Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

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Journal of Advanced Joining Processes

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Optimization of weldability and joint strength of Al-Mg-Si with additional

Al-Si cladding based on a design of experiments investigation
P Bamberg a, *, A Schiebahn a, A Marzzona a, M Christ b, U Reisgen a
a
Welding and Joining Institute - RWTH University, Aachen, Pontstr. 49, DE 52062 Germany
b
FEF - Forschungs- und Entwicklungsgesellschaft Fügetechnik GmbH, 52062 Aachen, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Some aluminum alloys, such as those alloyed with Si and Mg, are difficult to weld due to their susceptibility to
Lightweight structures hot cracking. Previous research has investigated this challenge in resistance spot welding (RSW). To improve the
Resistance spot welding – RSW weldability of the AW-6111 aluminum alloy, the roll cladding process was employed, combining it with AW-
Aluminum sheets
4045 as the cladding material. This resulted in a wider weld lobe, improved electrode wear, and enhanced
Hot cracking proneness
Al-Si and Al-Mg alloys
joint quality. However, it is evident that the cladded material could benefit from improved welding conditions.
Despite a larger nugget diameter, similar mechanical properties were observed for both the minimum and
maximum boundary conditions of the weld lobe, determined by Inom and Imax.
This study employed a design of experiments approach to optimize the joint strength and improve the weld
quality of the AW-6111 + AW-4045 cladded sheets. The tensile-shear test results demonstrated an improvement
in lap-shear strength of 38 % and 44 % compared with the previous study. Furthermore, the test samples pre­
dominantly exhibited a ductile partial thickness failure mode, and a significant improvement in the weld nugget
quality of the cladded AW-6111 + AW-4045 was observed. The cladded joints also exhibited a Si alloying content
of approximately 5 % in the heat-affected zone and fusion zone, thereby reducing the risk of crack formation and
propagation, thus improving significantly the weld quality. The results of this study contribute with the
continuous validation of Al alloys for the transport industry and with the use of cladding technology to enhance
the aluminum sheet properties and respective weld quality.

Introduction During the release of the welding current, a weldment expands under
Joule’s heating principle and, at the same time, it is distorted due to
Aluminum is a critical material in terms of lightweight strategies for electrode squeezing and confinement from the surrounding solid metal.
the automotive industry, as it offers a great weight-to-strength ratio, Such a distortion is irreversible and causes the weldment to undergo a
contributing significantly to reducing fuel consumption and greenhouse restrained contraction during the cooling phase. It induces tensile
gas emissions (Bamberg et al., 2021; Friedrich, 2017; Leary, 2011). stresses in the joint that is directly responsible for cracking. Hot cracking
However, the joining of aluminium sheets via RSW, which is limited to occurs during the solidification of the weld nugget and can take place at
the alloys from the 5000 and 6000 series (Bamberg et al., 2022; Lee, all its locations, such as the fusion zone (FZ), heat-affected zone (HAZ),
2020; VDA 238–401 2020), which is acknowledged as the most eco­ and base material (BM). If cumulative strains due to severe plastic
nomic joining process available for automotive applications, has known deformation of the solid-liquid metal exceed the plasticity of the parent
issues, such as proneness to cracking and formation of pores, rapid metal, the formation of liquation cracks finally results (Martikainen
electrode erosion and process quality instability. Some norms and et al., 2013). According to previous studies (Cao and Kou, 2006; Huang
guidelines elaborate on the evaluation and acceptance criterion for and Kou, 2004), liquation cracking may occur in the weld when the solid
cracks regarding their type, size and location (AWS D 8.1 M:2021 2021; fraction (fs) of the weld metal is greater than that of the partially melted
DVS 2960 2015). Nonetheless, a welding discontinuity can impair zone (PMZ) after the PMZ has obtained some strength during the so­
significantly the mechanical properties of welded joints. lidification process. Therefore, the critical condition is fs, WM > fs, PMZ.
Cracking in RSW occurs similarly to other fusion welding processes. A distinction is made primarily between solidification and liquation

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Bamberg).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jajp.2024.100206

Available online 20 February 2024

2666-3309/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

cracking. Solidification cracking in RSW occurs within the weld metal, Table 1
along the grain boundaries, due to solidification-related volume Material’s chemical composition and mechanical properties.
shrinkage, as part of the material is squeezed to the edges of the weld Main chemical composition Yield strength Elongation at
nugget when melted, starting the solidification at this region. As the [% in mass] [MPa] break [%]
fusion zone (FZ) is the last part to solidify, it experiences a volume deficit Cladding 11.0 Si; ≤ 0.05 Mg; ≤ 0.05 – –
that can lead to hot cracking, which can propagate from the center of the AW-4045 Mn
FZ into the sheet surface towards the electrode anode (Kou, 2020; Zhang Core sheet 0.6 Si; 0.5 - 1 Mg; 0.1 – 0.45 135 27
and Senkara, 2011). Solidification cracks can sometimes go unnoticed AW-6111 Mn
T4
during visual inspection, as they may not manifest on the sheet’s surface
unless subjected to mechanical stress. However, their presence becomes *Properties confirmed via EDX and tensile-shear test according with the norm
apparent upon examining the fracture surface, which typically displays a ISO 14273 (DIN EN ISO 14273:2001 2001).
dendritic morphology. Notably, the RSW process, particularly for
aluminum sheets, involves the application of high welding current in­ force was found for the Inom and Imax conditions, the limits of the weld
tensity and rapid cooling facilitated by water-cooled electrodes. Under lobe, as for the automotive guideline VDA 238–401 (VDA 238–401
such conditions, the occurrence of solidification cracks is not unusual. 2020), indicating that further welding conditions more suitable to the
Liquation cracking, however, takes place at the HAZ and is related to the cladded material could be validated.
liquation of secondary phases of impurities at the grain boundaries, at The objectives of this work consist of exploring further RSW pa­
sub solidus or super solidus temperature of the primary phase. Liquation rameters organized in a full factorial experiment 33 to investigate the
cracks initiate near the fusion line in the HAZ, propagating away from influence of welding parameters on the joint strength and to identify
the nugget into the base metal and tend to be favored by a further optimization potential. Moreover, an optic and chemical char­
coarse-grained microstructure, as shown by (Miyazaki et al., 1990) for acterization was performed to investigate the role of the Si from the
gas tungsten arc spot welding of aluminum alloy AW-6061 in a grain size cladding layer, AW-4045, the improvement of the microstructure and
range from 0.05 to 2 mm. Crack initiation is further promoted by reduction of cracking.
shrinkage stress, which acts on the residual melt zones of eutectic phases
between the solidified grains (Çam and Güven, 2017). Many cracks are Materials and methods
fully or partially filled with the material from the secondary phases or
impurities and can adversely affect the strength of the HAZ (Huang and This work is divided into two parts: first, a full factorial experiment
Kou, 2004). 33 with analysis of variance (ANOVA) has been carried out, assessing the
Cracking in welds can originate from different metallurgical and tensile-shear strength of RSW single lap joints and their fracture surface.
thermo-mechanical factors. Senkara and Zhang (Zhang and Senkara, Afterward, a microstructural characterization was conducted,
2011; Senkara and Zhang, 2000) describe that wide solidification in­ comparing the cladded and uncladded joints.
terval, the presence of columnar coarse grains, and the type and quantity
of certain alloying elements can increase the crack sensibility of a certain Material
aluminum alloy. Some actions can be found in the literature to mitigate
the incidence of cracks when welding aluminum. Within the RSW scope, Table 1 contains the mechanical and chemical properties of the
Manladan et al. (Manladan et al., 2017) expand on promoting fine materials utilized in this work, in which the alloying elements confirmed
microstructure at the fusion zone to avoid welding discontinuities, such via energy-dispersive spectroscopy. The cladded sheets used are 1.7 mm
as pores and cracks. Zhang and Senkara (Zhang et al., 2002) elaborated thick, consisting of 1.3 mm core material (AW-6111) and 0.2 mm
on the crack suppression by employing mechanical clamping of the area cladding material (AW-4045) on both surfaces. Conventional RSW joints
to be welded by constraining the volumetric expansion. of two AW-6111 aluminum sheets with 2 mm thickness each have been
Qi 2021 et al. (Qi et al., 2021) investigated using an external mag­ used as a reference for the microstructural investigation and comparison
netic field to refine the microstructure of RSW aluminum joints, with the cladded joints. All sheet materials used were in the solution-
reducing crack susceptibility. Shah et al. (Shah and Liu, 2020) used a annealed and work-hardened condition (T4).
hybrid RSW process superimposed with ultrasonic vibration to promote
a fine equiaxed crystal zone at the center of the weld nugget, increasing
Methods
the weld quality and avoiding discontinuities. Within the gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) scope, (Kou, 2020; Ahmed et al., 2023; Guzmán et al.,
The automotive standard VDA 238–401 (VDA 238–401 2020) for
2019) the mitigation of cracks when welding aluminum can often be
RSW of aluminum sheets has been used as a reference for welding
found by using filling material (as Al-Si, Al-Mg, Zn and others), changing
conditions to set the full factorial experiment. The main task recom­
the composition of the weldment to refine the microstructure or promote
mended by this standard is to validate a weld lobe with which a RSW
the formation of eutectic layer between the grains. Pre and post heating
process can be considered robust. It consists of validating Inom, the
the region to be welded can reduce strains, decreasing the crack sus­
welding current corresponding with the recommended weld spot size of
ceptibility (Kou, 2020; Fadaeifard et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2023). This
5√t (where t is the thickness of the thinnest sheet welded), and Imax, the
action is also used on the RSW, as norms and guidelines usually
maximum welding current can be used without electrode erosion or
recommend a short pre-pulse to break the oxide layer and mitigate the
spatter formation. The mentioned standard recommends validating a
formation of cracks.
minimum weld lobe of 2.5 kA (Inom - Imax). The previously validated Inom
During RSW of AlMgSi alloys, the risk of hot cracking in the weld
(welding current 36 kA, welding time 150 ms and electrode force 7.5
metal cannot be conventionally reduced by using a filler metal as is
kA) and Imax conditions (welding current 40.5 kA, welding time 150 ms
practiced in GMAW or laser beam welding (LBW). However, a similar
approach was attempted in the preceding part of this work (Bamberg
Table 2
et al., 2022), where AW-6111 (Al-Si-Mg) was cladded with AW-4045
Selected settings for the full factorial analysis.
(Al-Si alloy) in order to improve the RSW of aluminum sheets. The
research was carried out comparing the weld lobe, erosion behavior of Factor Levels

the electrode caps and tensile-shear break force of the cladded sheet Welding current [kA] 36.0, 40.5, 44.0
with a conventional AW-6111 T6. Despite the fact that a wider weld lobe Welding force [kN] 7.0, 7.5, 8.0
Welding time [ms] 75, 100, 150
and better electrode erosion behavior have been validated, similar break

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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

Fig. 1. Relevance of the factors and their respective interactions over the joint strength.

and electrode force 7.5 kA) have configured a weld lobe 4.5 kA wide; the given welding conditions, based on the ISO 6520–2 (DIN EN ISO
however, no difference on tensile-shear strength has been found be­ 6520–2:2013 2013), selected according with the classification of the
tween these two welding conditions. Hence, it is necessary to run a welding current level, depending on the results of the tensile-shear test.
design of experiments (DOE) to verify alternative welding conditions The optical characterization has been done on a macroscopic level with
that might better suit the RSW of the cladded alloys. Inom conditions a laser microscope (“VK-X1000”, Keyence company). Afterward, failure
have been used as the initial welding setup for the parametrization of a analyses from the fracture surface of the tensile-shear test specimens
full factorial experiment with a 33 array, with three repetitions for each were carried out and deeper microstructure characterization of the
run, adding up to 81 experiments. Table 2 presents the respective factors cladded and non-cladded sheets was compared using a scanning electron
and levels used. Each sample underwent a tensile-shear test following microscope (SEM, Zeiss LEO-1530). Finally, Energy-Dispersive X-ray
the welding procedure, according to EN ISO 14273:2001 (DIN EN ISO (EDX) analysis has been performed to determine the Si and Mg disso­
14273:2001 2001). Based on the shear strength behavior, the relevance lution along the X and Y axes of the weld nugget from both cladded and
of each factor, and their interactions have been assessed. Moreover, non-cladded sheets using the Bruker EDX Quantax 200. Based on these
specific results have been chosen for further macro-section analysis and three analysis methods, a correlation between the mechanical proper­
microstructural characterizations, to be elaborated in the results section. ties, the weld quality and microstructural characteristics has been
Single lap joint (SLJ) probes (two flat sheets 95 mm long, 45 mm attempted.
wide with an overlap length of 35 mm) have been prepared using a servo
actuated 1 kHz Medium Frequency Direct Current (MFDC) C-type Results and discussions
welding gun (“DeltaCon”, Fronius company), equipped with CuCrZr
electrode caps with A0–20–22–100 geometry according with the ISO Statistical assessment of the factorial experiment 33 according to the
5821:2010–04 (DIN EN ISO 5821:2010–04 2010). The results from the fracture force
DOE study consisted of the fracture force acquired during tensile-shear
tests. The test machine (“Z10 RetroLine”, ZwickRoell company) pro­ The analysis of the DOE results starts with the hypothesis test, in
vides a maximum force of 10 kN and the travel speed was set to 10 which the P-value from each factor, welding current, welding time and
mm/min. electrode force, is assessed. Using a confidence level of 95%, the
The material characterization given in this work was made in two resulting coefficient of determination is 89% and all the three P-values
levels. Macro-sections have been prepared to assess the weld quality of below are 0.025, denying the double-sided null hypothesis. Hence, all

Fig. 2. Results from the DOE study grouped by the welding parameters, with one welding condition from each welding current sub-group, indicated by A (Inom), B
(highest break force) and C (Imax), selected for microscope analyses.

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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

Fig. 3. Results of the tensile-shear tests of the cladded specimens A, B, C and the non-cladded specimen D (from Fig. 2), where higher max. failure force and
elongation at break are verified for the cladded joints.

three factors have relevance over the assessed output break load, which work, no difference regarding the tensile-shear strength was found be­
is confirmed by analyzing the Pareto’s Chart in Fig. 1. Welding current tween the mentioned boundaries, despite the larger weld nugget deliv­
and time present higher significances than the electrode force. All the ered by the welding conditions of the latter. The results have shown that
factors’ interactions (secondary and tertiary interactions) presented almost every welding condition resulted in a fracture force higher than
lesser significance, proving the used cladded sheets as a robust material Inom and Imax, verifying better suitability of alternative welding param­
for the RSW process. This means that the resulting joint strength will eters for the cladded sheets than the ones recommended at the VDA
respond predominantly to individual factors change (i.e. increase or 238–401 guidelines, which were initially conceived for conventional
decrease of welding current, welding time and force), remaining stable aluminum alloys from the 5xxx and 6xxx series. The average and
in case of process disturbance, indicating process robustness and ease of maximum fracture force was 4.6 and 6.4 kN, respectively. One inter­
control. Thus, a validated weld lobe would keep an acceptable range for esting similarity is that every sample resulted in partial thickness failure,
different welding conditions, or a cold weld could be easily fixed by as for the guideline DVS 2916–1 (DVS 2916–1 2014). More details on the
raising the welding current or time. surface of failure and comparisons with the AW-6111 will be disclosed
Fig. 2 shows the results summary of the tensile-shear tests performed further.
to sustain the proposed statistical analyses and serve as basis for further Despite the higher achieved fracture force, the welding conditions
optimization of welding parameters and weldability assessment of the whose welding current exceeds Imax might experience excessive heating
cladded sheets AW-6111 + AW-4045. The results are clustered in effects. Due to the higher heat generated between the electrode-to-sheet
welding current, welding time and electrode force, respectively, as for interface, Al-Cu alloying may take place, reducing the electrode life and
the factorial experiment 33 performed in this work. The Inom and Imax promoting the development of internal temperature-dependent welding
conditions from the previous work (Bamberg et al., 2022), which define discontinuities, such as hot cracking or pore and void formation,
the weld lobe (refer to the methods section), are encompassed by the impacting the welding process and the weld quality.
presented results according with the VDA 238–401. Specifically, the Fig. 3 presents the "force versus displacement” behavior during the
former is 36 kA, 150 ms, and 7.5 kN, while the latter is 43 kA, 150 ms, tensile-shear tests of the cladded joints (Probes A, B and C) previously
and 7.5 kN. Although a proper weld lobe was validated in the previous highlighted in Fig. 2, and of the non-cladded AW-6111 (Probe D) welded

Fig. 4. Summary of the main effects from the factors on the shear strength for maximum load.

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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

Fig. 5. Macro-sections from the DOE investigation: a) cladded material by Inom; b) cladded material welded with 44 kA, 150 ms, 7.5 kN; c) cladded material welded
with 40.5 kA, 100 ms, 7 kN; d) AW-6111 by Imax.

with its respective Imax parameters. The evaluated cladded joints not assuming a defect-free weld. However, the metallurgical characteristics
only delivered a higher maximum force than the conventional AW-6111 of the weld nugget need to be further analyzed, correlating them with
but also allowed more plastic deformation, as all the respective probes the observed improvement in the mechanical properties of the cladded
encompassed more displacement at failure, which indicates more AW-6111 + AW-4045 sheets. According to the ANOVA analysis, the
ductility. About 53 % larger displacement for the best result (Probe B) optimum set of welding parameters to maximize the joint’s maximum
and about 20 % for the worse (Probe C). Similar behavior is observed for force would be 44 kA, 150 ms and 7.5 kN, reaching an average
all the results, as most of the elongation seen corresponds to an elastic maximum fracture force of 5.8 kN. Compared with the welding condi­
region with no clear definition of an elastic-plastic transition zone before tions validated in the previous work, Inom and Imax, it is an optimization
the probe collapse. of 45%.
Fig. 4 presents the results from the main effects of the experimented In order to assess the weld quality of some welding conditions and to
welding parameters on the maximum fracture force. Following the compare the weldability of the cladded AW-6111 + AW-4045 with the
Joule’s resistivity heating principle, the results aligned with the expec­ conventional AW-6111, the probes A, B and C, indicated in Fig. 2, have
tations: an increase in the welding current and/or time leads to more been selected, representing each a level of set welding current, the most
heating. Thus, the formation of a larger weld nugget; hence, a higher relevant welding parameter, as for the relevance analysis. The respective
fracture force is to be expected. For the electrode force, it goes the other weld macro-sections are shown in Fig. 5, A to C, while D presents a
way around, as the higher it is, the lower the contact resistance, hence macro-section of the conventional AW-6111 aluminum sheet welded
lesser heat generation. In summary, more heat increases joint strength, under its respective Imax condition. The weld quality of the cladded sheet

Fig. 6. Si distribution through the weld nugget in vertical (left) and horizontal direction (right); EDX analysis.

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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

Fig. 7. Mg distribution through the weld nugget in vertical (left) and horizontal direction (right); EDX analysis.

is superior to the conventional AW-6111 for every welding condition comes from the cladding material AW-4045, which encompasses be­
analyzed. A significant reduction of hot cracking both in magnitude and tween 9 and 11 % of Si, as observed in the diagram for area 6 from the
length is noted. The same applies to liquation cracking, as a minimal horizontally oriented EDX measurement profiles (Fig. 6 on the right). A
formation is observed on A to C in Fig. 5, compared to a more pro­ slight reduction of about 0.5% is observed for the sample welded with 44
nounced one for the AW-6111 weld nugget in D. Additionally, the kA.
noteworthy formation of pores and voids in the AW-6111 is not observed A lesser alteration is seen on the Mg distribution, as it changes from
in the weldments of the cladded material. According to the guideline approximately 1% from core the base material (AW-6111) to approxi­
DVS 2960 (DVS 2960 2015), discontinuities no larger than 20% of the mately 0.7% in the FZ, as seen from the vertically oriented EDX mea­
weld spot diameter (1.6 mm, considering the smallest diameter of 8 mm surement profiles in Fig. 7 on the left. In the horizontal direction (Fig. 7
by Inom) inside the fusion zone and away from the edges can be on the right), the Mg distribution remains constant through the weld
considered as uncritical, as they do not tend to propagate under dynamic nugget, reducing to 0.2% when reaching the cladding material (AW-
loading. On the different welding conditions from A to C used to weld 4045). As the cooling conditions of all the weldments carried out in this
the cladded material, however, no relevant difference was observed study were the same (the welding current was ramped down to zero for
regarding weld quality other than the weld nugget diameter. 10 ms, followed by a pure electrode clamping for another 500 ms), it can
The Si (Fig. 6) and Mg (Fig. 7) distribution along the weld zone was be assumed that the dissolution of the allying elements Si and Mg is
measured by EDX analyses, ranging in the vertical direction from the highly related with it, so that no significant difference was noticed be­
core base material (AW-6111), passing through the HAZ, reaching the tween the cladded probes prepared with the different welding
center of the FZ. Scanning from the center of the FZ to the cladding (AW- parameters.
4045) was repeated horizontally. This has been done to assess the im­ At Si contents > 4% (EDX measurement areas 3 to 5 in Fig. 6 on the
pacts of the different welding conditions from the factorial experiment left), the Si-related hot cracking sensitivity is assessed as very low, as
on the properties of the weld. The probes were the same as the macro shown by Kah et al. (Kah et al., 2015), shown in Fig. 8 on the left, and
sections shown in Fig. 5. explained in (Kou, 2020; Zhang and Senkara, 2011; Senkara and Zhang,
At the vertically oriented EDX measurement profiles (Fig. 6 on the 2000). If hot cracks are still detected, they are assumed to be more likely
left), the Si quantity increases from 0.8% to 4.8%, scanning from the attributable to critical Mg contents. The analyses in the weld nugget
base material to the CGZ, decreasing to between 3.8% and 4.5% in the (EDX measurement areas 3 to 5 in Fig. 7 on the left) reveal Mg contents
FZ centered in the weld nugget. The core material AW-6111, as shown in of approximately 0.7 - 0.8%, which generally means a high sensitivity
area 1 measurement, encompasses 0.6 to 1.1% of Si, meaning that the towards cracking.
significant increase in Si alloying experienced by the weld nugget mostly A significant increase in the Si content of the weld metal is attributed

Fig. 8. relationship between crack sensitivity and content of Si and Mg for Al alloys (Kah et al., 2015); AlSi phase diagram (Kammer and Aluminium-Zentrale, 2002).

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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

to a high dilution rate of the cladding material, which is expected to

result in a decrease in the local liquidus temperature. Since the weld is
particularly susceptible to liquation cracking when the solid fraction of
the weld metal exceeds that of the PMZ (fs, WM > fs, PMZ), increased Si
contents could consequently reduce fs, WM during solidification and thus
cause a reduction of cracking susceptibility.
AlMgSi alloys solidify eutectically, with the eutectic point at 13.9
wt.-% Mg2Si at a pseudo-eutectic temperature of 594 ◦ C. The interme­
tallic β-phase Mg2Si exhibits a comparatively high melting temperature
of 1085 ◦ C and thus higher thermal stability than the Al solid solution
(α-Al) (Ostermann, 2015). The welding heat input causes softening in
the HAZ by the dissolution of the strengthening β`` phase (semicoherent
rods of Mg2Si) and the formation and growth of non-strengthening β`
precipitates (semicoherent needles of Mg2Si) (Zhao et al., 1999). The
general susceptibility towards hot cracking mainly depends on the Si
and Mg content passing through a maximum at 0.75% Si and 1.3% Mg,
respectively (see Fig. 8, on the left).
The maximum solubility of Mg2Si (β) is 1.9 mass% at a temperature
of 583.5 ◦ C (Zhao et al., 1999); however, with decreasing temperature,
the solubility decreases significantly. An excess of Si hardly affects the
solubility of Mg2Si, while an excess of Mg leads to a significant decrease
in the solubility of Si or Mg2Si. Si-excess increases the achievable
strength properties after artificial aging significantly more than a
Mg-excess of the same percentage or an increase of the same dimension
in the Mg2Si content. Si thus promotes the volume and/or number of
Fig. 9. AlMg phase diagram (Kammer and Aluminium-Zentrale, 2002). precipitation phases necessary for age hardening (Ostermann, 2015).
The wide solidus–liquidus gap in the Al–Mg phase diagram (Fig. 9) in­
dicates the existence of PMZ for a relatively long period during the
heating and cooling of an alloy with Mg as the major alloying element. A

Fig. 10. Overview from the fractured probes selected for optical analysis, as highlighted in Fig. 5: A (Inom), B (highest break force) and C (Imax).

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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

Fig. 11. AW-6111 + AW-4045 - Fractography of a resulting partial thickness failure.

Fig. 12. AW-6111 – Fractography of a resulting interfacial failure.

higher presence of Si in the covering material can improve the grain Fractographic and microscopic analysis
refinement of the heat-affected zone and the fusion zone, influencing the
thermal expansion, which avoids the incidence of discontinuities in the Fig. 10 shows the top views of the fractured RSW joints after per­
welded joint. forming the shear tensile tests. The experiments with the cladded
specimens (A, B, C) resulted in partial thickness failure, which can be

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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

Fig. 13. Scanning electron microscopy of the samples A, B and C (see Fig. 7).

interpreted as a sign of a satisfactory joint connection to both sheets, as specimen D (uncladded AW-6111, shown in Fig. 10-D) is confirmed. The
the joint develops more plastic deformation, absorbing more energy. hot crack fracture surface shows freely solidified dendrite surfaces, see
This result can be directly correlated with the larger displacement ca­ Fig. 12, Details B and C, described in (Kou, 2020; Zhang and Senkara,
pacity of the cladded joints, shown in Fig. 3, if compared with the 2011) as typical for solidification cracking when RSW 6000 series
conventional AW-6111, proving the higher ductility of the cladded AW- aluminum alloys. Occasional tip formation indicates partial bonding of
6111 + AW-4045. In the middle of the weld nugget of the reference weld the hot crack surfaces. Detail D shows that the failed surface is pre­
(D), a distinct defect appears at the open fracture, indicating a pro­ dominantly characterized by brittle failure mode, as transgranular
nounced hot crack. fracture, typical at failure by the propagation of cracks, is revealed. All
The analysis of the fractured surface of the cladded probes, shown in these aspects can be related to the deterioration of joint strength and
Fig. 11, shows a surface predominantly ductile, with a portion of brittle lesser peak loads achieved with the uncladded AW-6111.
surface shown in Detail A (above) and D. The failure mode presents itself Fig. 13 shows a comparative overview of the microstructure within
predominantly ductile, as shown in Detail B, as dimples can be visual­ the weld metal of samples A, B and C. While area 3 is located closer to
ized for most of the surface of fracture. A vast detection of Si alloying, the fusion line in each case, area 5 is positioned in the center and area 4
shown in C, can be related to the solubility of Mg2Si (β) and the lies in between (same disposition of Fig. 6 and Fig. 7).
consequent increase in joint strength, as mentioned in the previous The lighter fringe of the secondary electron (SE) contrast of the SEM
section (Ostermann, 2015). These characteristics favor the partial image shows the eutectic Si phase as distinct from the darker aluminum
thickness failure experienced with the cladded probes, as explained matrix. The morphology of the eutectic and its percentage are very
previously. similar in areas 3, 4 and 5 and hardly differ between samples A, B and C
At higher magnification in the SEM, a hot crack in the weld nugget of (see Fig. 5). This indicates that under all three selected RSW process

Fig. 14. Optical analysis of the RSW AW-6111 (sample D). Welding condition: 41.0 kA / 150 ms / 7.5 kA.

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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

Fig. 15. Optical analysis of the RSW cladded AW-6111 + AW-4045 (sample C). Welding condition: 40.5 kA / 100 ms / 7 kN.

parameterizations, adequate dilution between core alloy and cladding significantly improved. Better mechanical behavior was verified for the
occurs, resulting in enrichment in silicon with an equal distribution of Si cladded material, compared with the conventional AW-6111, reaching
and its eutectic phases within the weld nuggets. As is well known from up to a 55 % increase in total displacement at break.
the literature, a proper amount of eutectic effectively increases the The high dilution rate with the participation of the cladding material
resistance to hot cracking (Kou, 2020; Zhang and Senkara, 2011). seems to contribute significantly to the weld quality improvement, as no
Fig. 14 shows a light optical macro-section of the hot-crack-prone (or very limited) incidence and propagation of welding discontinuities
reference weld (AW-6111 without cladding) and further detailed im­ (solidification cracks, liquation cracks, pores and voids) were verified
ages at higher magnification. Especially in the center area of the weld for the cladded joints, associated with enrichment in Si throughout the
metal, a pronounced accumulation of solidification cracks can be seen, different weld zones and the associated increase in the eutectic phase
which form local cavities and partially unite to form a network (Detail fractions.
a). At some positions, crack extensions favor the formation of liquation In addition to the findings validated in the preceding study (Bamberg
cracks in the HAZ, as seen for the lower sheet in the macro-section et al., 2022), it can be asserted that the cladding of different aluminum
bottom right near the overlap (Detail b). alloys can significantly enhance the suitability of RSW to join aluminum
Detail c in Fig. 14 shows an enlarged section of the transition area sheets, bringing improvements to the weld lobe, electrode erosion
from the weld metal to the HAZ. The distinct microstructural subzones behavior, mechanical properties, and weld quality. Moreover, the re­
can be discerned based on their distinct etching hues in the macroscopic sults of this work bring to the RSW process a solution to avoid the
overview. In the weld metal, the typical dendritic grain growth occurs incidence of hot cracks which can be related to the GMAW approach —
during crystallization due to directional heat dissipation. As previously using a secondary (filling) material to change the chemical composition
described and designated as PMZ, the fusion line between weld metal of the weldment, reducing the material’s crack proneness. Since the
and HAZ does not represent a sharp contour but rather extends as a band transport industry plans consist of creating lighter structures by using
over a certain width. Within the PMZ, partial reaching or exceeding the aluminum, the results of this work demonstrate an important innovation
eutectic temperature leads to local melting of the corresponding phases to improve RSW of Al sheets. For instance, body parts made of cladded
along the grain boundaries, which can ultimately present itself as micro- aluminum can be strategically used to increase the overall weld quality,
fissures under residual or shrinkage stresses. It can be assumed that the crash-worthiness and mechanical properties of a certain structures. This
weld metal of the AW-6111 reference weld had a higher amount of solid approach can be even further explored via additive manufacturing, as
fraction (fs) than the PMZ at a certain point during solidification. the deposition of layers of added materials can be simpler and cheaper,
The RSW macro section of the cladded sheets (AW-6111 + AW-4045) with a high degree of control and precision, limited to a pre-specified
differs significantly in the overview image from the reference weld area, i.e.: the joining area. Further research on the combination of
without cladding. As shown in Fig. 15, Detail a, a significant reduction of other aluminum alloys is also recommended to create a helpful database
pore formation can be directly observed for its quantity, magnitude, on the portfolio of cladded aluminum alloys.
location and, consequently, severity. Detail b presents a better weld
quality as the liquation cracks have been avoided. Finally, no transition CRediT authorship contribution statement
zone (neither HAZ nor PMZ) is visually represented in the etching
contrast and microstructure, as seen in Detail c. Instead, a real fusion P Bamberg: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
line is present as a sharp boundary between the weld metal and the base Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing –
material of the core alloys. Due to the melting of the cladding layers, a original draft, Writing – review & editing. A Schiebahn: Project
significant Si enrichment of the weld metal is accompanied by a administration. A Marzzona: Data curation, Writing – review & editing.
composition-related drop in the liquidus temperature and the formation M Christ: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. U
of a sharp gradient in the liquidus temperatures within the joining zone. Reisgen: Funding acquisition.
The welding heat impact is primarily converted into melting heat and
thus used to generate the weld nugget, reducing heat dissipation into the Declaration of competing interest
surrounding base materials. No relevant irregularities are discernible
except for minor material separations in the weld metal. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Conclusions the work reported in this paper.

A DOE factorial experiment 33 was performed to validate better Data availability

resistance spot welding conditions for AW-6111-T4 aluminum sheets
cladded from both sides with AW-4045 layers and to assess the me­ Data will be made available on request.
chanical properties and welding quality improvements. The maximum
force at tensile-shear tests improved by up to 45 % and weld quality has

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P. Bamberg et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 9 (2024) 100206

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