3.1. Sphere gap. Image Source:
http://twfpowerelectronics.com/~kurt/Marx/Marx.html

The accuracy of measurements depends on precise estimations of air humidity,

temperature and pressure. Ergo, sphere gap method can be considered only as a
calibration device and a laboratory research instrument. However, this technique
is highly reliable and simple [4].

3.2.3. Electrostatic voltmeter

One of the first electrostatic voltmeters based on the measurement of the electric
force was suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1884 [4]. The attracted disc type
electrostatic voltmeters can be used to measure r.m.s. values of AC voltages
above 10 kV [7]. As well as a sphere gaps, electrostatic voltmeters for measuring
high voltages are mostly used for research purposes and not widely applied to
commercial power systems.

3.2.4. Resistive divider

High voltage resistive divider is based on a simple potential divider circuit (Fig.
3.2). Two resistances, R1 and R2, are connected in series, and the voltmeter
reading, V, is the voltage across the low value resistor, R2:

9
 𝑅2
𝑉= 𝐻. 𝑉. (3.1)
𝑅1 +𝑅2

Where H.V. is the value of high voltage applied.

Fig. 3.2. Resistive divider circuit.

As the currents flowing through resistors are of the same value, the influence of
voltage and temperature coefficients is minimized. Nevertheless, in order to avoid
leakage currents, which decrease the overall resistance value, improved insulation
is necessary [4].

3.2.5. Capacitive divider

In this method, two capacitors, C1 and C2, form a voltage divider (Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.3. Capacitive divider circuit.

The measuring voltmeter is connected across the capacitor, C2. The relationship
between the voltmeter reading, V, and the value of the applied high voltage, H.V.,

10
is given by:
𝐶1
𝑉= 𝐻. 𝑉. (3.2)
𝐶1 +𝐶2

If the stray capacitances between the input terminals and ground are significantly
lower than the capacitances of the divider, their influence on the results is
negligible [4].

3.2.6. Series impedance ammeter

Series impedance ammeter method is illustrated on Figure 3.4. The high voltage is
applied across the large impedance, Z, and the current flowing is measured by an
ammeter. This current, I, can be estimated by Ohm’s law and proportional to the
voltage applied. The limitation of this technique is related to the availability of
large value resistors and capacitors with appropriate characteristics [4].

Fig. 3.4.Series impedance ammeter method.

3.2.7. Voltage transformers

Voltage transformers step-down high voltages down to the measureable levels

(Fig. 3.5). Traditionally, magnetic voltage transformers (MVTs) are used to
measure alternating high voltages. The primary winding of the transformer is
connected to the high voltage source and the secondary winding is connected to
the voltmeter. The insulation required between the two windings results in a
considerably large size and high cost of the equipment.

11
 Fig. 3.5. High voltage measurement technique using a voltage transformer. Image
source: http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/transformer-isolation/

3.2.8. Conclusion

Conventional high voltage measurement methods, discussed above, have several

significant disadvantages:

 Expensive equipment
 Large physical size of the equipment
 Necessary electrical connection to the source

3.3. Capacitive sensor technologies

3.3.1. Introduction

Transmission line voltage and electric field sensors based on capacitive coupling
measurements will be discussed in this part of the chapter.

The basic design of the capacitive probe is illustrated below (Fig. 3.6):

12
 Fig. 3.6. Single capacitive probe method [18].

The power line voltage v(t) can be estimated by measuring the probe current i(t),
which is proportional to the former.

Recently developed no-electrical contact and non-contact capacitive sensor

technologies will be described in the following sections.

3.3.2. No-electrical contact capacitive sensors

One of no-electrical contact voltage sensing devices was introduced by Wei et al

[9]. The sensing probe was mechanically attached to the surface of the insulation
of the wire. The displacement current was measured by the electronic circuit. The
field effect transistor (FET) generated a weak voltage signal, and operational
amplifiers were used to amplify it. Finally, the optical signal, produced by the
light emitting diode (LED), was transmitted to the receiver. The simulations were
made using MULTISIM software. According to authors, the practical experiments
on the 220V/50Hz AC wire were performed. The equivalent principle of the FET
for detecting the electric-field state is illustrated on Figure 3.7.

Fig. 3.7. The equivalent principle of the sensor by Wei et al. [9].

13
The method with the same approach, when the concentric electrode was attached
to the wire, was patented by Nakano [10]. The electronic circuit was measuring
the displacement current in the sensing probe attached to the insulation of the
wire. The accuracy of the device was not specified.

In the method introduced by Shenil et al. [11], two conductive concentric ring
shaped electrodes were attached to the insulated wire. The simplified scheme of
the device is given (Fig. 3.8). The implemented low-cost device was tested at
different frequencies (100 Hz to 1000 Hz) and voltages ranging from 40V to
240V. The maximum error level of less than 1% was achieved, when an
appropriate calibration had been completed.

Fig. 3.8. Block diagram of the sensor presented by Shenil et al. [11]

Differential coaxial capacitive electrodes to measure phase line voltages placed on

the conductors were discussed and analysed by Shimada et al [12]. The
discrepancy between the applied voltage waveform and the measured waveform
was investigated.

The voltage sensor placed on the live electrical wire, invented by Levesque [13],
consisted of two concentric electrodes and a simple electric circuit converting an
induced current into the light signal generated by LED. This light signal was then
transmitted to the receiver through the optical fibre. The intensity of the light
signal was representing the AC voltage applied to the wire. The simplified
illustration of the device is given on Figure 3.9.

14
 Fig. 3.9. Optical voltage sensor by Levesque [9].

3.3.3. Electric field measurements based on capacitive coupling

Electric field monitoring sensors are able to detect power line voltage changes.
According to Li [3], space potential values produced by each phase of the power
line are proportional to the actual phase voltages. Space potential amplitude
distribution from a three phase power line was illustrated (Fig. 3.10).

Fig. 3.10. Positive sequence space potential profile from the three-phase power line made
by Li [3].

15
Three types of electromagnetic field sensors, namely, point probes, parallel and
perpendicular sensors, for monitoring the power line condition were studied
thoroughly by [3]. “Due to simplicity of construction, point probe is a common
type of field sensors”. The study of point probes for voltage measuring was
provided. Simulation results, provided in the paper, showed that the transmission
line voltage and the current induced in the point probe were linearly related (Fig.
3.11). Results of laboratory tests and field experiments were given as well. Single-
phase and single-probe laboratory tests for measuring space potentials were
conducted. A metal sphere was placed under the live wire. The probe was
grounded and the induced currents were measured by a “FLUKE 189” ammeter.
Voltages from 10.95 kV up to 100.1 kV were applied to the wire. Space potential
values estimated from the induced currents and space potential meter were
compared. The maximum error value was equal to 6.7%.

Fig. 3.11. The relationship between the induced current in the point probe and the
applied voltage [3].

Remote electric field measurement method was described by Gerrard et al [14].

The system monitoring power line voltage changes was implemented using an
array of capacitive probes. The scale model of the technique is shown below (Fig.
3.12).

16
 Fig. 3.12. Cross-section of the scale model of the remote electric field measurement by
Gerrard et al. [14].

The voltage outputs of the sensors represented incident electric fields. Each sensor
consisted of the capacitive plate connected to the electronic circuit with a high
input impedance. As stated by authors, the system demonstrated successful
performance during tests, and confirmed that it can monitor the voltage changes
on each phase conductor of the power system.

3.3.4. Non-contact capacitive sensors

Voltage sensors can be considered as non-contact, if, as mentioned above, neither

physical nor electrical contact with the power line is required. Different non-
contact voltage measuring devices based on capacitive probe method will be
described below.

A single-contact voltage sensor presented by Bobowski et al [15] achieved an

accuracy of ±10%. The device was mechanically attached and electrically
connected to the neutral conductor, but had no contact with the live conductor
(Fig. 3.13). A capacitive plate connected to a tuneable capacitor bank formed a
capacitive voltage divider. High-impedance voltage follower was connected to the
output of the divider. The op-amp circuit was placed inside the conducting body
of the device. 9V batteries in series supplied the electronics, and the output of the
voltage follower was measured by a digital multimeter. COMSOL simulations
software was used to estimate the capacitance between the live wire and the

17
sensing plate. A prototype was implemented and tested to measure voltages up to
7.5kV rms.

Fig. 3.13. Single-contact voltage sensor by Bobowski et al [15].

Three phase high voltage measuring device consisting of fixed capacitive

electrodes based on Differentiating/Integrating (D/I) principle was described by
van Heesch et al [16]. Probes measured electrical coupling from three phase
conductors of the power line. The applied phase voltages had to be estimated
when the integration had been done. Evaluation of the inverse of the coupling
capacitances matrix and D/I electrode signals provided the original voltages, when
the system was fixed. As stated by van Heesch, “the D/I system was applied
successfully for substation measurements” and “proved to have excellent EMC
qualities”. The layout of the D/I measuring system is illustrated below (Fig. 3.14).

18
 Fig. 3.14. The layout of the D/I voltage measurement system by van Heesch et al. [16]

Non-contact electro-optic sensor was presented by Han et al [17]. The system

schematic is given below (Fig. 3.15).

Fig. 3.15. Schematic diagram of the electro-optic sensor presented by Han et al. [17]

The sensor was placed under the phase line. It consisted of a capacitive plate and
the optoelectronic conversion unit. A plate was placed on top of the conducting

19
metal box for electromagnetic shielding and was fixed by an insulating support
(Fig. 3.16). Two capacitances: between the plate and the line and between the
plate and the bottom of the metal box – formed a capacitive voltage divider. The
output voltage from the divider was converted to an optical signal by the
optoelectronic conversion unit. This optical signal was then transmitted through
an optic fiber to the receiver.

Fig. 3.16. Structure of the electro-optic sensor described by Han et al. [17]

The optoelectronic conversion unit of the system was based on material

characteristics of LiNbO3. The system was tested on detecting lightning
overvoltage. The voltage value of the impulse was 22.50kV and the output voltage
was equal to 174mV. The comparison of the theoretical voltage division ratio with
the measured ratio showed that the error of the sensor was less than 3%.

3.3.5. Conclusion

No-electrical contact and non-contact voltage and electric field measurement

techniques based on capacitive coupling were discussed above. The accuracy
results were given and the methodology was described.

3.4. Dual capacitive sensor method developed by Tsang

According to Tsang [18], typical single capacitive non-contact voltage sensors are
not accurate due to the fact that the result might be affected by environmental
factors. The dual capacitive voltage sensor, developed by Tsang, was stated to be

20
less vulnerable to environmental effects. This was achieved by using two
capacitive probes per phase.

Two conductive flat electrodes were separated from each other by an insulating
material, as shown on the illustration (Fig. 3.17). Two currents from the electrodes
were then amplified by current-to-voltage amplifiers and the output voltages were
measured.

Fig. 3.17. Dual capacitive probe method by Tsang [18].

Root mean square (rms) values of the induced currents can be obtained as:

𝑖1 = 𝐶1 𝜔𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 (3.3)

𝑖2 = 𝐶2 𝜔𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 (3.4)

where C1 is the capacitance between the upper plate and the sensed surface, and
C2 is the capacitance between the lower plate and the sensed surface.

When the electric field between the two sensor heads is uniform and the areas of
the sensing surfaces are equal, the capacitance Co, which is the capacitance
between the two heads, can be expressed as:

𝐶1 ∗ 𝐶2
𝐶𝑜 = (3.5)
𝐶1 − 𝐶2

Subsequently, using the equations (3.3), (3.4) and (3.5), the relationship between
the sensed voltage, vrms, and the currents, i1 and i2, can be expressed as:

21
 𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (3.6)
𝐶0 𝜔(𝑖1 −𝑖2 )

Where C0 is the capacitance between the electrodes and ω is the angular

frequency of the sensed voltage. According to the equation (3.6), it can be
concluded that the measurements do not depend on the capacitances between the
electrodes and the sensed surface.

Laboratory experiments measuring voltages from 120 Vrms up to 240 Vrms were
implemented. Applying the orthogonal least square estimation algorithm, the
estimation error was reduced to 5%.

3.5. Conclusion

Since contactless voltage measuring devices are small in size, less expensive and
safe to operate, contactless methods are gaining popularity and rapidly
developing. Conventional high voltage measurement techniques, capacitive probe
technologies and the dual capacitive sensor developed by Tsang were described
and discussed in this chapter.

22
4. Design Description

4.1. Overview

Chapter 4 is dedicated to the description of the system concept and design. Due to
the fact that the system is complex and consists of different modules, this chapter
is divided into several sections. The outline of the chapter is given below:

 Section 4.2 – Description of the concept of the system.

 Section 4.3 – Description of the sensors.
 Section 4.4 – Description of the electronic circuit.
 Section 4.5 – Description of the power supply of the system.

4.2. Design concept

The system discussed in this paper and implemented during the project is a dual
capacitive non-contact voltage measuring device. Two sensing plates should be
placed under each phase line. Sensed signals, which are currents induced in the
probes, are amplified and filtered by the circuit. Output from the system
represents the difference between the two signals. The basic conceptual design of
the system is illustrated below (Fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1. Design concept of the system.

23
  C1 – Capacitance between the first probe and the sensed surface of the live
line
 C2 – Capacitance between the second probe and the sensed surface of the
live line

When alternating voltage v(t) is applied to the line, the currents i1(t) and i2(t)
induced in the probes can be expressed as:

𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖1 (𝑡) = 𝐶1 (4.1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖2 (𝑡) = 𝐶2 (4.2)
𝑑𝑡

Since the voltage applied is sinusoidal with the fixed angular frequency ω, it can
be expressed as:

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 (4.3)

where V is the amplitude of the voltage v(t).

Hence, the currents become:

𝑑(𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑖1 (𝑡) = 𝐶1 = 𝐶1 𝜔𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 (4.4)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑖2 (𝑡) = 𝐶2 = 𝐶2 𝜔𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 (4.5)
𝑑𝑡

Root mean square (rms) values of these currents can be obtained as:

𝑖1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐶1 𝜔𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 (4.6)

𝑖2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐶2 𝜔𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 (4.7)

where vrms is the rms value of the applied voltage.

Accordingly, the difference of the currents is expressed as:

𝑖1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝑖2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐶1 𝜔𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝐶2 𝜔𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝜔𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝐶1 − 𝐶2 ) (4.8)

If the current difference is measured, then the voltage applied to the line could be
estimated from (4.8).

24
When the probes are fixed, the capacitances C1 and C2 are constant.
Consequently, the difference between the capacitances ΔC, which is equal to C1 -
C2, is constant as well. The capacitances can be obtained by computer
simulations. However, in this project, the difference between the capacitances is
determined experimentally.

Once the difference between the capacitances and the difference between the
currents are obtained, the rms value of the voltage applied can be estimated from:

𝑖1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝑖2 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (4.9)
𝜔(𝐶1 − 𝐶2 )

4.3. Design of the sensors

Sensing probes were designed to pick up the electric coupling from the power
line. Probes consisted of conductive metal plates made from copper sheets. The
dimensions of the sensing plates were 10 cm x 10 cm x 1 mm. Thus, the area of
the sensing surface A was equal to:

𝐴 = 10 𝑐𝑚 ∗ 10 𝑐𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.01 𝑚2

The sensing plates were fixed on wooden hardboards. Shielding was made using
copper foil around the plates and the copper sheets underneath the hardboards.
Spacing between the sensing plate and the shielding foil was equal to 0.5 cm.
Cross-sectional view of the sensor is illustrated on Figure 4.2.

Fig. 4.2. Cross-sectional view of the sensor.

25
Implemented sensors are demonstrated below (Fig. 4.3):

Fig. 4.3. Implemented sensors.

4.4. Design of the electronic circuit

The electronic circuit was designed to amplify and filter the sensed signals. The
illustration of the circuit design was made using LT Spice software and is shown
below (Fig. 4.4).

Fig. 4.4. Design model of the electronic circuit.

Inputs to the circuit are currents induced in the capacitive sensors due to the
changing electric field from the AC high voltage line. Since the input currents are
small, the current-to-voltage amplifiers (U1 and U2) convert these current signals

26
into considerably higher voltage signals. The feedback resistor of each current-to-
voltage amplifier has a resistance of 270 kΩ. The outputs of the current-to-voltage
amplifiers can be expressed as:

𝑉1 = 𝑖1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∗ 𝑅1 = 270 𝑘𝛺 ∗ 𝑖1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 (4.10)

𝑉2 = 𝑖2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∗ 𝑅2 = 270 𝑘𝛺 ∗ 𝑖2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 (4.11)

Thereafter, the instrumentation amplifier INA 217 amplifies the difference

between the voltage signals. The gain resistor of the instrumentation amplifier has
a resistance of 5.5 kΩ. Hence, the gain of the instrumentation amplifier Ag is equal
to:

10 𝑘𝛺
𝐴𝑔 = 1 + = 2.82 (4.12)
5.5 𝑘𝛺

Using the equations (4.10), (4.11) and (4.8), the output of the circuit can be
expressed as:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑔 ∗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = 2.82 ∗ 270 𝑘𝛺 ∗ (𝑖1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝑖2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) (4.13)

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2.82 ∗ 270 𝑘𝛺 ∗ (𝜔𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝐶1 − 𝐶2 )) (4.14)

RC high-pass filters were decided to be included in order to eliminate DC noises.

Filters consisted of capacitors of 1 µF and resistors of 1.6 MΩ.

The outputs of the operational amplifiers U6 and U7, used as voltage followers,
were connected to the shieldings of the sensors. As a consequence, the shielding
of the sensor was at the same potential as the sensing plate. This prevented
leakage currents between the sensing plate and the shielding.

The implemented circuit is illustrated on Figure 4.5.

27
 Fig. 4.5. Implemented electronic circuit.

8-pin operational amplifiers OPA 137 were placed instead of U1, U2, U6 and U7.
100 kΩ potentiometer was placed in series with the resistor R4 in order to match
the resistances of two passive filters.

4.5. Power supply

The system was supplied by two 9V DURACELL batteries (Fig. 4.6). As a result,
the system was completely self-powered.

Fig. 4.6. 9V batteries for power supply.

28
5. Simulations

5.1. Introduction

In this chapter, computer simulations completed during the project will be

described and discussed. Electronic circuit and electric field distribution
simulations were performed using LT Spice Simulation Software by Linear
Technology and COMSOL Multiphysics Modelling Software respectively.

5.2. Electric field simulation

Electrostatic model of the electric field distribution was simulated using

COMSOL software package, as mentioned above (COMSOL Multiphysics
version 4.2a). This software uses finite element method (FEM) for solving
boundary value problems.

2D simulation of electric potential distribution was implemented (Fig. 5.1). Model

consisted of the live wire and two sensors. The live wire was 3 meters long. The
sensors were placed 2.5 m and 3 m below the live wire. The sensors were
separated from each other by 40 cm. The DC voltage applied to the conductor was
20 kV.

Simulation of the electric field distribution was performed using the same model
(Fig. 5.2).

29
Fig. 5.1. Electric potential distribution from the live conductor simulated using COMSOL
Multiphysics version 4.2a.

Fig. 5.2. Electric field distribution from the live wire simulated in COMSOL.

30
Simulations of electric field around the sensors with different configurations of
the shielding were completed. It was required to decide on the shielding design
that would be implemented (Fig. 5.3).

Fig. 5.3. Electric field distribution around the sensor.

5.3. Simulations of the electronic circuit

Simulations of the electronic circuit were performed using LT Spice software.

This was done in order to examine the design of the circuit before manufacturing.

Firstly, the performance of the high-pass filters were tested. High-pass RC filters
were decided to be included to eliminate DC noise. The simulation model of the
filter with a cut-off frequency of about 0.1 Hz is illustrated below (Fig. 5.4).

31
 Fig. 5.4. High-pass passive filter simulation model.

The model included a capacitor of 1 µF, 1.6 mega-ohm resistor and an AC voltage
source. Simulation produced a bode plot of the tested filter (Fig. 5.5).

Fig. 5.5. Simulated bode plot of the high-pass filter.

Solid line represents a magnitude of the signal, whereas the dotted line represents
a phase-shift of the signal. As can be seen from the bode plot, the simulated filter
attenuates low-frequency signals and passes the signals with the frequency of 50
Hz, which is the frequency of the sensed signal, without any attenuation.

Secondly, simulation of the full electronic circuit was performed. Sensors were
replaced by voltage sources and resistors in order to produce input currents to the
circuit. The simulated test-circuit is shown below (Fig. 5.6).

32
 Fig. 5.6. Scheme of the simulated test-circuit.

Voltage source V3 produces a sinusoidal signal of 50 Hz with an amplitude of 1V.

Resistors R12 and R13 have resistance values of 1 mega-ohm and 1.5 mega-ohms
respectively. Hence, the amplitudes of the currents flowing through resistors R12
and R13 can be estimated using Ohm’s law and should be equal to 1 µA and
0.667 µA respectively (Fig. 5.7).

Fig. 5.7. Simulated input currents to the circuit.

On the graph, the blue line represents the current I [R12] and the red line
represents the current I [R13].

Once the input currents are known, the output voltage from the instrumentation
amplifier can be calculated.

The output voltages from the current-to-voltage amplifiers are:

𝑉1 = 𝐼 [𝑅12] ∗ 𝑅1 = 1 µ𝐴 ∗ 270 𝑘𝛺 = 0.27 𝑉

𝑉2 = 𝐼 [𝑅13] ∗ 𝑅2 = 0.667 µ𝐴 ∗ 270 𝑘𝛺 = 0.18 𝑉

Thus, the voltage difference is equal to:

33
 ∆𝑉 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 0.27 𝑉 − 0.18 𝑉 = 0.09 𝑉

Accordingly, the output voltage from the instrumentation amplifier can be

estimated, which is a product of the gain of the instrumentation amplifier and the
voltage difference:

2 ∗ 5𝑘𝛺 10 𝑘𝛺
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑔 ∗ ∆𝑉 = (1 + ) ∗ ∆𝑉 = (1 + ) ∗ 0.09 𝑉 = 253.6 𝑚𝑉
𝑅5 5.5 𝑘𝛺

Comparison between the calculated value of the output voltage and the result of
the simulation (Fig. 5.8) demonstrates that these values coincide. Therefore, it can
be concluded that the simulations proved theoretical performance of the circuit.

Fig. 5.8. Simulated output voltage of the circuit.

5.4. Conclusion

Simulations of electric field distribution and simulations of the circuit completed

during the project were described above. Overall, simulations helped to gain
better understanding of theory, make a decision on the design of the sensors and
validated the circuit design.

34
6. Experiments

6.1. Overview

Experimental set-up for the project is described in this part of the report.
Laboratory equipment and its limitations will be discussed. Experimental
procedure will be outlined.

6.2. Experimental equipment

Experiments were conducted in high voltage laboratory facilities of the university.

All the experimental equipment excluding the measuring instrumentation was
located inside an earthed cage for safety issues.

3 meters long wire was fixed at 3.5 meters above the ground level. It was
separated from the neutral support by an insulator string (Fig. 6.1 a). Two metal
spheres were attached to the wire ends in order to avoid arcing. The wire was
supplied from cascaded transformers (Fig. 6.1 d).

The applied voltage was controlled by the control desk (Fig. 6.1 c). The sensors
had to be placed under the wire. After completion of several experiments, it was
found that the voltmeter built in the control desk was not calibrated. Therefore, it
was decided to measure the applied voltage independently using a capacitive
divider with the ratio of 100:1 (Fig. 6.1 e). The output of the divider was
measured by FLUKE 77 series II multimeter (Fig. 6.1 b).

Without a capacitive divider, arcing started at voltages from 180 kV. However,
when a capacitive divider was connected, arcing started on the top of the
capacitive divider from 90 kV. Hence, the experiments were performed only up to
80-85 kV range to avoid uncertainties in readings.

35
 Fig. 6.1. Experimental equipment: (a) conductor; (b) multimeter; (c) control desk; (d)
transformer; (e) capacitive divider.

6.3. Experimental procedure

The following procedure was followed during the experiments:

1. Take all required safety measures

2. Measure conductor height above ground
3. Fix the sensors
4. Measure spacing between the sensors
5. Measure distances between the sensors and a conductor
6. Turn on all measurement equipment
7. Switch on power supply using control desk
8. Carry out all measurements required.

36
7. Results

7.1. Overview

Experimental results obtained during the tests and estimations of error are
presented in Chapter 7. Firstly, capacitances of the system were measured. Results
of capacitance measurements are presented in section 7.2. Subsequently, voltage
measurements were conducted and the results are presented in section 7.3.
Estimations of error are given in section 7.4.

7.2. Measurements of capacitances

Before proceeding to voltage measurements, measurements of capacitances had to

be performed. As mentioned in Chapter 4, when the sensors are fixed, the
capacitances C1 and C2 are constant. Consequently, the difference between the
capacitances ΔC should be constant as well. The sensors were placed under the
conductor. Measured distances between the sensors and the conductor were as
follows:

𝑑1 = 2.45 𝑚

𝑑2 = 2.75 𝑚

The horizontal spacing between the sensors was measured to be 40 cm. The
capacitances were measured at voltages from 20 kV to 80 kV. The following table
(Table 7.1) demonstrates measured values of capacitances C1 and C2, as well as
the difference between these capacitances ΔC.

vrms, kV C1, x 10-14 F C2, x 10-14 F ΔC = C1 – C2,

x 10-14 F
20.5 3.675 1.081 2.594
42.3 3.672 1.075 2.597
61.1 3.669 1.072 2.597
80.7 3.673 1.069 2.604
Table 7.1. Measured capacitance values.

Accordingly, the average value of ΔC can be estimated:

37
 2.594 + 2.597 + 2.597 + 2.604
𝛥𝐶𝑎𝑣 = ( ) ∗ 10−14 𝐹 = 2.598 ∗ 10−14 𝐹
4

It can be seen from the Table 7.1 that experiments proved the stated hypothesis
that the capacitances remain constant when fixed.

7.3. Voltage measurements

Thereafter, voltage measurements were conducted. The sensors were fixed at the
same positions as before. d1 was equal to 2.45 m, d2 = 2.75 m and the spacing was
40 cm. Measurements were performed at voltages from 10 kV to 80 kV and were
repeated three times. The following table (Table 7.2) shows obtained results.

1 2 3
Applied Voltage Applied Voltage Applied Voltage
voltage, output, voltage, output, voltage, output,
kV mV kV mV kV mV
10.14 67 12.07 81 10.52 71
23.84 152 20.61 137 22.18 148
31.44 197 30.3 197 29.73 196
41.4 251 41.2 259 41.3 261
52.5 312 51.1 314 51.3 316
61.2 367 60.0 371 60.2 373
69.9 417 71.3 437 72.2 443
80.6 491 80.3 490 80.4 496
Table 7.2. Voltage measurement results.

Accordingly, graphical representations of measurements with trendlines forced

through the origins were made and illustrated below (Fig. 7.1, Fig. 7.2, and Fig.
7.3).

38
 Voltage measurements (1)
600

500 y = 6.0426x
Voltage Output, mV

400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Applied Voltage, kV

Fig. 7.1. Voltage measurements – Graph 1.

Voltage measurements (2)

600

500 y = 6.1757x
Voltage Output, mV

400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Applied Voltage, kV

Fig. 7.2. Voltage measurements – Graph 2.

39
 Voltage measurements (3)
600

500 y = 6.209x
Voltage Output, mV

400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Applied Voltage, kV

Fig. 7.3. Voltage measurements – Graph 3.

7.4. Error estimations

Firstly, standard uncertainties in experimental data for each voltage measurement

and standard uncertainties for estimated slopes were determined. These values of
uncertainties as well as slopes are given in the Table 7.3.

Measurement Standard Slope Standard

uncertainty in uncertainty in
experimental slope
data
1 4.658366 6.0426 0.03896
2 2.639995 6.1757 0.045493
3 3.64629 6.209 0.047542
Table 7.3. Values of uncertainties in experimental data and slopes for each measurement.

According to [19], VAC accuracy of FLUKE 77 Series II multimeter is ±2%.

The average measured value of ΔC was equal to:

𝛥𝐶𝑎𝑣 = 2.598 ∗ 10−14 𝐹

40
Using this value, the equation (4.14) becomes:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2.82 ∗ 270 𝑘𝛺 ∗ (𝜔𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∆𝐶𝑎𝑣 )

= 2.82 ∗ 270𝑘𝛺 ∗ 2.598 ∗ 10−14 𝐹 ∗ 2𝜋 ∗ 50𝐻𝑧 ∗ 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
= 6.214 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠

Or:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 1.609 ∗ 105 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (7.1)
6.214∗10−6

Equation (7.1) gives the relationship between the voltage output of the system and
the applied voltage. Hence, comparison between actual (independently measured)
and experimentally obtained values of applied voltage can be made (Table 7.4).

Measurement Actual Voltage Measured Percentage

applied output of applied Error =
voltage, the system, voltage = 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅−𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
∗
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
kV mV 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟗 ∗
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 ,
kV
1 10.14 67 10.78 +6.31 %
23.84 152 24.46 +2.6 %
31.44 197 31.70 +0.83 %
41.4 251 40.39 -2.44 %
52.5 312 50.20 -4.38 %
61.2 367 59.05 -3.51 %
69.9 417 67.10 -4.01 %
80.6 491 79.0 -1.99 %
2 12.07 81 13.03 +7.95 %
20.61 137 22.04 +6.94 %
30.3 197 31.70 +4.62 %
41.2 259 41.67 +1.14 %
51.1 314 50.52 -1.14 %

41
 60.0 371 59.69 -0.52 %
71.3 437 70.31 -1.39 %
80.3 490 78.84 -1.82 %
3 10.52 71 11.42 +8.56 %
22.18 148 23.81 +7.35 %
29.73 196 31.54 +6.09 %
41.3 261 41.99 +1.67 %
51.3 316 50.84 -0.89 %
60.2 373 60.02 -0.3 %
72.2 443 71.28 -1.27 %
80.4 496 79.81 -0.73 %
Table 7.4. Comparison between actual and measured values of applied voltages.

Graphical representation of errors against applied voltages is illustrated below

(Fig. 7.4).

Percentage Errors
10.00%

8.00%

6.00%

4.00%

2.00%

0.00%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-2.00%

-4.00%

-6.00%
Applied Voltage, kV

Fig. 7.4. Errors against applied voltages (Blue series – 1st set of measurements, orange
series – 2nd, black series – 3rd).

42
There might be several sources of experimental errors, namely:

 Field distortion from an earthed cage and transformers

 Precision of a multimeter measuring output voltage
 Tolerance of electronic components used in the circuit, for instance,
tolerance of gain resistors in the circuit was ±5%
 Uncertainty in independent measurements using a capacitive divider
(precision of the division ratio)

It should be noted that, as can be seen from Figure 7.4, accuracy of measurements
of higher voltages (from 40 kV) is significantly higher than precision of
measurements of lower voltages (from 10 to 31.44 kV). Possible reason for that
might be inaccurate voltage output readings. During the experiments, selection
knob of the multimeter was set to 2V AC setting, which allows a multimeter to
measure voltages from 200mV to 2V with a specified precision. However, when
the applied voltage was less than 31.44 kV, the voltage output was less than 200
mV. Hence, it can be concluded that measurements of voltages less than 31.44 kV
were inaccurate due to lack of precision of the multimeter.

43
8. Discussion

The aim of the completed project was to design and implement a dual capacitive
non-contact voltage measurement system. The system was manufactured and
tested. Design description was discussed in Chapter 4. Experimental results were
presented in Chapter 7. Experiments proved linearity of readings. Error
estimations were conducted. Error analysis demonstrated that the system was
capable of measuring voltages from 10 kV to 80 kV with an accuracy of ±10%.
However, as stated previously, errors of measurements from 40 kV to 80 kV were
less than ±5%.

In order to achieve better accuracy, several improvements could be done:

 Replace electronic components with high-precision ones

 Use shielded cables for carrying the sensed current signals
 Conduct experiments in a distortion-free environment (further from
distortion sources)

The implemented system is advantageous in comparison to conventional high

voltage measurement methods, because it is small in size, inexpensive and safe to
operate. When compared to single capacitive contactless sensors, the system is
less vulnerable to noises. On the other hand, one of the disadvantages of the
implemented system was that calibration (measurement of capacitances) had to be
performed before testing. This could be avoided by obtaining the capacitance
values from computer simulations. Unfortunately, these simulations were not
completed due to shortage of time.

Further work on the system might be done by connecting a digital transmitter to

the device. As a result, the system will be able to transmit the readings to the
control centre for remote monitoring of power line voltages.

44
9. Conclusion

The completed project is described in this paper. Dual capacitive non-contact

voltage measuring system was implemented. The following goals were achieved:

 Literature review on conventional high voltage measuring techniques and

currently available contactless voltage measurement methods was
conducted
 Design concept of the system was produced
 Capacitive sensors were manufactured
 Electronic circuit was built
 Power supply for the system was designed
 The implemented system was tested
 Error analysis based on experimental results was performed

Chapter 2: Overview of background theory was presented.

Chapter 3: Conventional high voltage measurement techniques, capacitive probe

technologies and the dual capacitive sensor developed by Tsang were described
and discussed.

Chapter 4: The system design was described.

Chapter 5: Simulations completed during the project were described. Simulations

helped to gain better understanding of theory, make a decision on the design of
the sensors and validated the circuit design.

Chapter 6: Experimental set-up and instrumentation was described, and the

experimental procedure was outlined.

Chapter 7: Experimental results were presented and discussed. Error analysis was
performed. Errors of measurements from 40 kV to 80 kV were less than ±5%.

Chapter 8: Advantages and disadvantages of the system were discussed.

Recommendations on improvements of the system and further research were
given.

45
References

1. J. Swingler, Introduction to electrical power systems [Lecture notes]

Heriot-Watt University, 2015.
2. National Grid plc, UK Transmission, Available from:
http://www2.nationalgrid.com/Contact-us/UK-Transmission/ [Accessed
19th February 2016].
3. Z. Li, “Electromagnetic sensors for measurements on electric power
transmission lines”, PhD [dissertation], Washington State University,
2011.
4. E. Kuffel and W. S. Zaengl, High Voltage Engineering: Fundamentals,
Pergamon Press plc, Oxford, 1984.
5. A. Z. El Dein, “Calculation of the electric field around the tower of the
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