Bljj!ill!

;
CF-TRI-MYSORE

4827
Chemical enginee.
 4
••

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Chemical Engineering
o O
Plant Design
o
McGRAW-HILL SERIES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
* •

Sidney D. Kirkpatrick, Consulting Editor

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Charles F. Bonilla • Professor of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University

John R. Callaham • Editor-in-Chief, Chemical Engineering
Donald L. Katz • Chairman, Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineer¬
ing, University of Michigan
\\ alter E. Lobo • Consulting Chemical Engineer
Robert L. Pigford • Chairman, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
of Delaware
Mott Souders • Associate Director of Research, Shell Development Company
Richard H. Wilhelm • Chairman, Department of Chemical Engineering, Princeton
University

BUILDING THE LITERATURE OF A PROFESSION

Fifteen prominent chemical engineers first met in New York more than 30 years
ago to plan a continuing literature for their rapidly growing profession. From
industry came such pioneer practitioners as Leo H. Baekeland, Arthur D. Little,
Charles L. Reese, John V. N. Dorr, M. C. Whitaker, and R. S. McBride. From the
universities came such eminent educators as V illiam H. Walker, Alfred H. White,
D. I). Jackson, J. H. James, Warren K. Lewis, and Harry A. Curtis. H. C. Parmelee,
then editor of Chemical & Metallurgical Engineering, served as chairman and was
joined subsequently by S. D. Kirkpatrick as consulting editor.
After several meetings, this first Editorial Advisory Board submitted its report to
the McGraw-Hill Book Company in September, 1925. In it were detailed specifi¬
cations for a correlated series of more than a dozen texts and reference books which
have since become the McGraw-Hill Series in Chemical Engineering.
Since its origin, the Editorial Advisory Board has been benefited by the guidance
and continuing interest of such other distinguished chemical engineers as Manson
Benedict, Arthur W. Hixson, H. Fraser Johnstone, Webster N. Jones, Paul D. V.
Manning, Albert E. Marshall, Charles M. A. Stine, Edward It. Weidlein, and Walter
G. Whitman. No small measure of credit is due not only to the pioneering members
of the original board but also to those engineering educators and industrialists who
have succeeded them in the task of building a permanent literature for the chemical
engineering profession.
 THE SERIES

\ries and Newton—Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation

Badger and Banchero—Introduction to Chemical Engineering
Clarke—Manual for Process Engineering Calculations
Comings—HighPressure Technology
Dodge—Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics
Griswold—Fuels, Combustion, and Furnaces
Groggins—Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis
Henley and Bieber—Chemical Engineering Calculations
Huntington—Natural Gas and Natural Gasoline
Johnstone and Thring—Pilot Plants, Models, and Scale-up Methods in (chemical

Engineering
Katz, Cornell, Kobayashi, Poettmann, Vary, Elenbaas, and \\ einaug Hand¬
book of Natural Gas Engineering
Kirkbride—Chemical Engineering Fundamentals #
Knudsen and Katz—Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer
Lee—Materials of Construction
Leva—FI uidizalion
Lewis, IIadasch, and Lewis—Industrial Stoichiometry
M a n te ll—A dsorption
Mantell—Industrial Electrochemistry
McAdams—Heat Transmission
McCabe and Smith, J. C.—Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
Mickley, Sherwood, and Reed—Applied Mathematics in Chemical Engineering
Nelson—PetroleumRefinery Engineering
Perry (Editor)—Chemical Business Handbook
Perry (Editor)—Chemical Engineers' Handbook
Peters—Elementary Chemical Engineering
Peters—PlantDesign and Economics for Chemical Engineers
Pierce—Chemical Engineering for Production Supervision
Reid and Sherwood—The Properties of Gases and Liquids
Rhodes, F. H.—Technical Report Writing
Rhodes, T. J.—Industrial Instruments for Measurement and Control
Robinson and Gilliland—Elements of Fractional Distillation
Schmidt and Marlies—Principles of High-polymer Theory and Practice
Schweyer—Process Engineering Economics
Sherwood and Pigford—Absorption and Extraction
Shreve—The Chemical Process Industries
Smith, J. M.—Chemical Engineering Kinetics
Smith, J.M., and Van Ness—Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics
1 reybal—Liquid Extraction
1 reybal—Mass-transfer Operations
I yler and V inter Chemical Engineering Economics
\ ilbrandt and Dryden—Chemical Engineering Plant Design
Volk Applied Statistics for Engineers

V illiams and Johnson—Stoichiometry for Chemical E

Wilson and Ribs—Principles of Chemical Engineering
Wilson and Wells-*CW, Coke, and Coal Chemicals'
" iNDmc and Hasche—Plastics, Theory and Practice
 Research Process Development Pilot Plant Operation

Design Construction Manufacturing

Sales

Steps in the commercialization of a chemical process. (Courtesy of E. I. Du Pont

de Nemours & Company.)
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
PLANT DESIGN

Frank C. Vilbrandt, Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE

Charles E. Dryelen, Ph.D.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

FOURTH EDITION

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

New York Toronto London
1959
 NS ‘I

A « S-7.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Copyright © 1959 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Copyright,

1934, 1942, 1949, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed
in the United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or
parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission
of the publishers. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 59-7320

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA.

for 89 fit*
rrr,-j!

CFTRI-MYSORE

4827
Chem'cal enginee
 Preface

Chemical engineering design is divided into equipment design anc

plant design; it is the purpose of this book to deal only with the latter
phase of design as applied to the chemical industries. Chemical engi¬
neering plant design is neither a unit operation nor a unit process, but
must be considered as one of the tools of the chemical engineering pro¬
fession. This book presents an analysis of the fundamental principles
and factors that are involved in the development of a technically and
economically efficient plant process from the.laboratory stage through
the pilot plant stages to the commercial- size unit.
For the student in chemical engineering, this book presents an oppor¬
tunity for coordinating chemical and engineering information by the
application of previously gained or readily available knowledge or facts
to the design of a chemical plant; the designed plant is based not only
upon the application of accurate fundamental principles and data but
also upon the economic phases of the process with emphasis being placed
upon costs as an important factor in plant design.
The correlation of the data obtained through laboratory experimenta¬
tion into a workable basis for designing a plant takes into consideration
a thoroughly studied organization of equipment and flow of materials for
processing, storage, and future expansion. The writing of specifications
for equipment and preconstruction cost estimating are emphasized.
Revision and modernization of the text material from previous editions
has been incorporated in a different sequence of presentation. It is
assumed that the reader has a sufficient background in process calcu¬
lations and technology, thermodynamics, unit operations and processes,
and elementary engineering economics as taught in an undergraduate
chemical engineering curriculum. The first six chapters of the present
edition can then be used as a text for course work in process development
where the ultimate goal is to arrive at a preliminary cost estimate.
Vll
Vlll PREFACE

Foi a more extensive chemical plant design course, detailed information

can be used from Chap. 5 on plant layout and from Chap. 7 on plant
location. In addition, material from Chaps. 8 and 9, which deal with
the design of buildings and piping, control, and power systems, can be
incorporated for a well-balanced chemical engineering plant design
course in about the same sequence as used in industrial practice. A sug¬
gested teaching procedure is given in Appendix A and typical design
problems are also incorporated.
Chapter 10 has been added to cover the unique features of nuclear
chemical plant design, a subject which will be increasingly useful in the
years ahead.
Bibliographic references have been brought up to date; extensive
compilations in handbooks, textbooks, and costing journals allowed a
reduction of this type of material in this edition by referencing. In par¬
ticular, frequent reference is made to Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’
Handbook,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., since students
are generally required to purchase this book early in their chemical engi¬
neering course work.
The subject matter will be of benefit to professional engineers who
would like to keep up to date and also to executives in chemical engineer¬
ing industries, who have not been trained in chemical engineering, to
serve as a guide for their appreciation of the application of chemical
engineering principles to plant design.
The authors wish to thank their colleagues in academic and industrial
circles for their many contributions to this edition, some of which aie
directly credited in the text. In addition, it is a pleasure to acknowledge
the help of the following in providing valuable experience factors: the
Blaw-Knox Co., The Battelle Memorial Institute, E. I. Du Pont de
Nemours & Company, General Electric Company, Industrial Nucleonics
Co. The M. W. Kellogg Co., Phillips Petroleum Co., E. P. Bartkus,
\V. T. Butler, H. R. Chope, C. J. Geankoplis, R. P. Genereaux, J. D.
Ireland, S. D. Kirkpatrick, T. R. Olive, J. H. Oxley, R. Paffenbarger,
E. Pontius, A. Syverson, W. C. Turner, and F. M. Warzell. The sup¬
port of the College of Engineering at The Ohio State University an
the Chemical Engineering Department at Virginia Polytechnic Institute
is gratefully acknowledged. In particular, the continued encouragement
of Professor J. H. Koffolt, Chairman of the Chemical Engineering Depart¬
ment at The Ohio State University, and the assistance of Professor R. \\ .
Parkinson, OSU Engineering Drawing Department, and of R. J. Shafer
in procuring and preparing drawings is very much appreciated.
Frank C. Vilbrandt
Charles E. Dryden
 Contents

••
Preface. Vll

Chapter 1. Introduction. 1
2. Development of the Project. 15
3. Process Design.
^— —— —
40
4. Selection of Process Equipment and Materials 84
5. Plant Layout.. 177
6. Economic Evaluation of the Project 189
7. Locating the Chemical Plant. 265
8. Site Preparation and Structures. 291
9. Process Auxiliaries. 340
10. Nuclear Chemical Plant Design. 427
Additional Selected References. 471
Appendix A. Design Project Procedures. 497
Appendix B. Letter Symbols for Chemical Engineering. 504
Appendix C. Table of Equivalents
516
Name Index.
519
Subject Index .
525

IX
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The Role of the Chemical Engineer

The chemical engineer is one who is skilled in development, design,
construction, and operation of industrial plants in which matter under¬
goes a change. Chemical engineers work in four main divisions of the
chemical process industries: research and development, design, manu¬
facturing, and sales. This is illustrated in the frontispiece of this book.
The chemical engineer prospers because he is versatile; he is well grounded
in the fundamental sciences of chemistry, physics, and mathematics, yet
knows when to apply empirical engineering know-how to solve problems.
The decisions which make progress possible in engineering (develop¬
ment, design, construction, operation, or management) from an economic
necessity are based on inadequate data backed up by experience and
sound judgment. Such decisions represent the highest form of expression
of engineering. In this manner, the engineer solves the problems which
have to be solved.

Chemical Engineering Design

Chemical engineering design consists of process, equipment, and build-

ing designs foi manufacturing plants to supply the product needs of the
customers. More and more, the creative function exemplified in design
has become a determining characteristic of the chemical engineer. Since
chemical engineering design is a fundamental chemical engineering prob¬
lem, it is essential that the chemical engineer should recognize design
as his responsibility in connection with chemical industries.
Design should follow some prearranged plan based upon space require¬
ments, selections and specifications of process equipment, the layout of
process equipment according to processing flows, plant location, plant
^ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 1

site selection, and future expansion. Both building and equipment

should be designed to give the most efficient production with a minimum
of handling of material in process. Provision should be made for storage,
for expansion to fit in with the original arrangement without disturbing
the flow of work, and for the most favorable and economical conditions
of operation of each piece of equipment with respect to all variables.
Design is centered about problems of rates of mass and energy transfer
and of chemical change. Other factors that should be considered in the
design of building and equipment arrangement include possible hazards
of fire, explosion, chemical injury, and injury to health, the welfare of the
worker, economical distribution of process steam and power, and expan¬
sion of production.
All other factors being equal, intelligent and careful design has every
advantage over one that has grown up or been put together in a hit-or-
miss fashion by alterations, hunches, and additions. The task of the
chemical engineer is to calculate quantities and yields, to consider the
handling of materials in process and in storage, to apply technical
knowledge of material and energy balances, mass and heat transfer by
convection, diffusion, and conduction, the flow ol fluids, the separation ol
materials, the thermodynamics and equilibria of reacting systems, the
behavior of catalysts, and the kinetics of all types of chemical reactions.
In addition, the engineer must develop detailed costs of each unit opera¬
tion so that even before the plant is in the blueprint stage, he will know
not only the cost per ton for processing the raw materials, but also the
cost per unit weight of material in each operation, such as grinding,
crystallization, filtration, evaporation, drying, etc.

Need for Plant Design

The main factor which dictates the decision to produce a new product
or expand or modernize present facilities is generally an economic one as
represented by the question “ What will be the return on the investment■
The design engineer must be in a position to supply management wit
preconstruction cost estimates based on a preliminary plant designer
manufacturing the product so that a sound decision can be made. 1 ns
plant design analysis includes (1) process design, (2) selection o process
equipment and materials, (3) preliminary plant layout and location con¬
siderations to estimate labor, building, and land costs, and (4) a manu-

^fseerlar^ood design engineer should have a thorough under¬

stand^ of chemicaf economics to make his best contribution to manage¬

ment’s problem of making the

LS f=ed Z “—
 INTRODUCTION 3
CHAP. 1]

will probably include optimization and specifications for the process and
equipment, in addition to models and working drawings of the building
and equipment layout for the construction engineeis.
The subject matter required for preliminary and detailed plant designs
is given in the subsequent chapters of this book.

Plant Design and Its Relation to Sales

Before a manufacturing plant can be considered, it is necessary to
have a product to sell so that profit can be made. This product evalua¬
tion job is carried out by a market research group which conducts a scien¬
tifically directed study of product design. The fundamental purpose of
product design programs1 is to sell more goods and gain greater profits
(1) by keeping the company’s products and product lines in a strong
competitive position, (2) by diversifying the product lines to serve the
industries, (3) by improving or replacing products which, because of
market saturation, have shown declining profits, and (4) by advancing
by-product or waste products to a profitable status.
Items such as market opportunities, competition, and distribution are
studied by the market analysts. Production and economic aspects of
product design confront the design engineer with these typical questions:2

Production

1. Is the product properly designed from a cost and production

viewpoint ?
2. Can a necessary new process be integrated with existing plant
facilities?
3. What is the best process for producing the product?
4. What new equipment is needed?
5. How much plant space is needed?
6. Can the product be manufactured efficiently?
7. What is the status of raw materials? Should any of these be
manufactured?

Economics

1. What is the estimated manufacturing cost per unit?

2. What is the estimated sales and advertising expense per unit?
3. How much capital is required?
4. How much inventory is needed?
0. Can a quality product be produced at a price consumers will pay?

7 Whit IT'’f take the Pr°dUCt t0 reach a b^k-even basis"

‘ What 1S the l°ng-term profit outlook for the product?
1 Chem. Eng., 67(9): 129 (1950).
2 Chem. Eng., 61(11); 344 (1954).
"1 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 1

Questions such as these must be answered by an engineering design

gioup familiar with methods of preconstruction cost estimating based on
process and preliminary plant design principles.

Process Design

1 he question of what is the best process for producing the product

bears on the important subject of process design. The process informa¬
tion required for process design comprises the following: (1) written
description of the process; (2) notes regarding special safety precautions,
possible operating peculiarities, chemical reactions, and properties of
materials of construction; (3) knowledge of all raw materials, products,
and intermediate process quantities in convenient and appropriate units;
(4) knowledge of all process temperatures, pressures, and concentrations;
(5) knowledge of physical characteristics and chemical compositions and
properties of all raw materials, products, and intermediate process
materials under operating conditions; (6) heat, material, and energy
balances around all significant operations or pieces of equipment. The
complete balances around process equipment as such (a still, a fractionat¬
ing tower, etc.) should be attempted; but some of the balances, such as
energy balances around nonstandard equipment, can be only general
and approximate, pending engineering design, procurement of equip¬
ment, and information on manufacturers’ specified operating efficiencies,
etc.; (7) a complete diagrammatic process flow sheet which shows the
flow of the process streams and tabulates conditions at the appropriate
points on the process streamlines and equipment sketches where con¬
venient. A typical process flow sheet is shown in Fig. 3-4.

Preconstruction Cost Estimation

After the process information has been integrated into one or more flow
sheets, the economic aspects of the design are next considered, this
involves (1) an estimate of the types and sizes of equipment and materials,
buildings, ground area, and utility facilities; (2) a determination ol what
the process will cost based on physical facilities and construction charges,
(3) a cost estimate of utilities consumption (steam, electiicity, watei, lucl),
labor and supervision personnel requirements, maintenance and lepaiis,
raw materials, and finance charges (interest, taxes, insurance, medical
benefits, etc.). , ,
On this economic basis, a suitable process design can be chosen and
recommendations presented in a preliminary report to company execu¬
tives for a decision on the project.

Design and Selection of Chemical Engineering Equipment

In the design of all chemical processing equipment, it is important to
remember that success depends on continuous performance and the
 INTRODUCTION 5
CHAP. 1]

designer should recognize unit operations and unit processes as the basis
for selection and design. The designer is concerned primarily in specify¬
ing an economical system or piece of equipment suitable for a specific
chemical operation. Naturally, this involves problems of temperature,
pressure, corrosion, erosion, metal fatigue, and other considerations such
as relief from overpressure or vacuum.
Design based upon standard equipment is of primary importance.
Requirements for the basic designs of chemical processing equipment are
presented in established codes ; these are frequently altered in accordance
with experiences acquired. Writing of specifications on special equip¬
ment for successful operation is equally the task of the designer, should
standard equipment not be available to carry on the specific operation.
A good design will provide for the processing, handling, and storage of
chemical materials in batch and/or continuous systems, which are pro¬
ductive and safe under the conditions involved.

Bases for Good Design

Good designs do not happen; they are founded on well-known, sound

principles. To create a good chemical engineering design, it is necessary
to possess an interest in and a genuine liking for chemical plant layout
and for solving engineering problems, together with a faculty of keen,
appreciative observation, and the ability to analyze conditions and data.
The chemical engineer accumulates data and determines in minute detail
the variables that must be kept under control to ensure economy and
success. From these data he makes preliminary designs for the plant
and writes specifications for the equipment and the materials needed.
He indicates types and sizes of commercial equipment, the feasibility
and conditions of economic operation, and supplies information for build¬
ing and often for designing special equipment. The technical skills
required in design involve a comprehensive training in mechanics, engi¬
neering drawing, electricity, thermodynamics, materials of construction,
materials handling, fluid dynamics, chemistry, physics, and mathematics.
In the final analysis, the development through details should be dele¬
gated to technicians and draftsmen; but a good engineer must himself be
sufficiently skilled so that he can convey his thoughts clearly for others
readily to interpret. One of the most important means of communica¬
tion of design ideas is through the use of engineering graphics skills.

Drawings and Models in Process and Plant Design

Ihe representation of design ideas and the assembly of information

h» purposes of manufacture, construction, and erection of structures and
' quipment are done largely through drawings and models. For the aver
age chemical process plant, it is estimated that the cost of preparing these

■“"*of f«” **» a W- ««> .1 tb. .,ec JSt

6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 1

Sketches, schematic diagrams, engineering drawings of varying degree

of detail, and three-dimensional models are used in process and plant
design. Typical drawing procedures will be itemized and discussed
briefly in the introductory section and references will be made to specific
details on drawings and models in the chapters which follow.1
Process Design Drawings. The ideas which develop the chemical and
physical picture of the process are set down in terms of flow sheets by
the chemical design engineer. These vary in degree of complexity from
simple block or box diagrams connected by lines to highly complex
schematic diagrams showing equipment and process auxiliary require¬
ments. (See Chap. 3 and Figs. 3-1 to 3-10 for explanation and examples.)
Equipment Design Drawings. Usually the chemical plant design
group is not vitally concerned with the preparation of engineering draw¬
ings required for the manufacture of equipment items. Standard equip¬
ment is used wherever possible; drawings required for use in general
layout and arrangement, and for erection at the plant site, are supplied
by the vendor.
However, there may be times when special equipment is needed and
the design engineer must develop the necessary drawings to have the
equipment built in his shop or in a vendor’s shop. Often it is necessary
to assemble a group of standard items to perform an engineering function.
A brief review of engineering drawing requirements for these purposes is
included.
A series of drawings required to manufacture and assemble the paits
to produce an operable piece of equipment would follow this chiono-
logical order of development.
1. Design or Schematic Presentation Sketches. These first drawings are
usually freehand pencil sketches on which original ideas and planning are
presented. Calculations must be made to prove feasibility. Often
models are constructed at this stage for the same reasons. An example
of a schematic diagram, made with drawing tools and not iiee un<
sketched, is shown in Fig. 4-4.
2 Design Assembly or Layout Drawings. More details of the design
are next worked out on a design assembly drawing, using the design
sketches and calculations. The drawing is done in pencil and show
esscntkd dimensions; it is coded for general design specification of
standard parts, materials, finishes, tolerances, and any other “£™aU°ns
reouired by draftsmen for producing detail drawings. P
can be tabulated on the side of the drawing or on a separate informa ion
Zet The drawings should be sufficiently well presented, using two or

FrTr
New York, 1958.
 INTRODUCTION
CHAP. 1]

three views, so that there can be no confusion about the basic construc-
;i,n of the equipment. An example of this type of work is illustrated in
the design of a grit washer pictured in Fig. 1-1. The design asscm y
drawing in three views required for clarity of design is shown in ' lg.
The code and parts specification listing on the original drawing were not
reproduced in this text to save spn.cc.

Fig. 1-1. Materials-handling equipment—a grit washer. (Courtesy of Jeffrey Manu¬

facturing Co., Columbus, Ohio.)

3. Detail Drawings. From a design drawing such as Fig. 1-2, the

detail draftsman makes up individual drawings of each part of the equip¬
ment so that these can be fabricated. These drawings are accurately
to scale and give principal dimensions and manufacturing directions.
4. Shop Assembly Drawings. Various classifications of drawings under
this heading are used industrially. Referring to the grit-washer example
of Figs. 1-1 and 1-2, the assembly of the detailed parts requires a shop
assembly drawing with necessary code and specifications of parts to allow
the final assembly and erection. For complicated machinery such as the
grit washer, several unit or subassembly drawings of groups of parts are
8 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 1

DESIGN NOTES
Copocity - 120 cu ft row grit per hr
Wosh water - 60-70 gpm § 5* □" pressure
See 200E899F for elevator
Max elevation height to (£ hd shaft - 50'-0"
Perforated elevator buckets 8* 4 J/4 x 73A
Spaced 8" on 124 re! chain - K2ATTS
Jig grit moy discharge into side or either end
of elevotor boot
L H overflow trough moy be used on RH jig
and vice versa (RH shown)
For outline drawings, see 203F591
 INTRODUCTION 9
CHAP. 1]
^ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 1

required to enable the shop mechanic to assemble the complete machine

easily, the design and manufacture of complex equipment may require
a total of several hundred drawings under classifications 1 through 4.
5. Outline Assembly or General Arrangement Drawings. The chemical
design engineer must plan for the proper layout of equipment and thus
needs a general idea ol the exterior shape and principal dimensions of each
piece of equipment used in the process. For this purpose, general

arrangement drawings of the type shown in Fig. 1-3 are available from
the vendor or from the equipment design group within the company.
Detailed design information such as disassembly and over-all clearance
requirements, anchor bolt locations, and piping connections are Ire-
quently included. , . , x
6. Equipment Installation Drawings. Vendor prints which show the
details and installation sequencing of purchased equipment are routine y
supplied to the design and construction groups. Accurately dimensioned
 INTRODUCTION 11
CHAP. 1]

mounting details for heavy machinery, flow diagrams, and electric power
and instrumentation drawings are examples of the drawings required
for proper installation and operating performance.
Plant Design Drawings. Chemical plants cannot be put together in
random fashion. Careful planning and integration of all process equip¬
ment and auxiliaries such as piping, electric power, and instrumentation
are done through drawings and models.
1. Plant Layout Drawings. After principal equipment has been speci¬
fied, scale models are usually constructed and arranged by plant layout
design for optimum feasibility of operation (Figs. 5-4 and 5-5). Assembly
drawings in plan and elevation can be prepared for a permanent record
of general layout arrangements of the entire plant from which construc¬
tion and installation drawings can be detailed by draftsmen.
2. Construction and Installation Drawings. All parts of the plant are
drawn in considerable detail to scale to show position of equipment and
connections, foundations, supports, overhead structures, etc., so that
every required item of plant equipment can be fitted into the desired
arrangement by a construction crew. Drawings classified under this
category are:
a. Plot plans
b. Foundation plans, including erection details
c. Structure plans, including erection details
d. Piping drawings (Figs. 9-2 to 9-6)
e. Electrical drawings, largely schematic (see Figs. 8-20 and 9-23 for
symbols)
/. Instrumentation drawings, largely schematic (see Fig. 3-10 for
symbols)

Drafting Procedures

Drafting of design requirements by means of drawings is a time-con¬

suming operation and thereby expensive. The use of three-dimensional
models of chemical plants has very effectively reduced drawing require¬
ments, but many two-dimensional drawings are still required. A few
wor s about efficient methods of planning and expediting drawings and
leproductions would be in order by way of review.
Drawing Instruments. Drafting machines which combine the func¬
tions of T square, triangles, protractor, and scales are used exclusivelv in
commercial drafting rooms. Motor-driven rotating erasers a e now
employed in combination with shields for correctimr error- i i
changes. Hand lettering is reduced to , ! § d makmg
machines, particularly for drawings wher A Y USe °f typing
» included with
•r. av.il.bl, f„, drawing conlmo„|y V “,P“
12 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 1

Drafting Scales. The choice of correct scales and precision of measure¬

ment is a matter of experience. The best scale is one that presents a
clear, graphic description within the precision of measurement required.
Highly congested drawings should be avoided because of the additional
time required to produce and to interpret the drawings.
It should be obvious that dimensioning requirements for machine-shop
work is much more exact than the requirements for process plant con¬
struction drawings. In the latter case, center-line locations of principal
process equipment must be specified by scale drawings to give a precision
of ± 1 in. This can be achieved by a generally used scale of % in. = 1 ft.
The scale is increased to y2 in. = 1 ft where more detail is required or
where the drawing becomes unusually congested. For an over-all layout
the scale is reduced to J4 or l/s m- = 1 ft* Once the equipment is located
by this type of center-line scaling procedure, the working dimensions
required for installation and repair procedures are shown directly on the
drawings. .
Reproduction Methods. Pencil drawings on a good-quality tracing
paper can be directly reproduced as blueprints or by the newer processes
giving black-, red-, yellow-, or blue-on-white prints. The latter method
is being adopted throughout the industry since these prints are easier to
read as well as to reproduce and reduce by photographic procedures.
The reproduction machines are smaller and portable and employ a fast
dry-process procedure. Blueprints are still produced by drafting firms
which have made a high investment in blueprint machines and cannot
economically afford a change-ov ei.

Use of High-speed Computers

There are many tools used through the entire development of a com-

mercia. process but none

neHig<h-1speed ''computers'consisT of electronic circuits and mechanical

parts coupled together in such^a Any
operation in m^thema ics can P language, i.e., addition,
process which can be red integration and differentiation, is
subtraction, “"'^^^y^’^nlidered for high-speed computing. Many
adaptable to and shouU ddevelopment and design can be solved

-STw^ deg ee oneness t£“SSS.#3S

ssz =» - - ■— ■“ • -
stantial savings in capital investment.
 INTRODUCTION 13
CHAP. 1]

Typical Applications. Some of the applications of high-speed com¬

puters in the development of a chemical process are listed next with
specific reference to chapters in this book where such problems are
encountered:
1. Statistical correlation of data—laboratory and pilot plant data for
design purposes; plant data for quality control and trouble shooting
(Chap. 3).
2. Preparation of process flow sheets—material and energy balances,
particularly on recycle operations; ultimately can incorporate many
process variables into a general design optimization (Chaps. 3, 4, and 6).
3. Selection of equipment—many equipment design problems require
trial and error or complex mathematical solution; examples are absorp¬
tion, distillation, humidification—dehumidification, evaporation, extrac¬
tion, fluid flow, and heat exchange (Chap. 4).
4. Economic evaluation—solution of cost equations for optimization
of process and equipment selection; this is also a part of items 2 and 3
(Chaps. 3, 4, and 6).
5. Piping design studies—study of piping forces to obtain points of
maximum stress; proper location of pipe supports (Chap. 9).
6. Instrumentation and control—study of control loops for proper
process control design and operation (Chap. 9).
7. Plant operations—operations research and linear programming of
the commercial plant for maximum economic returns; cost accounting,
payroll preparation, and other business procedures.
Types of Computers. High-speed computing machinery can be divided
conveniently into two types based on their mode of operation. The
digital computer is a very fast calculator performing basically addition
and subtraction with multiplication and division possible by a repetitive
series of basic operations. Such machines are expensive to install and
piogram via punch cards, are more precise, capable of repetitive operation
on the same type of problem, and produce solutions in tabular form on
typed sheets. Ihe cost of the digital computer depends on the speed
of operation and the number of its memory units or spaces where numer¬
ical information can be filed for future sequential mathematical process¬
ing. Small units capable of solving simple problems cost around $50,000,
while large machines will require an expenditure of $500,000 or more!
In some cases it is possible to rent the larger machines.
Analog computers are essentially electronic amplifying circuits capable
of solving differential equations without the use of numerical methods
k (nmed for digital work. The effect of a complex set of variables on a
process can be studied without an expensive card programming The
esu tant electronic output data as the answer can be automatically
1 otted for a permanent record. The inherent accuracy of this type of
14 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 1

machine is not as good as that of the digital. It ranges from 0.1 to

2 per cent, depending on the electronic components, but the analog
computer is usually less expensive to purchase and operate than a digital
computer. For example, a kit can be purchased and assembled for
student training for less than $2,000. Analog computers also have the
disadvantage of lack of memory storage required for optimization studies.
Engineers should become familiar with the capabilities of these
machines and use them to the utmost. It is only then that the large
investment in this tool for the chemical industry will pay off. Most
colleges now have both digital and analog equipment so that the instructor
in plant design should have the class solve a few simple problems by this
means. Further study references in this area are listed in the Additional
Selected References at the back of the book.

PROBLEMS

1-1. Design of Chemical Stoneware Absorption Tower for S02 Absorption System

Specifications
1. Scrubbing length, 45 ft; 30-in.-diameter tower sections
2. Packing:
a. One-third diaphragm, 4-in. size
b. One-third spiral, 3-in. size
c. One-third raschig rings, 1-in. size
3. Stoneware aspirator to pull gases through tower ,
4. Lantern consisting of Pyrex brand glass-pipe section to be fitted into system a
convenient and accessible level, between tower and aspirator
5. Tower saucer on bottom and tower cover on top, distributor on top sec ion
6. Tower to rest on concrete base, built upon floor
7 Sufficient supporting plates to carry the packing rings

10. lo lop of tower of rot* of 1.200 Ol'I.. providing o

1 per cent solution of product at base of tower

Sketches required

1 “ S'7.O.01 showing arrangement ol »*":

1-2. Design the Installation of a Stainless-steel Sulfonator

Specifications
1. Select spot location for equipment.
2. Draw necessary sketches (8^ by 11-m- paper ^ boxes as exist near spot
3. Services must be obtained from master valves anu

location. materials for the installations, including supports, drain-

4. Prepare complete bill of materials ioi
age, and all utilities.
 CHAPTER 2

Development of the Project

A chemical engineering plant project may have any one of the follow¬
ing objectives:1 (1) the design and erection of a new plant, (2) the design
and erection of an addition to an existing plant, or (3) the revamping and
modernizing of an existing plant. The project is born the moment
company executives decide real thought should be given to one of the
foregoing objectives and someone is directed to investigate it. A pre¬
liminary study is made and then, if it seems warranted, more detailed
analyses are completed. This gives management enough facts to make a
reliable decision as to whether or not appropriation of time, men, and
money for the execution of the project should be authorized.
Authorization for the initiation of a development project is made by
management, usually after a study of the recommendations and the
development budget submitted by the development group. The exact
level at which the authorization is granted differs among companies and
is according to the size of the predicted expenditure. Some development
departments or steering groups have funds at their disposal with which
to pursue general development work or the development of projects
v ithin specific areas of the company’s activities.
A clear and concise statement of the project with specifications for
the plant process, all laboratory and pilot plant data, and any other
pertinent chemical or engineering facts must be presented to the design
group before the study is begun. The design group must integrate the
technical factors with economics. Sometimes, the design study will

reliaTSV°' P~.nt Where more data must be obtained to complete a

i n n jSI§n’ . 1C researcb and development group must then cooper-
. Gordon, Project Engineering, Chem. Eng., 67(3): 125 (1950).
15
16 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 2

dte in getting this data. Ihe development of a project from its inception
to a manufacturing operation requires complete integration of facilities
and personnel (see frontispiece). The relationships of various stages
in this development are listed next.

EVOLUTION OF A PROCESS

A logical evolution of a process may proceed via the following stages:

1. Process research—library and laboratory work
2. Research evaluation for possible commercialization
3. Process development
4. Preliminary engineering studies
5. Pilot plant
6. Semicommercial plant
7. Commercial plant
Many of these stages may be carried out simultaneously to expedite the
work. This is particularly true of the first five items, since the budget
for such work is generally small compared to the cost of a commercial
plant.
A very important part of successful project development is the organi¬
zation of personnel within the company to handle the various aspects of
the job. Figure 2-1 shows a typical organization chart for industrial
research. As the project develops, it is essential to obtain suggestions
and criticisms from personnel in various departments from time to time.
This can be done by conferences and/or circulation of progress reports.
Communications problems must be solved for effective cooperation. The
proper method to employ depends on the size and physical setup of the
company.1 As a further illustration of the requirements for cooperation
and communications, Table 2-1 shows how each of seven departments
was involved during various phases of the development of a chemical
product.

Process Research
The conception of an idea may be originated by a chemical engineer,
a chemist, a physicist, or any other person. It may be proved sound
by the use of existing data, but frequently chemical research must be
carried out to provide a more quantitative basis for evaluating the
economic feasibility of the process. In general, the object of process
research is to find out by library survey and laboratory work if tie
product can be made and what the yields and rates of conversion are
P The practical objective of process research is to provide scientific d .
that will permit the rational design of a manufacturing process with the
i “Communications,” AIChE Symposium Scries 49-8, 1953.
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT 17
CHAP. 2]

PRODUCT
quality form
QUANTITY USES

RESEARCH LABORATORY
SUMMATION OF INVESTIGATION
PHYSICAL REACTIONS
CONTROL LABORATORY CHEMICAL REACTIONS
ANALYSIS LIMITATIONS
RAW MATERIALS TEMPERATURES
INTERMEDIATES PRESSURES
PRODUCTS RATES
PROPORTIONS
TIME

£ P E
MARKET SURVEY LEGAL SEARCH ENGINEERING RESEARCH SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

I 3_
I
1
H. 1
CONSUMPTION PATENTS PUBLIC DEVELOPMENT PILOT PLANT MEDICAL SAFETY
FOREIGN APPLYING FOR RELATIONS CHECK PROCESS EQUIPMENT DEPT. COMM.
DOMESTIC AVAILABILITY RAW MATERIALS SERVICE HAZARDS TO FIRE
ZONING
PRODUCTION LEASE MATERIALS OF OPERATING USERS EXPLOSION
LOCAL ORDINANCES
FOREIGN PURCHASE CONSTRUCTION CONDITIONS
STATE LAWS LABORERS POLLUTION
DOMESTIC TRADE FLOW SHEETS LABOR
FEDERAL LAWS HANDLERS DECOMPOSITION
IMPORTS IN INTERFERENCE MATERIALS PRELIMINARY
STREAM POLLUTION WASTES CORROSION
EXPORTS EXPIRATION OF BALANCE LAYOUT
ATMOS. POLLUTION FUMES
CONSUMER TEST PENDING ENERGY BALANCE PRELIMINARY
TARIFFS
PACKAGING TRADEMARKS PRELIMINARY INVESTMENT
PUBLIC HEALTH
HAZARDS COPYRIGHTS CALCULATIONS
HAZARDS COMPARISON

J- 3 I I I
EXECUTIVE CONSIDERATIONS

I
ENGINEERING DESIGN

1
£ I T 1
EQUIPMENT LAYOUT AND SERVICE BUILDING OPERATION PERSONNEL
SERVICE TYPES ELEVATION DEMANDS EXISTING SEQUENCE OPERATORS
STANDARD DESIGN ECONOMIC FLOW OF STEAM : HIGH REMODELING CONDITIONS SUPERVISION
SPECIAL DESIGN MATERIALS LOW NEW DESIGN MANUAL COMMON LABOR
SPECIFICATIONS SERVICE WATER : RAW PLANT SERVICE AUTOMATIC SKILLED LABOR
SELECTION ARRANGEMENT OF POTABLE CONDITIONING TESTING
AIR.GAS, ELECTRICITY CONTROLCHEMISTS
ACCESSORIES EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
DRAINAGE CLERKS
CONTROL STORAGE COSTS
COSTS TRANSPORTATION VENTILATION
EXPANSION TEMPERATURE
PRESSURES

L I I I T
T.
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION
PRIVATE CONTRACTORS | COMPANY FORCE
ENGINEERING SUPERVISION

£
SALES STAFF SHIPPING TECHNOLOGISTS OPERATION CONTROL ACCOUNTING
PRODUCT DEMAND PACKAGING TESTING OF PROCESS ROUTINE (PLANT)
CONSUMER TESTING WAREHOUSING TESTINGOF EQUIPMT. DEPT.
OPERATORS
SERVICE DEMAND STORAGE ROUTINE TESTS COSTS
TUNING UP PLANT SUPERVISION
COMPLAINTS WEIGHING QUALITY TESTS MATERIALS
PREPARATION OF- MAINTENANCE
SALES SERVICE ROUTING PRESSURE RECORDS LABOR
CONTROL CHARTS SUPPLIES
COMPETITION DISPATCHING TEMPERATURE SERVICE
FORMS STORES
INTERCOMMODITY RECORDS
TABLES SUPERVISION
DISTRIBUTION PRODUCTION
GRAPHS SUPPLIES
OPERATING RECORDS SALES
STANDARDS INVENTORIES
CHECK UP ON - ETC.
MISTAKES
OVERSIGHTS

K (Counesy oS DepaHmmt *
18 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 2

I able 2-1. Development of a Chemical Product*

Stage of Re¬ Engi¬ Patent Survey Product Con¬ Produc¬

development search neering group group group struction tion

Literature In Search
search charge art
Bench scale In Follow Patent Informa- Market Cost
charge study tion study study
Intermedi- In Follow Prelimi-
ate scale charge nary
stage
Pilot plant Advise In Prelimi- Prelimi- Prelimi-
design charge nary nary nary
evalua- esti-
tion mate
crmtitriic- Advise Assistant In
tion adviser charge
operation In Advise Distribu-
charge tion
samples
Commer- Advise In Final Final Market Cost Follow
cial design charge stage survey evalua- esti-
tion mate
Advise Assistant Market In Follow
construe-
tion adviser program charge
Assistant Assistant Assistant In
operation Advise
adviser adviser adviser charge

* Nitrogen Division, Solvay Process Co., Chem. Inds., 69(6): 1000 (1948).

minimum time and equipment spent in pilot plant studies and to operate
the final process under the most favorable and economical conditions
with respect to all variables such as feed composition, space velocities,
recycling, heat and power requirements, and temperature gradients.
The objective is to reduce the time and expense of translating a process
from an idea to full-size plant construction. Statistical planning of
experiments1-2 in a projected process will greatly assist m the reduction
of time.

Research Evaluation
The chemical engineers’ contact with the project may begin long before
process development and pilot plant work is started The fust stage
for many projects is an engineering and economic analysis of available
Hafner Press,
“ Design and Analysis of Industrial Experiments,”
1 O. L. Davies,
New York, 1954. ” Interscience
“Statistical Methods for Chemical Experiments,
2 W. L. Gore,
Publishers, Inc., New York, 1952.
CHAP 2] development of the project

data before any laboratory work is attempted. The object of this anal-
Sil is to determine the potentialities of a project for further research and
development work and for eventual exploitation. In many cases, a com¬
parison of raw material and finished product prices may rule out a process
The second stage is reached after some or all of the initially planned
laboratory work has been completed. At this point enough information
is available for a satisfactory material balance and for a preliminary
analysis of the unit operations and process involved, although several
assumptions may be necessary to make up for the data that aie lacking.
An engineering evaluation of projects at the research stage is designed to
(1) make an economic analysis of project, (2) outline unit operations and
chemical processes involved in projected manufacturing operations, and
(3) show what additional information will be needed to complete design
of the process and equipment for a plant. The evaluation completed
at this stage should provide the basis for a decision in regard to the
advisability of going ahead with additional laboratory work or with
process development and pilot plant work.
The principal reason for preparing engineering and economic evalua¬
tions of projects at the research stage is to detect, as early as possible,
projects that are economically unsound or impractical. In case two or
more processes for the manufacture of a chemical are feasible, evaluation
may show which of the processes is preferred so that the research work
can be concentrated on this process. The engineering and economic
analysis should begin as soon as a reasonably reliable material balance
is available and the rough details of the processing and purification steps
are outlined. Through circulation of the written report on the evalua¬
tion, other chemical engineers and chemists may become aware of the
engineering and design problems and the combined knowledge of several
individuals may be focused on the project or projects. If the engineering
and economic evaluations show that the project is an interesting one, items
in the manufacturing cost can be ascertained and methods for reducing
them suggested, d he engineer may find that some additional informa¬
tion needed can be obtained most advantageously before laboratory work
is halted.

Research and Development Requirements

The research evaluation has pointed out the necessary process develop¬
ment studies that should be conducted to obtain process design informa¬
tion from the research laboratory and the pilot plant. Reasonably
accurate material and energy balances must be available in addition to
physical properties of the materials being handled.1 In general, this
process research group will submit values for such properties as:
1 L. Friend, Tools for Process Design, Chem. Eng. Progr., 44: 253 (1943).
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 2

1. Molecular weight
2. Boiling point
3. Melting point
4. Vapor pressure
5. Critical temperature
6. Critical pressure
7. Specific gravity of solid, liquid, or vapor
8. Enthalpy relationships
9. Liquid-vapor relationships of mixtures
10. Temperature-entropy relationships
11. Thermal conductivities
12. Viscosity

Preliminary Engineering Studies

In order to operate the process being considered, physical equipment

and facilities must be specified. The research laboratory can work with
glass apparatus or small-scale improvised equipment. The commercial
plant will require large-scale equipment capable of operating continu¬
ously without undue maintenance. Furthermore, the materials of con¬
struction will generally not be glass, but rather metals, ceramics, or
glass-lined steels. The engineering studies may be directed toward the
development of unusual equipment which is not commercially available
and the testing of this equipment as well as standard items in a completely
integrated process. This is one ol the functions of a pilot plant.

Pilot Plant
Pilot or prototype plants are complete, medium-scale processing units
containing all essential product-producing elements, including control.
Pilot-scale equipment falls into either or both of the following two
categories: (1) capable of producing results translatable, according to
supplied instructions, into full-scale design and operational data, oi (2)
designed and constructed to permit a much wider range of operating
characteristics than is normally available in production models.
The conversion of laboratory data handed down from the reseaic
group into plant design data is only one function of the pilot plant Such
a task requires the setting up of a definite program, including a thorough
investigation of basic reactions and reactants, time, temperature, concen¬
tration, and catalysis factors, a study of raw materials, operations needed
control specifications, and safety and health hazards. The process must
be investigated with the thoroughness and zeal of a pure researcher bu
from the viewpoint of a chemical engineer. The pilot plant in such cases
s a research unit. It must be used for the selection of suitable equipment
and materials, provide time and labor study information, and enable a
 CHAP. 2] DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT 21

study of by-product recovery and waste-disposal problems. After a new

plant or process is designed, the pilot plant continues investigations of
problems that require the elimination of the earlier compromise accept¬
ance of data.
Operating processes use the pilot plant as the trouble-shooting division;
when trouble shooting is not being carried on, the pilot plant is doing
development work on lines of alternative raw materials, improvement of
products and by-products, lower costs, safety, bringing the plant up to
date, etc. The proper personnel in a pilot plant constitutes the most
important feature of its success or failure.
A check list1 is suggested as including all items to be considered in the
pilot plant investigation.

1. Flow relations:
а. Chemical flow diagrams
б. Breakdown into unit operations
c. Engineering equipment flow diagrams
d. Material balance
2. Materials:
a. Raw materials, availability, substitute raw materials, costs
b. Impurities in raw materials and in products
c. Corrosion, erosion, dust, fumes
d. Solvents
e. W astes and recovery
3. Equipment or operation:
a. Selection of equipment, elimination of obviously unsuitable equipment
b. Cost of operation
c. Control specification
d. Material of construction
e. Heat transfer
/. Mass transfer
4. Materials handling:
ci. Proper methods of handling around the plant
b. Intermediate storage

C' explosion!)haZardS (°0rr0Si0n' fire’ eros!on’ safe*y. health, pollution, fumes,

d. Public nuisances
e. Storage
5. Labor:
a. Operators needed
b. Supervision
c. Control specifications from operator’s viewpoint
° ‘ :/°cess slmPhfication from operator’s viewpoint
e. Safety from operator’s viewpoint
/. Saving of time and labor

' r. C. Vilbrandt, i ^ *» <™

22 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 2

an integral part of the group operating and observing pilot plant opera¬
tions. However, in a few companies the pilot plant group is headed by
the research chemist or engineer previously in charge of the laboratory
research, since he is most familiar with all the details of the process.
The study of the product and process by chemical engineers constitutes
an evaluation from a different point of view from that of the research
chemists. Many executives emphasize the importance of the pilot plant
for this reason.
The ultimate desire is to operate the pilot plant with the assurance
that all the risks, both technical and economic, in the full-scale com¬
mercial plant have been minimized or, preferably, eliminated. The
pilot plant must be capable of operating over relatively long periods
under conditions that are not changed frequently, to obtain a fair approx¬
imation of labor costs and manufacturing expenses. In a pilot plant the
pieces of equipment are selected specifically for the work to be performed.
It should not be dismantled until such times as the full-scale commercial
plant is in successful operation, because it is the place where quality and
manufacturing improvements are worked out.
A practice that is quite prevalent during critical times is for the engi¬
neering department to bypass the pilot plant in order to expedite the
design of the commercial unit, and sometimes actually to build the com¬
mercial unit before the pilot plant is erected. A summary of scale-up
practice with or without piloting is listed in Table 2-2. The concept is
held that a well-trained engineering force, with experience and chemical
engineering pilot plant data available from other processes, is able to
translate laboratory data into plant practice and thus avoid the delay
attendant upon the completion of a pilot plant study. This is a reason¬
able procedure where a new process is similar in most respects to an estab¬
lished manufacturing process and one in which the operating data are
already sufficient. In such cases the best method lor materials handling,
illumination, depreciation, maintenance, etc., can be fairly accurately pre¬
dicted from experience and data obtained in the existing plant. I he
information needed, however, may be the peculiar difficulties which did not
show up in the old process and which require solution before passing to
the next stage
Control and Instrumentation. (See Chap. 9.) When pilot plant
p _,]_1 1+ 1C nort 1P.11 ln.7’1 V
 CHAP. 2] DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT 23

Table 2-2. Summary of Scale-up and Piloting Practices

0) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Is Average
large- Average safety factor
Principal size-
scale Controlling scale-up used in over-
Type of equipment or capacity¬
pilot¬ conditions ratio allow¬ design of
or process controlling
ing for design able based operating
variable
neces¬ on (4) perform¬
sary? ance, %

Cooling towers*. No . Input rate >100: 1 15

difference
Crystallizers. . . . Yes Rate of heat trans Volume 10:1 20
degree of mixing
Dryers. No Gas humidity, tem¬ Input rate >100:1 20
perature, surface
area:volume ratio
Evaporators. Yes Volume 25:1 20

transfer
Fluid-bed columns. Yes Solids and gas den Input rate 10:1 25
ties
Heat exchangers, shell- No Temperature, fluid Heat-transfer >100:1 15
and-tube* velocities area
Mechanical separations:
Solids from solids. .. . No Relative physical Input rate >100:1 10
properties
Solids from liquids
Centrifuges. No Particle size, viscos¬ Input rate >100:1 15
ity, and surface ten¬
sion, relative densi¬
ties
Filters. No Cake resistance Filtering >100:1 15
area
Solids from gases. . . . No Particle size Input gas rate 10:1
Mixing: 10
Solids. No Particle size Volume
Liquids. >100:1 10
No Viscosity, surface ten¬ Volume 15:1 20
sion, solubility, den¬
sities
Liquids-solids. Yes Particle size, viscos¬ Volume 10:1 20
ity, surface tension,
relative densities
Packed and plate No Equilibrium data Input rate
columns* >100:1 15
Vapor-liquid flow Diameter
Pumps*. 10: 1
No Discharge head Input rate and >100:1 10
power
Impeller size 10:1
Reciprocating com¬ No Compression ratio Input rate and
pressor* >100:1 10
power
Piston displace- 10: 1
Spray condenser*. ment
No Latent heat of vapor¬ Input rate 70:1
ization 25
Height-to-diam- 12:1
Size reduction. eter ratio
Yes Final particle size
Input rate and 50:1 20
Materials handling power
No Bulk density
Volume 70:1 20
Information compiled
50(7): 333 (1954). by M. Laurent. R. D. Beattie, and T. H. Goodg
Chem. Eng, Pvogr,,
24 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 2

I rocedure for control analysis will vary with the process but the follow¬
ing fundamental steps should be kept in mind: (1) listing all the variables,
(2) defining the magnitude, source, and timing of changes in the vari¬
ables, (3) selecting the significant variables, (4) eliminating the variables
subject to measurement, (5) selecting the variables susceptible to control,
(6) deciding on primary variables for control, and (7) selecting important
secondary variables.
The incorporation of process instrumentation should start at the begin¬
ning of process development. The pilot plant serves a very important
purpose of testing instrumentation and automatic control. In turn, the
instrumentation provides the means for obtaining process design data.
Pilot Plant Costs. Pilot plant costs constitute one of the largest items
of expense in research budgets; the total expense of building and running
them is usually charged to cost accounts. To find the cost of the pilot
plant investigation, the chemical engineer must prepare a preliminary
plan of investigation that will provide all the data he needs for detailed
process design of a full-scale commercial unit. Also, a process and equip¬
ment design and estimate of investment cost for the proposed pilot plant
must be prepared. Based on the preliminary plan of pilot plant investi¬
gation, an estimate is made of the time that will be required to carry
out the projected pilot plant program, the total operating cost of which
can then be estimated. This cost, together with the estimated invest¬
ment cost of the proposed pilot plant, represents the total probable cost
of pilot plant investigation. If this figure is relatively high compared
with the cost of a commercial unit, the decision may be to avoid com¬
pletely a pilot plant investigation; instead, a commercial unit may be
installed directly on the basis of chemical research data. In this case,
the laboratory research work should be more intensive than where a
pilot plant investigation is carried out.

Semicommercial Plant
The semicommercial plant, larger than the pilot plant, has as its pii-
mary purpose the production of sufficient quantities of the new chemical
to permit sales in small lots. However, it is still experimental, and its
purposes include all those listed under the pilot plant. This size unit is
more often bypassed. A distinction is sometimes made on the basis o
new chemicals already made by competitors and those which are entirely
new and must be introduced to the market. For the former, a pilot
plant just large enough for experimental purposes is used For entirely
new products, a semicommercial plant is designed larger than necessary
for a purely experimental pilot plant and yet large enough to permit fairly
economical production, so that the product can be sold at the cost of
manufacture. This permits the company to “break even on the costs

of operation.
ch vp 2] development of the project

The output of the semicommercial plant is introduced to the market by

a staff of market development men who specialize in such work. As the
demand grows, the semicommercial plant is operated at an increasing
percentage of its capacity. When full capacity is reached, preparations
are made to transfer the production to a commercial plant.

Commercial Plant
If the process can survive the foregoing exacting tests of operation and
if estimates indicate that the production cost will be sufficiently low, the
last and final stage of development—the full-sized commercial plant—
may be carried out with the assurance that all the risks, both technical
and economic, have been minimized. The size of the plant will depend
upon the requirements set forth in the original demands for the design
of the plant.
This final step is the coordination of all chemical and engineering
data obtained and their translation into a detailed commercial plant
design. Access must be had to trade literature and handbooks for selec¬
tion of types and specific pieces of equipment. Capacities and perform¬
ance are studied. Preliminary layouts are attempted, and the best flow
arrangements obtained. Organization of the equipment by means of a
template and study models gives a picture of the possibilities of different
layouts. After arriving at the most desirable layout, the actual drawing
of the plan and elevation of the assembly is undertaken, followed by
accurate preconstruction costing. In order to design a commercial
unit, including housing for the production of the specified commodity, the
following considerations are important:
1. Specifications of equipment
2. Specifications of materials
3. Selection of commercial equipment
4. Plan
5. Elevation
6. Location of plant
7. Operating instruction for labor
8. Selection of personnel
9. Preconstruction costing
10. Production costs per unit of material
lheie are numerous factors which must be considered under each item
listed above. These are discussed next.
It is of considerable importance to a careful survey to stress the factors
that v,11 play an important role, not only in the design itself but also
in the construction and operation of the chemical plant. Plant desien
not only must be technically satisfactory but also must be economically
1S. a° °ry’ e goa ot t,le design is to secure a workable plant with the
ax,mum return on the necessary investment. Any plant design must
26 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap 9

also consider the safety factors not only for the sake of its workmen hut
also for the public at large, the equipment, the plant, and the product,
lhe general wheel outline as presented in Fig. 2-2 brings out an interrela¬
tion of the various factors. Each individual design of a chemical plant

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Nation
Fig. 2-2. Plant design factors.

is usually a highly specialized case, and a detailed generalization scheme

cannot be outlined that will be in its entirety a thorough coverage of the
requirements of all chemical plant design problems.

TECHNICAL FACTORS

Markets
Market surveys are generally made by the trade or market survey
department or division of the company, or they can be obtained from
special trade survey consultants or organizations that have been estab-
 27
CH VP 2] development of the project

lished in various parts of the country to provide complete reports on any

commodity, its uses, forms, quality, quantities, availability to markets,
import and export data, tariffs, trade agreements, consumer testing
consumption, production, and distribution. This applies not only to
finished products but likewise to raw materials and by-products.

Flow Diagrams
To the design engineer a flow sheet of equipment and mateiials in
process is considered the first clarifying step. This is a transposition
of the research and development laboratory notes and reports into the
terminology of the engineer. The flow diagrams present a picture of
material and energy flows, process operations, and equipment, materials
handling, storage, future plant expansion, and water, power, and fuel
requirements. From this picturization the departments, the possible
sequence and number of units required, and the distribution of labor are
evident. The materials balance and an energy balance are worked out,
and the quantitative interrelationships are then presented on the flow
sheets (see Chap. 3).

Equipment
Performance and service are demanded from all equipment. Much
valuable information for the selection of equipment is available from
manufacturers of equipment. Much of the equipment for materials
handling and for unit operations and processes is standardized and,
whenever such equipment serves the purpose, it is selected in preference
to special designs, thus substantially lowering the cost and providing for
ready duplication of equipment and availability of repair parts. Large
companies have organized their own set of standards to avoid repeated
design costs on items of routine nature. One should not hesitate to meet
any problem that requires a special design and the use of special materials
even if it is considered that a new design is an experiment for the manu¬
facturer and the user. The changes in demands and services for com¬
modities sooner or later lead into pioneer fields of equipment design.
Manufacturers hesitate to use a new material on a standard design,
since either a change in process equipment to meet a satisfactory compro¬
mise with the manufacturer or an exhaustive pilot plant study must be
undertaken.

Plant Layout

Plant layout or economic arrangement of equipment follows selection

ot type ol equipment. Arrangements of equipment even for the same
process are varied and generally are an expression of some architectural
inclinations of the designer, not always resulting in as economical and
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 2

practical organization as would be possible if layouts and arrangements

of similar 01 allied plants as published in current literature were studied
and improvements made upon such layouts, if changes are deemed
necessary. Accessories and control devices are essential to effective oper¬
ation of equipment and flow of process. The operation of a proposed
piece of equipment or process is studied carefully. Frequently the proper
arrangement of equipment effects a material saving in labor (see Chap. 5).

Buildings

The chemical processing and the materials handled govern the general
design requirements of buildings. Careful attention is given to the
arrangement and layout of the equipment, and then a building is con¬
sidered as surrounding all this assembly or only such portions as require
housing. In chemical buildings, special attention is given to foundations
for building and equipment, sanitation and plumbing, the type of floor,
structural frame, walls, roof, fume handling, explosion possibilities, light¬
ing, ventilation, drainage, heating, air conditioning, fire protection, and
power-plant orientation. The types of buildings and the service require¬
ments for each can be supplied by the industrial building manufacturers.
The building serves as a protective cloak to be used as shelter for equip¬
ment or operators (see Chap. 8).

Location
In general, the following items are considered vital in plant location:
proximity to market, raw materials, transportation, labor supply, water
supply, power supply, economic interrelation wTith other industries, and
specific plant requirements. There are other plant and process location
matters that are of real importance to, and exist as real responsibilities of,
the chemical plant design engineer of commercial plants for the manu¬
facture of chemicals and chemical formulations, such as land, local
ordinances, public improvements, utilities, waste disposal, and climatic
conditions. All the factors that enter into the problem of plant or indus¬
try location also affect the choice of local sites and must be considered by
the design engineer (see Chap. 7).

economic factors

Economic Contribution
The success of the chemical engineer is directly related to his economic
contribution to an enterprise. The engineer will attain success who
frequently effects a significant reduction in cost ol production makes,
new design at lower cost, obtains an increase in production at a pi o ,
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT 29
CHAP. 2]

leads the way to an increase in the yield of the more valuable products,
shows how to produce a new product at a profit, makes a profitable trade,
or obtains a valuable patent.
The chemical engineer in practice must familiarize himself with the
economic status of the enterprise with which he is connected. This will
enable him to determine the most likely possibilities for increasing the
earnings of the business. If he has knowledge of the processing costs of
the manufacturing plant, he will be in a position to determine these costs
which, if reduced, would result in a large annual saving to the company.

Preliminary Process Appraisal

The process appraisal usually consists of a preliminary process design
of a commercial plant of suitable size and an estimate of investment
cost, processing cost, and profit. This is of a preliminary nature, for it
involves extrapolation of the results obtained on small laboratory equip¬
ment to lull-scale commercial equipment. Much judgment, based upon
a background of experience, must be exercised by the chemical engineer
in regard to what commercial performance can be expected. Experience
provides a basis for comparison of commercial performance with process-
research results for other processes and is almost essential for this work.
Rarely does commercial performance equal that obtained on small
laboratory equipment; with increase in size, the optimum operating con¬
dition, as determined for the small plant, may not hold true. Conse¬
quently, flexibility in design is still desirable for a large unit. In the
extrapolation of research data to full-scale commercial plants, it is fre¬
quently necessary to set up the process design for a continuous unit on the
basis of chemical research data that were obtained with batch equip¬
ment. The translation of data from batch equipment to a basis for a
continuous unit is indeed dangerous, and unless the chemical engineer
stays on the solid foundation of fundamentals, he is likely to arrive at a
process design for the continuous unit that is far different from what
actually is feasible. If possible, the economic appraisal should be based
on pilot plant performance rather than laboratory scale work.

Costs and Profitability Analysis

A compilation of all data relative to the cost of raw materials land

teiest, etc., should be obtained by the designer on an accurate nrecon’

~trrtinf baSiS “ " f°r~ to operation cosi

e- CoSt data are only current and must be modified

30 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 2

as price conditions vary, but in competent hands, current cost data are
useful and serve their purpose—that of indicating possible profit or
of stopping further expenditure if the venture labels itself as uneco¬
nomic. Chapter 6 contains a detailed exposition on preconstruction cost
estimation.
The general procedure for preparing economic evaluations consists in
estimating the following: (1) total manufacturing cost, (2) total capital
investment, (3) estimation of a selling price, and (4) return on investment.
These give definite information on possible return on total capital invest¬
ment after accounting for all costs involved, or conversely, the return
that can be realized from selling the product at a fixed price.
Costs in Safety. The hazards present are a direct function of the fire
insurance rates that can be obtained. A decrease of the hazaids ma}
effect important savings in the insurance items of the overhead costs. In
this connection, the cost of a complete automatic sprinkler system may be
entirely defrayed by the resulting decrease in fire insurance rates. Such
protective schemes and equipment are not so easily paid for, but they
frequently can be justified on economic grounds alone. Hazards also
involve loss of production and men’s services as well as impairment of
product quality. Reduction of hazards thus becomes an economic
problem.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

It is important that engineers continue to recognize safety and fire

hazards of the processes they are operating. From every standpoint
these hazards are liabilities, and their actual and potential costs must
emphasized in process thoughts and plans. The chemical industnes
today through their medical, safety, and fire-protection departments
have intensively investigated hazards of all kinds, and much mformation
■Hid data thereon are available. There is every incentive and a real
necessity for including a survey of safety and fire hazards in a s u v o
chemical engineering processes. This ^ «mp^ t^appr»a* m
every chapter. An excellent treatment of sa j <•
i, Jven in Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 3d edsec. 6V,
pp.”l847-1884. Some of the important safety considerations m the c e
ical industries are summarized next.

Building and Process Equipment

Rational plant design is !ft hTzaTdsTs corrosion,

need for minimizing such building a^^ ^ ^ and poison. Process

*» - ■>“ “d
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT 31
CHAP. 2]
corrosion through the selection of proper materials come under the
jurisdiction of safe practices. The relation of equipment hazards to
personal hazards is self-evident, and proper design considers not only
process flow but the course of action of the operators and other personnel
in a plant. Also, safety must be considered when dealing with the dis¬
posal of wastes as affecting persons outside the jurisdiction of the plants.
The effect of zoning ordinances and other legal restrictions to operations
cannot be minimized. No matter how highly satisfactory a plant design
may be from the technical and economic viewpoint, disregard of safety,
air pollution, and waste-disposal problems will nullify an otherwise sound
engineering plant design.

Table 2-3. Safety Regulatory Groups and Information Sources

1. American Petroleum Institute, 50 W. 50th St., New York.

2. American Society for Testing Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia.
3. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 29 W. 39th St., New York.
4. American Standards Association, 70 E. 45th St., New York.
5. Associated Factory Mutual Insurance Companies, 1151 Providence Highway,
Boston.
6. Bureau of Explosives, Washington.
7. Interstate Commerce Commission, Constitution Ave. and 12th St., N.W.,
Washington.
8. Local inspection bureaus.
9. Local and state regulations.
10. Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, 1625 Eye St., N.W., Washington.
11. National Board of Fire Underwriters, 85 John St., New York.
12. National Bureau of Standards, Washington.
13. National Fire Protection Association, 60 Batterymarch St., Boston.
14. National Safety Council, 425 N. Michigan Blvd., Chicago.
15. Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc., 207 E. Ohio St., Chicago.
16. U.S. Bureau of Standards, Washington.
17. U.S. Defense Department, Washington.
18. U.S. Department of Labor, Washington.
19. Various material manufacturers’ association.

Fire Prevention and Control1

The objectives of fire prevention or protection engineering are to

minimize opportunities for personal injury, loss of life, property damage
and production interruptions. These objectives are achieved by (1) pre-
vention, (2) control, and (3) extinguishment of fire. The term “fire
prevention” applies to that phase of process design which minimizes
fire hazards inherent in the process. “ Fire control ” refers to that phase
of process design which seeks to control and protect against fires which
e^rdy been Started’ Untl1 available extinguishing forces can become

1 J. J. Duggan, Designed Fire Prevention, Chem. Eng., 68(6): 125 (1051).

32 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 2

It is of prime importance in process design to recognize and incorporate

the minimum safe practices prescribed by nationally recognized fire
protection associations, engineering authorities, and governing bodies.
Table 2-3 lists a number of these. Such recommendations and regula¬
tions should be followed as closely as possible, and in every case supple¬
mented as indicated by experience (see Chap. 8).

Mechanical Hazards
Some specific sources of literature pertaining to the standard safety
codes on machinery and tools are also found in Table 2-3; see items 4,
6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, and 18. A well-designed machine must be equipped
with safety guards. Visual warnings of danger, such as signs and color
schemes, have become extremely useful methods of combating potential
hazards. Some of the safety measures which must be taken when using
hand tools are (1) nonsubstitution of one tool for another when each has
a definite specified function, (2) guarding and sheathing sharp-bladed
tools, (3) insulation of electrical hand tools, and (4) use of antispark
tools in explosive or inflammable areas. Safe practices for power tools
are the same as for machinery.

Electrical Hazards
Accidents attributed to electrical hazards are (1) shocks by alternating
current and burns by direct current due to poor indication of and pro¬
tection from high voltage, (2) faulty or poor wiring, (3) insufficient care
of equipment as regards dryness, cleanliness, and operation, (4) fires
from overloaded circuits not properly equipped with fuses or circuit
breakers, (5) fires from capacitor discharge because of improper main¬
tenance ’ (6) fires from sparking or arcing of switches or brushes near
inflammable materials, and (7) static electricity discharges. Preventive
measures against shocks and burns are the proper enclosure oi high-
voltage equipment and discharge capacitors, indication of accessib e
voltage sources, proper maintenance of wiring and equipment, capable
personnel, and good housekeeping. Fires can be prevented by proper
design of electrical and chemical equipment with all electric circuits
designed according to an approved code (see Chap. 9).

Chemical Hazards1
The most important manuals of safety for chemicals are the Chemical
Manufacturing Chemists Associa-

sr sr/ss jl..
-i i i

r„do„rsiic* Lwms.,«... «r tm, »>.

aid the reader in understanding the maternal presented. Safe handhng
, A. B. Steele and J. J. Duggan, Handling Reactive Chemicals, Chen, Eng.,

66(8): 157 (1959).

CHA.P. 2] development of the project

of steel drums, fiber drums, paper sacks, glass carboys, and other con¬
tainers is presented in the data sheet. Unloading and loading of chem¬
icals shipped in tank cars and trucks is also discussed in these sheets.
The Interstate Commerce Commission has issued regulations for shipping
most of the hazardous chemicals. Also, a handbook of dangerous mate¬
rials is available with an alphabetical listing of 5,000 dangerous materials.1
The hazardous properties, toxicity, treatment, antidote, effective extin¬
guishers, storage and handling, personnel safety precautions, physical
properties, description, shipping regulations, and labeling instructions
of the material are presented. Other material presented is the discus¬
sion of explosives, fungus and fungicides, radiation and radiation effects,
and ICC requirements for shipping of all types of materials.
One of the most common occupational diseases is lead poisoning; zinc
poisoning is also prevalent but of much shorter duration. Recent Atomic
Energy Commission activities have added a very dangerous material to
the list, namely, beryllium and its compounds.

Ventilation

One of the major functions in most plant surveys is a study of ventilat¬

ing systems, both local and general, which are used to control the health
hazard. By local exhaust ventilation the air contaminant is removed at
the place of generation before it comes into the worker’s breathing zone.
Often in general ventilating systems, incorrect types of fans are installed,
velocities are too low, the wrong type of hood is used, or there are no air
inlets to the room. Sometimes it may be necessary to redesign the whole
ventilating system. In any case, industrial hygienists in the Public
Health Departments are available to assist with these problems (see
Chap. 8).

Labor Relations in Safety

Most public and private enterprises are cognizant of their moral and
ethical responsibilities toward those who have placed their health, welfare,
and livelihood in their hands. Safety hazards are potential deterrents to
attainment of optimum technical efficiencies and product quality. If any
hazards are known and if proper safeguards and protection are not pro¬
vided, the psychology of the operator will frequently be such that his
attention will be drawn thereto and, to that extent, withdrawn from his
immediate duties. As his attention is taken from his real job and duties
his efficiency and, therefore, the efficiency of his operation will decrease!
resulting in the improper discharge of his duties, and, through improper
washing, filtration, drying, heating, or any other of the more or less
1 N. I. Sax (ed.), “Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials ”
Reinhold Pub-
lishing Corporation, New York, 1957.
34 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 2

essential operations of a chemical process, may result in an unsatisfactory

product.
A study of the cause of injuries in 50,000 major and minor industrial
injury cases reveals that 30 per cent are due to faulty instruction, 22 per
cent to inattention, 14 per cent to unsafe practice, and 12 per cent to
poor discipline, whereas 12 per cent are due to inability, physical and
mental unfitness of the employee, and only 10 per cent to mechanical
hazards.
If the man or men who have been specially trained for a particular
job or jobs are temporarily or permanently removed from the operation
as a result of ill health, accidents, or fires, the process suffers. Therefore,
the costs of an operation or process may be increased appreciably in a
large number of ways, particularly as regards the items mentioned above:
loss of production, impairment of product quality, insurance costs, dis¬
ability claims, loss of service of trained men, and the costs of training
other men.

Health Hazards
In almost every state there is some sort of board, committee, or bureau
set up by the state government to work hand in hand with the industries
of that state in combating the numerous health hazards that might exist
in the industries. Upon request, surveys and detailed studies are made
of industrial plants in the state to determine potential health hazards.
Requests for services may be made by plant management, laboi unions,
local health authorities, and individuals. Industrial hygiene activities
prevent occupational health hazards by controlling dusts, gases, vapors,
mists, X rays, and radioactive radiation. (Obtain maximum permissible
limit values from local or state regulatory boards.1) These activities also
prevent and control circumstances which produce fatigue, such as exces-
sive noise, inadequate ventilation, poor lighting, and excessive heat and
humidity. Unpleasant and excessive temperatures, humidities, noises,
and radiation affect workers. Improper lighting can cause eye strain,
headaches, and irritability. Excessive noise is objectionable and may
cause hearing defects. During the past few years, X-ray radiation has
become important. Industrial X-ray machines are now being used which
have as much as 2,000,000-volt capacities. Radium is employed to detect
defects in metal, and radioactive materials are used for research purposes.
These present serious health hazards. While most chemical engineers are
aware of some of these hazards, their critical relation to employee pioduc-

tlVRadiation Hazards'^Thelources of radiation hazards are alpha, beta,

gamma, and X rays, thermal neutrons, and fast neutrons. Danger comes
1 For proximate design data, see ibid.
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT 35
CHAP. 2]
from ingestion or external radiation. For a complete discussion of these
hazards, see Chap. 10.
Sanitation. Sanitation in the plant as affecting conditions outside the
plant is a process problem, and care must be taken in considering (1) the
potable water supply and its protection from contamination by the plant
or outside sources, (2) sanitary plumbing, (3) drainage, and (4) waste
and sewage disposal.

LEGAL PHASES

Patents
The patent situation pertinent to any product, process, equipment, use,
or application of any commodity should be considered by the legal
department concurrently with the design. The commodity or processing
for the commodity may be so involved in patents that one could not
proceed with the actual production and distribution. Not only existing
patents, but patents in interference and under adjudication and patents
pending must likewise be considered by the legal department. Patents
available by purchase and lease and by participation in patent pools are
considered as safeguards for carrying out a plant design. Trademarks
and copyrights are likewise property that must be recognized and properly
protected through legal agreements carried out by the legal department.

Infringement

A search in the Patent Office is made during which every feature (even
the appaiently unimportant details are frequently of real importance)
of each logical division or step of the process is studied. In this search,
both the expired and the unexpired art must be included, the expired art
to indicate what can be done legitimately and the unexpired art to indi¬
cate the limitations or restrictions on what can be done legitimately. If
unexpired patents are found which would be infringed by the desired
piocess, then a study of their validity and scope must be made with refer¬
ence to the expired patents. As regards infringement, it should be empha¬
sized that no unexpired patent can cover the material disclosed in an
expired patent except by the well-known legal procedure of combining
previously known items to make a new contribution to knowledge. If a
single expired patent can be found that covers the process desired for use
theie is no reason why the process cannot be legitimately and safelv used’
lleva: .Jr r Patent “point. The determination of the scope aid
he validity of a patent with respect to its infringement is a ouestioJ of
law and as such, should be undertaken by someone who is convert

byNe Wh° " a" fenced paZS

ey, belore any definite action is taken. But, the patent attorney should
36 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 2

not be relied upon for the technical information involved; the technical
aspects belong in the sphere of the technical man. If the proposed process
is new, it is desirable that it be protected by patent or patents as com¬
pletely as possible from a monopolistic standpoint. Such patent protec¬
tion is essential.

Public Relations
The legal department should acquaint itself with all local, state, and
Federal laws that pertain to the manufacture of the commodity, its
transportation and application, atmospheric and stream pollution through
the disposal of wastes, and the possibility of claims for injury, death, or
disabilities in connection with the production and use ot the commodity
to be manufactured. The design engineer should be familiar with all
such legal entanglements, so that he may advise the legal department on
probable hazardous conditions and unsafe practices.

Contracts
The design engineer leaves all contracts to the legal department but,
for purposes of acquainting himself with limitations that may later arise
in the fulfillment of his design project, he should recognize the detailed
contractual relations that must be promulgated lor actual commodity
production.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Published Books
The chemical engineer must have a thorough knowledge of the prin¬
ciples of chemical engineering to use the quantitative data obtained from
fundamental equations. Standard reference textbooks develop t e
principles in sufficient clarity for study purposes ^“"atffin of
information of a fundamental and an applied nature. Compilation

particularly the process-data section ol C hap. . .

Chemical Engineering Catalogs

„ , , manufacturers of chemical engineering
The best reference book*^on Engineering Catalog” and
equipment and product, a catalogs are published annu-
the “Chemical Materials Catalog ilation of chemical
oily The “Chemical Materials Catalog is a coinpu
■ Both published by Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York.
CHAP. 2] DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT

materials, of chemical and physical properties, specifications, uses and

applications, reactions, availability, shipping points and regulations, and
structural formulas; it is alphabetically indexed by firm names, pioduct
names, by trade names, by uses and applications, and by functional ideas.
Essentially it is a producers’ directory. The “ Chemical Engineering
Catalog” is a process industries catalog, alphabetically compiled into the
following subdivisions: (1) an index of firms represented, (2) functional
index, (3) equipment name index, (4) plants and specialized services
index, (5) pilot plant index, and (6) trade name index. Unfortunately
these are incomplete inasmuch as not all manufacturers of chemical engi¬
neering equipment, supplies, chemicals, and raw materials advertise in
them. Nor do they contain the voluminous quantity of data, direct and
relative, that are contained in the mass of literature sent directly by
manufacturing companies. To include all this information would make
the catalogs cumbersome; therefore, the selection of material to be
included depends upon the judgment of the advertising companies and
of the advisory committee that aids in editing it.

Trade Literature
There is a great profusion of trade literature consisting of pamphlets,
circulars, bulletins, and catalogs containing information, such as advertis¬
ing claims, applications, specifications, and other pertinent information
on all types of chemical engineering equipment and materials. That the
data and information contained in these pamphlets, circulars, and bulle¬
tins are quite valuable will be attested to by anyone who has had occasion
to design a plant, a piece of equipment, or a process, or who has wished
to purchase a new or replace an old piece of equipment, or to obtain infor¬
mation on chemical products. Many of these pieces of literature are
comprehensive treatises on the theory and application of the equipment
which their issuers have for sale. To the chemical engineer, the per¬
formance data and dimensional drawings contained in some of these
pamphlets are of inestimable aid in the realistic solution of his design
and process problems. This follows in part from the fact that he depends
upon and uses standard designed equipment whenever a satisfactory
product is available, resorting to specially designed parts and units only
when a standard design does not fit his need.

Chemical Engineering Publications

It should be pointed out that the rapid advances in our chemical indus-
1 SX **•",h' UP with the
v latest data that may in any way become useful to him not onlv in
the present problem but also in any likely future work in his line In
P 1 ar’ Chem,Ca‘ e«ering periodicals and other publications
38 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 2

devoted to his branch of engineering are in a position to bring him the

latest practical results of experimental designs. The American Institute
of Chemical Engineers Journal, Chemical Engineering Progress, and the
magazines Chemical Engineering, Chemical Week, Industrial and Engineer¬
ing Chemistry, and Chemical and Engineering News are at present the
outstanding American sources of information on progress in the chemical
engineering field.
The petroleum and petrochemical industries require a great deal of
design information which is published in Petroleum Processing, Petroleum
Refiner, Petroleum Engineer, and The Oil and Gas Journal.

General Periodicals and Publications

In lieu of the strictly chemical engineering books, sources of general
information which are used, not only in their own rightful functions but
also to compensate for the lack of information, include (1) bulletins of
manufacturers of chemicals, (2) bulletins of the manufacturers ol special
materials and metals, (3) publications ol university laboratories and
experiment stations, (4) pamphlets from industrial and trade associations
and industrial institutes, (5) government publications from various
bureaus, such as Chemistry and Agricultural Economics in the Depart¬
ment of Agriculture, the Bureaus of Census, Mines, Patents, and Stand¬
ards in the Department of Commerce, as well as the Internal Revenue
in the Treasury Department, and the U.S. Tariff Commission.

Plant Visits and Expositions

Another group of information services which should be assiduously
cultivated for general information but which only rarely renders available
specific data to aid in solving a particular problem includes visits to
process plants, expositions, and other demonstrations. It is indeed rare
that opportunity affords visits to plants making the same products, but
there are elements of similarity in most plants that are ol considerable
value. The exposition is of value principally in the opportunity it atfor s
to study the latest developments in equipment, products, and materials.

Equipment Manufacturers’ Laboratories

A service that can be of great value and yet is frequently missed is the
equipment manufacturer’s demonstration laboratory. 1 he danger^ hes
principally in the attempt to use it instead of the pilot plant. -
easier if the miniature equipment can be transported from the manufac^
turer’s laboratory to the private plant, usee , an re “™ assembled
equipment companies now provide all types an in
equipment and process units on a unitized basis.
 CHAP. 2] DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT 39

Personal Experience
The last information service to be specifically mentioned is the engi¬
neer’s personal experience file. It should be applied last, but it is most
important. Attempts have been made to publish certain standardized
specifications for mechanical equipment, but so far this has not been done
in a general fashion for a large number of types of chemical equipment;
thus it is still the fundamental job of the engineer to keep his own check
list. This should contain details of the specifications and, in particular,
should have underscored the obvious details most frequently omitted.
All these tools must be used with keen judgment. It is rare indeed
that an engineer makes an error of commission, i.e., a mistake in a detail
of design that he should not have made in light of his experience. The
most frequent errors are those of omission, where some vital factor not
previously met in the engineer’s experience will invariably ruin a design
that would otherwise have proved meritorious. Experience, especially
the broadening kind in fields other than the particular one containing
the problem on which the engineer is at the moment working, is a shield
against such dangers.

PROBLEMS

2-1. Chemical and Physical Materials Data

Prepare a tabulated report, using tabulated format, on the physical and chemical
properties of the raw materials, intermediate products, by-products, and principal
chemicals which will be encountered in the manufacture of (a) maleic anhydric
hydrazide, (6) ethylene; (c) uranium hexafluoride; (d) gamma benzene hexachloride-
(e) soybeans by solvent extraction; (/) denatured alcohol from potatoes or any selected
industrial chemical product. y Q

2-2. Market Price and Marginal Profit Curves

Sourws ol '"formation: OH, PaiJaJ

Engineering News ’ ^ Chemical Week; Chemical and

2-3. Proposed Capacity of Plant Project

mamd^mm'ifi^^dUrr^^ ™ («) Why do we wish to

ket? W) What wP„rktg‘ chedule shou7d be 7 ^ ^ “ the
be the potential daily production? (f) Ho !1’rocluctlon ? («) What will
* pr0aucuon- (/) How will by-products be disposed of?
 CHAPTER 3

Process Design

A basic step in making a preliminary plant design for cost estimation

or for establishing a detailed commercial plant design is to work out a
process design. Briefly, one presents the basic chemical and physical
operations of a process. Examples of the latter type include filtration,
drying, mixing, and other chemical engineering operations. These facts
are illustrated in flow-sheet form.1 It is then possible for the engineer to
apply industrial stoichiometry principles to the process as outlined to
obtain material and energy balance flow sheets. After all these tacts
are available, the designer is ready to specify the type of equipment
required to do the job. By knowing the cost of such equipment, tie
start of a plant cost estimate has been made.

Choice of Process
Nearly all chemical plants employ processes where the raw materials
undergo chemical changes to produce a more valuable proc uc . ie-
quently, the choice of process cannot be made at the library or laboratory
research level. It is necessary that the chemical engineer eco
oughly familiar with all aspects of the proposed processes in oide, to I
StSbSt selection. A rough cost estimation based on labm,tory msults
and engineering experience can sometimes settle the dec . ' .
one particular lJess. At other times, a more thorough process design
and cost estimation will be required before any decision can Rendered.
Consultation among the designers, the research and devdopment staff
and the legal department is of prime importance m getting
over-all evaluation of a particular process.
. P. O’Donnell, How Flowsheets Communicate Engineering Information, » •

Eng., 64(9): 245 (195/)*

40
 PROCESS DESIGN 41
CHAP. 3]

Selection of Process Cycles

Assuming that the annual production requirement has been established,
one of the first problems faced in process design is to choose a process
cycle so that material and energy balances on a time basis can be worked
out and all of the necessary flow sheets prepared. Questions related to a
24-hr or 8 hr/day operation and production by sequential batch operation
or on a steady-state continuous basis must be resolved.
Continuous vs. Batch Processing.1 It is the usual rule in process
design to choose continuous processing in preference to batch processing
based purely on economic reasons. By operation on a continuous 24 hr/
day basis, smaller-size, less expensive processing equipment is used.
Process operation is steady state and easier to control by automatic
instrumentation than is batch operation. Thus, capital investment,
fixed charges, and labor requirements are minimized. However, batch
processing is not a completely obsolete method in the chemical industry.
It is feasible in such cases as:
1. Small-volume output of relatively expensive products when sales
demand is not steady, or when the same equipment can be used for several
processes of this nature.
2. W hen batch equipment from an abandoned process is available at a
low transfer cost to the current project.
3. When continuous process equipment has not been satisfactorily
de\ eloped and batch-process equipment has been satisfactorily demon¬
strated; this is a short-range solution when emergency deadlines must
be met.
4. \\ hen yields and quality of products cannot be achieved by con¬
tinuous processing because of such things as very low reaction rates and
correspondingly long residence times in the processing equipment.
Often a few steps in a process may better be accomplished by batch
operation and the remainder on a continuous basis with provision for
sufficient buffer storage facilities between steps.
Shifts and Operating Time Schedules. Although “around the clock ”
operation is the usual rule in the chemical industry, other production
sc iodides listed below are sometimes set up, depending on labor conditions
and volume of sales:
1. Around the clock operation. Three shifts of operation per day seven

stami?v/ondTmfe0n' 0T’ T°’ °r th,'ee Shifts of “Potion and labor;

stand-by conditions on weekends and holidays; overtime if production

CAem. i/wai)11:’24^1957)'. C°ntinU0US' Don't Write ‘1- Batch Process,

42 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 3
demands must be temporarily increased; maintenance done during
periods of nonoperation.
3. Scheduled shutdown. Scheduled shutdowns or “turn around”
after operating for periods up to 2 years, or annually for 2 weeks with
operating labor on vacation and maintenance labor doing inspection,
repair, and replacement work on the plant.
4. Unscheduled shutdowns. Interruption in scheduled operation due to
lack of raw materials, labor strikes, failure of utilities such as power and
water, fire and explosions, and extreme weather conditions, or most prob¬
ably equipment failure. In starting up new plants, this latter factor
should be taken into account as an estimated per cent onstream time for
at least the first year.
The names of shifts encountered in the chemical industry are:
1. First or day shift (e.g., 7 a.m. to 3 p.m.)
2. Second, evening or swing shift (e.g., 3 p.m. to 11 p.m.)
3. Third, midnight or graveyard (e.g., 11 p.m. to 7 a.m.)
Increased pay is allowed for the second and third shifts (see Table 6-15).
Operations can be on a permanent or rotating shift basis, depending on
plant policy and local labor conditions. Shift rotation usually occurs
every 2, 3, or 4 weeks.

Example of a Process Design Project

The market analysis staff of Company X, a medium-sized organic

products company, has recommended to its management gioup that
there was some chance to diversify their product line by developing a
pesticide. The research and development staff suggest that benzene
hexachloride (BHC) might be a good possibility. It can be sold in the
so-called crude form which contains 12 to 15 per cent of the active pesti¬
cide 7 isomer of BHC, or it can be marketed as the concentrated product
Lindane (99 per cent 7 isomer of BHC). Market analysis showed that
an annual production of 1,200,000 lb of crude BHC or up to -.>0,000 lb 0
Lindane could be easily sold without undue competition Management
would like to compare the economics of crude BHC and
tion before making the final decision to invest money m a manufactun g
plant. This requires process design study followed by a piecons rue 1011
ermt estimate and profitability analysis.
For the purpose of teaching process design, only the complete develop¬
ment of the process for producing crude BHC will be illustrated in tins
text. A similar procedure can be used ^

* SXZ - relative merits of the

two projects.
 CHAP. 3] PROCESS DESIGN 43

A statement of the chemical process for the production of crude benzene

hexachloride is specified by the research and development group as
follows:
Chemical Process Considerations.1 The production of benzene hexa¬
chloride is to involve the reaction of gaseous chlorine with liquid benzene
at the refluxing temperature in the absence of actinic light and substitu¬
tion catalysts but in the presence of water. The reaction is to be carried
out on a continuous basis in a glass-lined reactor fitted with a refluxing
system; conversion of the chlorine is expected to be 99 per cent and the
reactor product should consist of about 33 per cent benzene hexachloride
dissolved in chlorobenzenes and unreacted benzene. The crude product
is to be continuously removed for further processing. The accompanying
21.5 per cent muriatic acid layer should be decanted and further concen¬
trated to the salable 36 per cent acid. The concentration is to be accom¬
plished in a Karbate stripping column which produces a bottoms of 20 per
cent HC1 solution. Since this bottoms product is not salable as such and
since the HC1 cannot be stripped farther without the use of excessively
high pressures, it is to be recycled into the chlorinator for reconcentra¬
tion.
The organic layer is to be neutralized with 1 per cent NaOH solution
and then concentrated to 56 per cent BHC by evaporation of some of the
volatile ingredients in a flash still. The overhead from this still is largely
benzene and monochlor benzene which are separated by fractionational
distillation. The benzene is recycled and the monochlor benzene is to be
sold as a by-product. A large fraction of the benzene hexachloride is to
be crystallized out in a double-pipe “chiller” and the crystals removed by
means of a continuous centrifuge. The filtrate is to be recycled to a flash
still tor reconcentration.
The crystalline BHC product is to be dried in a rotary vacuum drver
equipped with a solvent recovery system. The recovered solvents from
vanous operations are to be combined and fractionated. The overhead
dKt'flate consisting primarily of benzene is to be reused in the process
tieas the chlorobenzol solvents in the bottoms are to be stored for sale
ns ciude monochlorobenzene.

Laboratory and Pilot Plant Data and Specifications

1. Raw materials specifications-

s.'sis rssr
^ ater catalyst, demineralized process water
•*.
Sodium hydroxide, flake, 98 per cent NaOH

1 F. L. (iradishar, Dissertation, Department of ri • , „ .

1 olytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va, ( hemical Engineering, Virginia
44 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 3
2. Chlorinator conditions:
Reaction temperature: 70°C
Chlorine conversion: 99 per cent
3. Characteristics of organic product layer from chlorinator:

Composition Weight per cent

Benzene. 58.85
Water. 0.31
Monochlorobenzene. 7.08
Benzene hexachloride (BHC fraction):
Alpha. 23.44
Beta. 2.04
Gamma. 4.22
Delta and cogeners. 3.55
Heptachlorocyclohexane. 0.26
Trichlorobenzene. 0.15
Hydrogen chloride. 0.10
Total. 100.00

Specific gravity at 70°C: 1.034

4. Characteristics of aqueous layer from chlorinator:

Composition Weight per cent

24.60
Acid (as HC1).
0.22
C6H6.
0.13
Cl*.
75.05
..
1.0975
Specific gravity at 70°C.
5. Neutralizer conditions:
96.9% NaOH
Purity of caustic.
100.0%
% excess of caustic used.
Concentration of NaOH in neutralizing solution 1.0%
Spent caustic characteristics:
0.2%
C6H6.....
G. Solvent fractionation still conditions:

Overhead composition reight per cent

99.48
..
0.52
..

Weight per cent

Bottoms composition
0.10
..
99.64
.. 0.23
.. 0.03
c.h,ci....
7. Solubility data for chiller-centrifuge calculations.
At 30°C: 28.3 g of crude BHC in 100 g total mixture
At 70°C: 76.0 g of crude BHC in 100 g total mixture

8. Dryer data:
Volatile content of solids from centrifuge. . %
 PROCESS DESIGN 45
CHAP. 3]
Analysis of volatiles Weight per cent

C6H6. 570
C6H5C1. 29 3
CeHsCCls. 13 0
H20. 07

Analysis of recovered solvent from dryer Weight per cent

C6H6. 67.5
C6H5C1. 31.7
HoO. 0.8
Volatile content of solids leaving dryer. 0.5%
9. General specifications of BHC product:
Grade: technical
Guaranteed gamma isomer content: 12.5%
Color and form: slightly discolored crystals
Odor: minimum
Volatiles: less than 0.5%
Containers: 100-lb fiber drums
Average analysis of product:
BHC fraction
Benzene hexachloride
Alpha.
Beta.
Gamma.
Delta and cogeners.
Heptachlorocyclohexane.
Monochlorobenzene
Trichlorobenzene. ... n \ or
. u • ^ /o
r°tal. 100.0%
10. Heat of chlorination:

CeH6 -|- 3C12 * CeHeCU -f- 107.4 kcal/g mol

Cell® -)- CI2 —> C6H5C1 + HC1 -f- 24 kcal/g mol

11. Average specific heat of BHC = 0.211 cal/(g)(°Q

12. Vapor-pressure data:
Benzene hexachloride1

Temp., °C... 323.4 176.2 113.0

Pressure, mm Hg 7 GO 100 10 0.36

13. Temperature at critical points:
Chlorinator: 70°C
Decanter: G5°
Neutralizer: 60°C
Flash still equilibrium operating temperature: 100°C
Liquor from chiller: 30°C
Raw materials input: 30°C
IteHux from chlorinator overhead condenser: :i0°C

Chemical Pl'ys"'al Properties of Chemical Substances,” sec. 13-15, Dow

46 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3
Dryer: 60°C
Cooling water available at 25°C
Room temperature: 25°C
14. Pressure conditions:
Kss( ntially atmospheric conditions for all process equipment except vacuum dryer
which operates at about 20 in. Hg vacuum
15. Available steam-line pressures:
15-lb gauge (121°C), latent heat: 945 Btu/lb
75-lb gauge (160°C), latent heat: 895 Btu/lb
16. Other necessary data:
Data not listed above are available in handbooks

Qualitative Block-type Process Flow Sheet

The next step for the design engineering group is to translate the written
description of the chemical process into a working pattern. It might be
well at the outset to explain that this working pattern can be developed
in a number of ways. Each industry, each company, and each indi¬
vidual designer has a somewhat different approach to process design,
particularly when it comes to pictorial representation of the design data.
We can present in this text only a few of the possible ways of working
out a process design. The main points that a student should realize
are that the design should be (1) technically sound, (2) on a reasonable
basis, and (3) clearly pictured.
An examination of this process description for manufacturing benzene
hexachloride and the supporting data shows that the principal chemical
reaction is that of chlorine addition.

Absence of actinic rays

and substitution catalysts
C6H6(/) + 3C12(0) - ---—> CeHeCle
Presence of H2O, 10 C Benzene hexachloride
Benzene Chlorine
or cyclohexane, 1,2,-
3,4,5,6-hexachlorine

The working pattern for this process is put down on paper by drawing
rectangular boxes and inserting the types of physical and/or chemical
operations that take place, together with a description of the streams
entering and leaving the box. The result is a qualitative block-type
process flow sheet or flow diagram. Figure 3-1 illustrates this prmcip e.
The process engineer now has a better idea of the over-all process and
obtains an insight as to further data he might require.

Material Balance
 PROCESS DESIGN
47
CHAP. 3] rituur^o

production has been specified. A proposed operating schedule was

prepared as follows:
Proposed Operating Schedule. The process as planned and developed
is essentially continuous; hence, it would be highly desirable to operate
with as few shutdowns as are consistent with good employee relations.

RAW MATERIALS PROCESSING PRODUCTS

Fig. /5-1 Qualitative block-type process flow sheet for continuous production of

ofetheenprocer)'^ {NOle! THiS Sh°WS b°th thc <=>“> “d Physical'operations

wee^Tlf beS,t’ theref°[e’t0 °Perate the Plant 24 hr per day, 5 days per
half nov f el"P'°yeeS WlU work an 8'hr day, 5-day week with time-and-a-
half pay for all necessary overtime and holiday duty. A 2-week unitized
vacation period will be allotted the employees during the 2-week period
48 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3

(D-5) Concentrated HC1 receiver

(A-l) Benzol transfer pump
(D-6) Concentrated HC1 pump
(A-2) Benzol storage tank
(D-7) Concentrated HC1 storage
(A-3) Benzol feed pump
(D-8) Acid recycle pump
(A-4) Demineralizer
(E) Crude product pump
(A-5) Chlorine evaporator
(F-l) Caustic make-up tank
(B-l) Chlorinator
(F-la) Caustic make-up agitator
(B-2) Reflux condenser
(F-2) Caustic transfer pump
(B-3) Vent gas separator
(F-3) Caustic storage tank
(C) Decanter
(F-4) Caustic feeder
(D-l) Dilute acid receiver
(F -5) Neutralizer
(D-2) Acid still feed pump
(F-6) Spent caustic separator
(D-3) Acid stripping still
(G-l) Flash still feed pump
(D-4) Acid still condenser
Fig. 3-2. Equipment flow sheet
(G-2) Flash still (K-l) Dry BHC hopper
(G-3) Flash still condenser (K-2) BHC packaging
(G-4) Solvent receiver
(K-2a) BHC storage
(H-l) Crystallizer feed pump
(L-l) Solvent still feed pump
(H-2) Crystallizer
(L-2) Solvent still
(1-1) Continuous centrifuge
(L-3) Solvent still condenser
(1-2) Recycle liquor receiver
(L-3a) Condensate cooler
(1-3) Wet crystal hopper
(L-4) Wet benzol receiver
(J-l) Rotary vacuum dryer
(L-5) Wet benzol pump
(J-_) Vacuum condenser and receiver
(M-l) Monochlor pump
(J-3) Vacuum pump
(M-la) Monochlor cooler
(J-4) Recovered solvents pump
(M-2) Monochlor storage

of the benzene hexachloride plant.

50 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3
that includes Christmas and New Year’s Day. Major repairs to the
plant will be performed during the vacation period by the maintenance
group.
On the basis of the above decisions, a summary of the operations and
production schedule is presented below. (Start-up and shutdown time
are neglected in the calculations.)

Annual output: 1,200,000 lb of BHC

Operation: 3 shifts (8 hr each) per day; 40-hr week; 10-day vacation,
unitized
Operating days per annum: 250 days
Designed daily production: 4,800 lb ol BHC
Designed hourly production: 200 lb of BHC

A convenient time basis for the material flow is 1 hr, unless the main
flow quantities prove too small or an accurate balance on impurities is to
be carried out. Such was the case with the example problem and so a
24-hr basis was chosen. The main requirement is to set a reasonable time
basis which gives meaningful values for all flow quantities.
To obtain a systematic organization of the material balance lor a
complex process of this type, a tentative equipment flow sheet was pre¬
pared (Fig. 3-2). This was coded by letter for each key operation, ioi
example, B for chlorination, D for acid concentration, etc. All tie
equipment conveniently associated with the key operation wasi num-
bered, for example, B-l, B-2, etc. A study of this diagram will be helpful
in following this particular plan of execution. ,
The equfpment pictured may not represent the final choice as subse¬
quent material and energy balances could reveal that a certain >1»'
equipment was not technically feasible to carry out the desned P«oce

?t The material balance calculations were carried out and feted in the

injfTnd' flov^-leai/ing1 qusLitftiesfS e^®,^CU*j*|,0^°^QgggS'^sign*classt

srtzzzzssz qt px- ~ -
industrial stoichiometry and process calculations.
CHAP. 3] PROCESS DESIGN 51

Material Balance (basis: 4,800 lb of technical BHC per 24-hr day).

All data are given in avoirdupois pounds.
A-l. Benzol transfer pump

Entering Leaving
From benzol tank car To benzol storage tank, A-2
Ceth. 2,019 C6H6. 2,019
c7h8. 10 C7H8. .10
Total. 2,029 Total. 2,029

A-2. Benzol storage tank

Entering Leaving
From benzol transfer pump, A-l To benzol feed pump, A-3
c6h6. 2,019 C6H6. . . . 10,429
C7H8. 10 C7Hs. 10
Total. 2,029 Water. 44
From wet benzol pump, L-5
C6H6. 8,410
H20. 44
Total. 8,454
Total. 10,483 Total. .. 10,483

A-3. Benzol feed pump

Entering Leaving
From benzol storage tank, A-2 To chlorinator, B-l
C6H6. C6H6.
C7Hs. C'tII,.
Water. Water.
Total. Total.

-4. Demineralizer

Entering
Leaving
From process water supply To chlorinator Bl
Water. 589 Water. 589
Impurities. 0.2 To waste
Impurities. 0 2
Total.
589.2 Total.
589.2
A-6. Chlorine vaporizer

Entering
Leaving
From chlorine tank car
Cl,. 4,228
To chlorinator, B-l
Cl ..
4,228
52 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3
B-l. Chlorinator

Entering Leaving
From benzol feed pump, A-3 To decanter, C
C6H6. 10,429 Product layer
c7h8. 10 C6H6. 8,427
h2o. 44 CcH5C1. 1,013
Total. 10,483 C6HoC16
From chlorine vaporizer, A-5 Alpha. 3,355
Cl2. 4,228 Beta. 293
From demineralizer, A-4 Gamma. 605
H20. 589 Delta and cogeners. 509
Recycle from vent gas separator, B-3 C6H5C17. 38
Cl,. 10 H,0. 44
c6h6. 10,152 HC1. 14
C6H5C1. 222 C6H,C13. 21
C6H6C16. 13 Total. 14,319
H,0. 650 Aqueous layer
HC1. 587 H,0. 2,338

Total. 11,634 HC1. 778

From acid recycle pump, D-8 C6H6. 7
HC1. 447 Cl,. 4

H20.. 1,749 Total. 3,127

Total. 2,196 To reflux condenser, B-2

C6H6. 10,160
C6H5C1. 222
C6H6C16. 13
H.0. 650
HC1. 587
Cl2. 5?
Total. H>684
Total. 29,130
Total. 29,130

B-2. Reflux condenser

Leaving
Entering
To vent gas separator, B-3
From chlorinator, B-l
52 As vapor
Cl2. 42
10,160 Cl,.
C6H6. 8
222 CrHfi .
CeHoCl.
50
650
HoO.
587 As liquid
HC1. 10
13 Cl,.
CeHeGle. . . 10,152
C6H6.
222
CeHsCl.
13
CcHeCle.
650
H,0.
HD . 587
.. 11,634
11,684
11,684
Total
 PROCESS DESIGN 53
CHAP. 3]
B-3. Vent gas separator

Entering Leaving
From reflux condenser, B-2 As vent gas
Cl2. 42
As vapor
Cl2. 42 CeHe.
_8
C6H6. J* Total. 50
Total. 50 To chlorinator, B-l
As liquid Cl2. 10
Cl2. 10 C6H6. 10,152
C6H6. 10,152 C6H5C1. 222
C6H5C1. 222 CeHeCle. 13
CeHeCle. 13 H20. 650
H20. 650 HC1. 587
HC1. 587 Total. 11,634
Total. 11,634
Total. 11,684 Total 11,684

C. Decanter

Entering Leaving
From chlorinator, B-l To dilute acid receiver, D-l
Product layer HoO. 2,338
C6H6. 8,427 HCI. 778
C6H5C1. 1,013 CeH6. 7
C6H6C16 Cl2. _4
Alpha. 3,355 Total. 3,127
Beta. 293 To crude product pump, E
Gamma. 605 CeHe. 8,427
Delta and cogeners 509 Celled. 1,013
CeH5Cl7. 38 CeHeCle
H20. 44 Alpha. 3,355
HC1. 14 Beta. 293
CeHaCla. 21 Gamma. 605
Total. 14,319 Delta and cogeners . . 509
Aqueous layer CeH5Cl7. 38
HoO. 2,338 HoO. 44
HC1. 778 HCI. 14
Celle. 7 CeHaCla.
Cl2. _21
4 Total.
Total.
14,319
3,127
Total. 17,446 Total....
17,446
H-l. Dilute acid receiver

Entering
Leaving
From decanter, C
To acid still feed pump, D-2
H20.
2,338 HoO.
HC1... 2,338
778 HC1.
CeHe. 778
7 CeH6..
Cl2.
Total....
4 Cl,.' 7
4
*. 3,127 Total....
3,127
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN
D-2. Acid still feed pump

Entering
Leaving
From dilute acid receiver, D-l
To acid stripping still, D-3
H,0. . 2,338 H >0 O OOO
HC1. 778 HC1
C6H6. 7 C r, II e.
Cl 2. 4 Cl, A
Total. . 3,127 Total.

D-3. Acid stripping still

Entering Leaving
From acid still feed pump, D-2 To acid recycle pump, D-8
IFjO. . 2,338 H20.
HC1. 778 HC1.
Cells. 7 Total.
Cl 2. 4 To acid still condenser, D-4
11,0. 589
HC1.
C6H6. 7
Cl2. 4
Total. 931
Total. . 3,127 Total.... 3,127

D-4. Acid still condenser

Entering Leaving
From acid stripping still, D-3 To cone. HC1 receiver, D-5
ICO. ... 589 II >().. 589
HC1. . . . 331 HC1.. 331
C 6 H r,. 7 CcH6.. 7
CD. 4 Cl2.. 4

Total. ... 931 Total.. 931

D-5. Cone. HC1 receiver

Entering Leaving
From acid still condenser, D-4 To cone. HC1 pump, D-6
H20. ... 589 H,0.. 589
HC1. . .. 331 HC1.. 331
Cell,,. 7 Celle.. 7
4 Cl,. 4
Cl ..
Total. ... 931 Total.. 931

D-6. Cone. HC1 pump

Entering Leaving
From cone. HC1 receiver, D-5 To cone. HC1 storage, D-7
TJ A 589 H,0. .... 589
TJAI 331 HC1. .... 331
A TT 7 Cells. 7
1 4 Cl,. 4

... 93l Total. .... 931

 PROCESS DESIGN 55
CHAP. 3]
D-7. Cone. HC1 storage

Entering Leaving

From cone. HC1 pump, D-6 Storage

H20. 589 H20. 589

HC1. 331 HC1. 331

C6H6. 7 C6Ho. 7
Cl2. _J Cl2. _J

Total. 931 Total. 931

D-8. Acid recycle pump

Entering Leaving
From acid still, D-5 To chlorinator, B-l
H20. 1,749 H20. 1,749
HC1. 447 HC1. 447

Total. 2,196 Total. 2,196

E. Crude product pump

Entering Leaving
From decanter, C To neutralizer, F-5
C6H6. 8,427 C6H6. 8,427
C6H5C1. 1,013 C6H5C1. 1,013
C6H6Clc C6H6C16
Alpha. 3,355 Alpha. 3,355
Beta. 293 Beta. 293
Gamma. 605 Gamma. 605
Delta and cogeners. 509 Delta and cogeners. 509
C6H5C17. 38 C6H5C17. 38
H>0. 44 H20. 44
HC1. 14 HC1. 14
C6H3C13. 21 C6H3C13. 21
Total. 14,319 Total. 14,319

F-l. Caustic make-up tank

Entering Leaving
Flake caustic storage To caustic transfer pump, F-2
NaOH. 31 NaOH. 31
Impurities. 1 Impurities. \
Total. 32
. 3,069
Process water supply
H2°. 3,069
Total. 3,101 Total.

F-2. Caustic transfer pump

Entering
Leaving
From caustic make-up tank, F-l
To caustic storage, F-3
NaOH. 31
NaOH. .
Impurities. j
Impurities.
H2°. 3,069 H ,0....
Total. 3,101 Total....
56 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3

F-3. Caustic storage

Entering Leaving
From caustic transfer pump, F-2 To caustic feeder, F-4
NaOH. 31 NaOH. 31
Impurities. 1 Impurities. 1
H2(). 3,0G9 II20. 3,069
Total. 3,101 Total. 3,101

F-4. Caustic feeder

Entering Leaving
From caustic storage, F-3 To neutralizer, F-5
NaOH. 31 NaOH. 31
Impurities. 1 Impurities. 1
H20. 3,069 H20. 3,069

Total. 3,101 Total. 3,101

F-6. Neutralizer

Entering Leaving
From crude product pump, E To spent caustic separator, F-6
8,427 Product layer
C6H6.
C6H5C1. 1,013 c6h6. .. 8,421
c6h*ci. . . 1,013
C6H6C16
Alpha. 3,355 C6H6C16
293 Alpha. . . 3,355
Beta.
Beta . 293
Gamma. 605
Gamma. 605
Delta and cogeners. 509
Delta and cogeners. . . . 509
C6H5C17. 38
C6H5Cl7. 38
44
h2o. 44
14 H,0 .
HC1. 21
21 C6H3C13.
C6H3C13.
14,319 Total. ... 14,299
Total.
Aqueous layer
From caustic feeder, F-4 3,07 6
3,069 H ,0 .
H20. 16
31 Nn OH .
NaOH. MoPI . 22
Impurities.
1
r’.w.
.. . 6
3,101
Total. 1
Impurities.
... 3,121
17,420
17,420 Total
Total
 PROCESS DESIGN 57
CHAP. 3]
F-6. Spent caustic separator

Entering Leaving
From neutralizer, F-5 To flash still feed pump, G-l
Product layer Product layer
C6H6. 8,421 CcHc. 8,421
CbH6C1. 1,013 C6H5C1. 1,013
C6H6C16 C6H6C16
Alpha. 3,355 Alpha. 3,355
Beta. 293 Beta. 293
Gamma. 605 Gamma. 605
Delta and cogeners. 509 Delta and cogeners. 509
C6H5C17. 38 CoIIaCl:. 38
HoO. 44 H20. 44
C6H3C13. 21 C6H3C13. 21
Total. 14,299 Total. 14,299
Aqueous layer To waste
H20. 3,076 H20. 3,076
NaOH. 16 NaOH. 16
NaCl. 22 NaCl. 22
C6H6... 6 C6H6. 6
Impurities. 1 Impurities. 1
Total. 3,121 Total. 3,121
Total. 17,420 Total. 17,420

G-l. Flash still feed pump

Entering Leaving
From spent caustic separator, F-6 To flash still, G-2
CeHc. 8,421 C6H6. 8,421
C6H5C1. 1,013 CeHsCl. 1,013
C6H6C16 C6H6C16
Alpha. 3,355 Alpha. 3,355
Beta. 293 Beta . 293
Gamma. 005
Gamma. 005
Delta and cogeners. 509 Delta and cogeners. 509
CeHjCG. 88 C6H5CI7. 88
H20. 44
H20. 44
C6H3C13. 2i
C6H3C13. 21
Total. 14,299
Total. 14,299
58 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3
G-2. Flash still

Entering Leaving
From flash still feed pump, G-l
Bottom to crystallizer feed pump, H-l
CeH6. 8,421 CeHe. 3,415
CfiHsCl. 1,013 CeHsCl. 1,847
C6H6C16 CeHoCU
Alpha. 3,355 Alpha. 3,817
Beta. 293 Beta. 299
Gamma. 605 Gamma. 1,413
Delta and cogeners. 509 Delta and cogeners. 1,188
C6H5C17. 38 C6H5C17. 89
H20. 44 H20. 24
C6H3C13. 21 C6H3C13. 61
Total. 14,299 Total. 12,153
From recycle liquor receiver, 1-2 Vapor to flash still condenser, G-3
C6H6. 3,331 C6H6. 8,337
C6H5C1. 1,803 C6H5C1. 969
C6H6C16 C6H6C16. 24
Alpha. 486 HoO. 43
Beta. 6 C6H3C13. 3
Gamma. 808 Total. 9,376
Delta and cogeners. 679
C6H5C17. 51
H20.'. 23
C6H3C13. 43
Total. 7,230
Total. 21,529 Total. 21,529

G-3. Flash still condenser

Entering Leaving
From flash still, G-2 To solvent receiver, G-4
C6Ilr,. . 8,337 C 6 H r,. . 8,337
c6h5ci. . 969 C6H5C1. . 969
CJieClo. . 24 C6H6C16. . 24
h2o. . 43 HoO. . 43
C6H3Cln. . 3
c6h3ci3. . 3
. 9,376 Total. . 9,376
Total.
 PROCESS DESIGN
59
CHAP. 3]

G-4. Solvent receiver

Entering Leaving
To solvent still feed pump, L-l
From solvent pump, J-4
8,420
Cell .. 83 C6H6.
39 CcHoCl. 1,008
C6H5C1.
1 C6H6C16. 24
H20.
m C6H3C13. 3
Total.
H20. 44

From flash still condenser, G-3

C6H6. 8,337
CeHsCl. 969
CeHeCle. 24
C6H3C13. 3
H20. 43
Total. 9,376
Total. 9,499 Total 9,499

H-l. Crystallizer feed pump

Entering Leaving
From flash still, G-2 To crystallizer, H-2
CcH6. 3,415 C6H6. 3,415
C6H6C1. 1,847 C6H5C1. 1,847
CeHeCU C6H6C16
Alpha. 3,817 Alpha. 3,817
Beta. 299 Beta. 299
Gamma. 1,413 Gamma. 1,413
Delta and cogeners. 1,188 Delta and cogeners. 1,188
C6H5C17. 89 CelGCly. 89
H20. 24 H20. 24
C6H3C13. 61 C6H3C13. 61
Total. 12,153 Total. 12,153

H-2. Crystallizer

Entering Leaving
From flash still, G-2 To continuous centrifuge, 1-1
C6H6. Celle. 3,415
CeHsCl. C6H5C1. 1,847
CeHeClo CeHeCle
Alpha. Alpha. 3,817
Beta. 299 Beta. 299
Gamma. . .
Gamma. 1,413
Delta and cogeners. .. 1,188 Delta and cogeners . . 1,188
C6H5C17.
CsHsCl,. 89
HoO.
HoO
cai ci,. P n pi
^6il3t>i3.
24
_61
Total.
Total. . 12,153
OO CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3
1-1. Continuous centrifuge

Entering Leaving
From crystallizer, H-2 To wet crystal hopper, 1-3
C6H6. 3,415 C6H6. 84
C6H5C1. 1,847 C6H5C1. 44
CeHeClg C6H6C16
Alpha. 3,817 Alpha. 3,331
Beta. 299 Beta. 293
Gamma. 1,413 Gamma. 605
Delta and cogeners. 1,188 Delta and cogeners. 509
C6H5CI7. 89 C6H5C17. 38
H20. 24 HoO. 1
C6H3CI0. 61 C6H3C13. 18
Total. 4,923
To recycle liquor receiver, 1-2
C6H6. 3,331
C6H5C1. 1,803
C6H6C16
Alpha. 486
Beta. 6
Gamma. 808
Delta and cogeners. 679
C6H5C17. 51
HoO. 23
C6H3C13. 43
Total. 7,230

Total. 12,153 Total. 12,153

1-2. Recycle liquor receiver

Entering Leaving
From continuous centrifuge, 1-1
C6H6. 3,331 c6h6. . . . . 3,331
C6H5C1. 1,803 C6H5C1. .... 1,803
c6h6cu
CcHeCU 486
486 Alpha.
Alpha.
Beta . 6
Beta. 6
r.dtnma . 808
Gamma. 808
Delta and cogeners. 679
Delta and cogeners. 679
CgH5C17. 51
C6H5C17. 51
HoO . 23
23
H20. 43
_43 GcHoCU .
C6H3C13.
.... 7,230
7,230
Total.
 PROCESS DESIGN 61
CHAP. 3]
1-3. Wet crystal hopper
Entering Leaving
From continuous centrifuge, 1-1 To rotary vacuum dryer, J-l
CeHeCle CcHeCU
Alpha. 3,331 Alpha. 3,331
Beta. 293 Beta. 293
Gamma. 605 Gamma. 605
Delta and cogeners. 509 Delta and cogeners. 509
C6H5C17. 38 CeHsCB. 38
C6H6. 84 C6H6. 84
C6H5C1. 44 C6H5C1. 44
C6H3CB. 18 C6H3C13. 18
H20. 1 h2o. 1
Total. 4,923 Total. 4,923

J-l. Rotary vacuum dryer

Entering Leaving
From wet crystal hopper, 1-3 To dry BHC hopper, K-l
C6H6C16 C6H6C16
Alpha. 3,331 Alpha. 3,331
Beta. 293 Beta. 293
Gamma. 605 Gamma. 605
Delta and cogeners. 509 Delta and cogeners. 509
C6H5C17. 38 C6H5C17. 38
CeFU. 84 C6H6. 1
CeHsCI. 44 C6HsC1. 5
C6H3C13. 18 C6H3C13. 18
H2(). 1
Total. 4,800
To vacuum condenser and receiver, J-2
HA). !
C<iH6. 83
C6H5C1. 39
Total. 123
Total. 4,923
Total. 4,923
J-2. Vacuum condenser and receiver

Entering
Leaving
From rotary vacuum dryer, J-l
To recovered solvent pump J-4
C6H6. 83 C6Hg.
C6H5C1. 83
39 C6H5C1.
HoO.' 39
_1 H20. ^ '
Total. _1
123 Total.
123
J-3. Vacuum pump1

Entering
Leaving
Air leakage (estimated). 10 cfm Air leakage
10 cfm
‘ A" atmosPhe™ condenser may be required beyond the
vacuum pump.
62
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 3
J-4. Recovered solvent pump

Entering Leaving
From receiver, J-2 To solvent receiver, G-4
CeH6. 83 C6H6. 83
C6H5C1. 39 C6H5C1. 39
HoO. 1 HoO. i
Total. 123 Total. 123

K-l. Dry BHC hopper

Entering Leaving
From rotary vacuum dryer, J-l To BHC packaging and storage, K-2
C6H6C16 C6HgC16
Alpha. 3,331 Alpha. 3,331
Beta. 293 Beta. 293
Gamma. 605 Gamma. 605
Delta and cogeners. 509 Delta and cogeners. 509
C6H5C17. 38 C6H5C17. 38
C6H6. 1 C6H6. 1
C6H5C1. 5 C6H5C1. 5
C6H3C13. 18 C«H8C1,. 18
Total. 4,800 Total. 4,800

K-2. BHC packaging and storage

Entering Leaving
From dry BHC hopper, K-l Packaged and stored
C6H6C16 C6H6C16
Alpha. 3,331 Alpha. 3,331
Beta. 293 Beta. 293
Gamma. 605 Gamma. 605
Delta and cogeners. 509 Delta and cogeners. 509
C6H5C17. 38 C6H5C17. 38
C6H6. 1 C6H6. 1
C6H5C1. 5 C6H5C1. 5
C6H3C13. 18 C6H3C13. 18

Total. 4,800 Total. 4,800

L-l. Solvent still feed pump

Entering Leaving
From solvent receiver, G-4 To solvent still, L-2
8,420 C6H6. 8,420
C6H6.
1,008 C6H5C1. 1,008
C6H5C1.
24 C6H6C16. 24
CeHeCle. 3
3 C6H3C13.
c6h3ci3. 44
44 H20.
h2o.
9,499 Total. 9,499
Total.
 PROCESS DESIGN 63
CHAP. 3]

L-2. Solvent still

Entering Leaving
From solvent still feed pump, L-l Tops to solvent still condenser, L-3
C6H6. 8,420 C6H6. 8,410
CeH^Cl. 1,008 H20. 44
C6H6C16. 24 Total. 8,454
C6H3C13. 3
H20. 44
Bottom to monochlor pump, M-l
C6H6. 10
C6H5C1. 1,008
C6H6C16. 24
C6H3C13. 3
Total. 1,045
Total. 9,499 Total. 9,499

L-3. Solvent still condenser

Entering Leaving
From solvent still, L-2 To wet benzol receiver, L-4
C6H6. 8,410 C6Hc. 8,410
H20. 44 H20. 44
Total. 8,454 Total. 8,454

L-4. Wet benzol receiver

Entering Leaving
From solvent still condenser, L-3 To wet benzol pump, L-5
C6H6. 8,410 CeH6. 8,410
H20. _44 H20. 44
Total. 8,454 Total. 8,454
L-6. Wet benzol pump

Entering Leaving
From wet benzol receiver, L-4 To benzol storage tank, A-2
C6H6. c6h6 o a i rv
II20. h2o . A i

Total.
Total
M-l. Monochlor pump

Entering
Leaving
From solvent still, L-2
lo monochlor storage, M-2
c6h6.
c6h«
C6HbCl.
c6h5ci
C.H.C1,.
CsHeCle.
C6H3C13
CeH3Cl3.
Total.... rP aIo 1
. 1,045
64
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 3

RAW MATERIALS PROCESSING BY-PRODUCTS

Fig 3-3 Material balance flow sheet. Production of 4,800 lb of technical benzene
hexachloride per 24-hr day. All values given in pounds.
 65
PROCESS DESIGN
CHAP. 3]
M-2. Monochlor storage
Leaving
Entering
From monochlor pump, M-l Stored
CflH6...
10
C6H6. 10
C6H5C1. 1,008
C6H,C1. 1,008
24
CeHfiCle. 24 C6H6C!6
3 C0H3CI3 _3
C6H3Cl3.
1,045 Total 1,045
Total.

Material Balance Flow Sheet

A summary of the information obtained from the preceding calculations

has been entered on the quantitative flow sheet of Fig. 3-3.

receiver
Fig. 3-4. Material balance flow sheet for a section of the benzene hexachloride process
—includes equipment and instrumentation. process
66
Fig. 3-5. Material balance flow sheet for a section of the benzene hexachloride process—shows tabular presentation of stream
components.
 67
CHAP. 3] PROCESS DESIGN

Several alternative methods for presenting material balances in graphic

form will be mentioned. Figure 3-4 shows a method where all the stream
components and weights are placed at the proper location on the ow
diagram. There is only a section of the entire process shown here. 1 his
method has utility for very simple process flow sheets, but it can be seen
that a rather cumbersome method of presentation results when t e
number of stream components is large.

25° 35°

Fig. 3-6. Energy balance flow sheet for a section of the benzene hexachloride process.

Io av oid this difficulty and to provide for easier checking of the mate-
rial balance at intermediate points in the plant, a third method is pre¬
sented in I ig. 3-5. The equipment and flow streams are coded by the
diagram drawn on the right-hand side with components listed in vertical
columns on the left-hand side. Each stream is identified by two equip¬
ment code numbers. For example, A5 - Bl means the flow from the
ci oime vaporizer A5 to the chlorinator Bl. Balancing of the material
flows can be made by summing and comparing input and output data at
68 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3

Heat Pumps Filters-Kelly,

piston or plunger Sweet/ond or -y- Sprays or
exchanger inlets
Vallez
and gos or
centrifugal liquid
Water Rotary
cooler Compressors filters JL
open and 1
piston and Absorber
j* enclosed
Steam
heater -o~
turbo types T X
Injector, Stripper
mWtf Wax press
. jet blower, '~x— or filter T
Reboiler or ejector
Plote and ^ * Fractionating
IAIR
Piping frome filter tower
Condensers -H crosses press
water Valve or cock [and many
and air Percolotion modifications)
3-way valve
or day filter
3
i-1 , Cooling
coils Liquid Bubble trays

T
or plotes
_air water X mixers Centrifuge
i-1 ond air ond
mixer

Jet
tanks

Agitator
FH Side-to -side
pans

condenser t or
fX GOS and/or
| -> water
<-Heater coil ^t separator
Tonks Jacketed
kettle
Vertical cyi «y.
^X Settlers

or Shell still
(1

(^)
I) Horiz. cyi

Pressure
Q Reaction
or
or vessels
vertical
and
_ cotolyst
_^j ‘ d horizontal
chambers
id a
Pipestills Boiler
1 a 2 coils Pressure
(ond <tr Barometric
ond steam
$> gages

:n; mony other

modifications) v
^ Wax sweater
jets Level
indicators

Fig. 3-7. Equipment symbols. (Courtesy of W. L. Nelson, Oil Gas J., Dec. 9, 1944.)

each point in the process flow sheet. In some cases, volumetric flow
tabulations can be incorporated.
Supplementary reference material can be shown on the same o\\
sheets. These include density, molecular weight, and specific and latent

heat.

Energy Balance
After a thorough material balance has been worked out, the mass quan-
UtfiTn I* uil to •» energy b.l.nce. Temper..,,,, end
 69
CHAP. 3] PROCESS DESIGN

pressure levels at various key points in the process, particularly at each

major piece of equipment, will serve as the guide m making the ea
balance. The results of these heat balances, usually in terms of Btu per

Symbol Description
Symbol Description
—L.
Lines crossing □ Rotometer
®— battery limit
Flow guantity or
New lines or revamp job displacement meter

Existing tines Sight flow indicator

-Underground tines
Pitot tube
-Battery limit
Flome arrestor
-Internot tines
—— Rupture disk in line
-.- Instrument tines
Rupture disk to
-D Wetd cop 2 atmosphere
-3 Screwed cop
T Burner
Reducer
Air trap
HHHh- Spool piece
SP
Removabte spool piece
HI—IH ond blind flanges © Bucket trap

—Ih^Hh- Reversible elbow

[serv. conn.)
□ Thermostatic trap

—ft— Line blind

13 Impulse trap

M
- 4 R.O.
- Figure "8" blind
—
7

t
Vacuum trap

•-II- Restriction orifice (flgd) Float trap

R.Q

-'!>- Restriction orifice [union)

s Sepo rotor
Removable type orifice

HH Line size orifice run Stm

Y
Increased orifice run Ejector, booster, et

Venturi meter Durion-type mixer

Fig. 3-8. Flow-sheet symbols, particularly for detailed equipment flow sheets
{Courtesy of The M. W. Kellogg Co., New York.)

unit time, can be made up in various types of flow-sheet forms as demon¬

strated for the material balance. Where convenient, major energy
lequirements are sometimes listed on the material balance flow sheets.
1 he complete energy balance calculations for the benzene hexachloride
process are left as an exercise for the students. A typical portion of the
process is shown in Fig. 3-6. Here, an energy balance around an exo¬
thermic chlormator is described with heat removal in a reflux condenser.
70 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 3
Symbol Description Symbol Description

Atmospheric exhaust head Blow-off valves

Y
Varec vent valve
Silencer
Relief valve

Gate valve Vacuum breaker

Atwood 3 Morrill straight

Globe vo/ve
thru relief valve on
exhaust steom (3 VE)
-c*i— Lubrotite valve
Electric motor
Check vo/ve operated valve
Air motor operated vo/ve
Stop check
Hydraulically
Plug vo/ve operated valve
Solenoid valve
-OEd— Non/ubricotedplug vo/ve

Quick opening valve Slide valve [air operated)

Slide valve
—A— Self-draining valve (hydraulicolly operated)
Slide valve
Chain operated valve (.manually operated)

Reel valve Butterfly valve

Quench valve 3-way control valve

Needle or V-port valve

Angle type control valve
Angle nonreturn valve
Control valve assembly
Angle valve
.Gate vo. or globe vo.

Angle check valve O Foot valve

Tempering valve
4-way valve (iTaco Type "A")
cso/csc CSO = car seal open
3-way valve — CSC - car sea! dosed
—

Fig. 3-8 (continued).

Engineering Flow Diagrams

The engineering flow diagrams consist of various types.
1. Simplified Equipment Flow Sheets. An example is given on the
right-hand side of Fig. 3-5 in symbol form. The interrelationships of
major items of process equipment are shown by line connections.
Useful equipment symbols are shown in Fig. 3-7. Other types of sym¬
bols are illustrated in Fig. 3-2. Drawing templates for some ot these
symbols are available.1 As mentioned previously, flow-sheet symbols
are not as yet standardized within the industry. Hence, symbols should
i Compass Instrument and Optical Co., New York.
CHAP. 3] PROCESS DESIGN 71

be chosen from the standpoint of clarity and simplicity with a fairly close
resemblance of the actual equipment employed in the field.
2. Detailed Equipment Flow Sheets. These may be required but are
not generally necessary for a preconstruction cost estimating design.

Symbol Description Symbol Description

—tX)1 Plugged valve •H*H*H* Air-cooled finned pipe

—IXll Blind connection - RAD. Radiator

rwu Hose connection (show
UH Unit heater
coupling only if by MWK)
Serv. conn. - service -l|||||||||||t—
connection; SO. = Fin heater
steam out
tm Blast coil
Y-type strainer
—Wv— Coil heater

j=i ■
Basket strainer
Cooler [box type)
Dup/ex bosket strainer

Flexible hose
T- type strainer (permanent)

T-type stroiner (temporary] Rotation joint

Vent
Expansion joint
Slurry type stroiner -<y- [external]
Drain
Expansion joint
Dual strainers
—•— [inferno/]
Omit on underground Splosh guard
water lines
D.F Drinking fountain
Filter

Filter with hood Water bubbler

R. R Adams Poro-stone
(=3 Eye wash fountain
air filter type "TR"
FT Shower head

Tubular coolers, Open drain

exchangers etc.
Y
Double type or fin type I c
cooler, exchange, etc. Material furnished by
others to be noted on
Stack for multiple units
drawing thus

Fig. 3-8 (continued).

These would include process piping, valving, drains, bypasses vents etc

useful JtZirS reqUirementS- SuCh sheets are

Sr:1
F* **»rir»r: rrboU, r for
72 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3

LEGEND EQUIPMENT
—■■■ Steam-traced line
- Process line, primory flow
4 Relief valve
Clean water sewer
Sym.

E-1A
Description Lee.

Crude charge exchanger B-1

Process line, secondary flow Acid sewer E-IB Crude charge exchc- zr B*1
-Steam ond exhaust lines 7:5. Temporary strainer E-1C Crude charge exchonger B-1
-Water line t.t. Tell tale E-2 Refrigeration exchanger A-t2
IX Gate valve, normally opened o Instrument E-3 Bottom charge exchonger B - 24
Gote valve, normally closed oo Fig."8" blind flonge F- 1 Water separator B- 2
Globe volve, normolly opened T.W. Thermo - well F-2 Acid contactor B- 3
C*d Globe valve, normolly closed M.H. Monhole F-3 Demulsifier pot B- 4
D> Check valve, normally operating C.S.O. Cor-sealed open F-4 Acid settler B - 32
►i Check valve, normolly not operating
P-1 Charge pump D- 1

77 TW
0-113-4" 0-114- 4”

Fig. 3-9. Detailed equipment flow sheet. K ourtesy

 PROCESS DESIGN
73
AP. 3]

>"- 300* P \ 6"* 9“

equipment
Sym. Description Loc. V vent
P-1 A Charge pump spore D-1

P-2 Isobutone charge pump D-2

P-3 General tronsfer pump D-2
P-4 Fresh ocid feed pump D-3
P-5 Tower bottoms pump D-4
D-4
T -/
P-5A Tower bottoms pump spare
P-6
T- 1
T-2
Water wosh pump
Depropanizer tower
Fractionation tower
D - 27
A-5
A- 14
r 17
16 ”1
rl6
"I
T-3 Distillation tower A- 25 h-
rl3
.12 <
*T7
“ "1
jg
0-141-6 Tg
8 —1
T7
i 6 —1
h5
V

0-142-6 i-f
-T -H
n 1_
T -OO-
H M.H. B
-140-4 i * e>J 1 1
0<H ^1s 1 > P-3
, I

y
V -
A :
4 -300*
?l?l V«"
P-| xl
CO LU. in
I
lJ _
1 1 - I 0-143-6" 1
" 1, * II" 1 1 1 1 0-144-6" II 1 12'
1 1 i 1 1 i i 0-111 -6" il
1 1 1 1 1 1 i BD-102-6" II 1 1
r L. 1 IIM ST-101 -4" Il 1 15"

-!_!__!__ 1 1 1 1 0-146-6" II 1 1 7^
1 1 1 | ve*
115-3“ 1 1 1 1 0-115-3“ il
114-4" II || ,,
1 1 l 0-114-4" II i 10.
< - J !| lt ii
!- 0-148-8 !l ^ 12
l 1 0-120-8“ II 13

1. P. Romeo, ('hem. Eng., 64(2): 256 (1957).]

74 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3

3. Instrumentation flow sheets are useful in determining the require¬

ments for process control and instrumentation. The Instrument Society
of America has pioneering standardization of instrumentation flow plan
symbols. These systems of nomenclature are illustrated in Tables 3-1

Table 3-1. Instrumentation: Letters of Identification*

Definition and Permissible Positions in Any Combination

Upper- First letter: Second letter: Third letter:

ease process variable type reading or additional
letter or actuation other function function

A Alarm Alarm
C Conductivity Control Control
D Density
E Element (primary)
F Flow
G — Glass (no measurement)
H Hand (actuated)
I Indicating
L Level
M Moisture
P Pressure
R Recording (recorder)
S Speed Safety
T Temperature
Viscosity Valve
V
W Weight Well

* Reproduced from ISA-RP5.1 by permission of the Instrument Society of America.

Note 1: When required the following may be used optionally as a first letter lor other
process> variables:
vaiiwwivu.

U A” may be used to cover all types of analyzing instruments.

cl uc uocu ter tuvu twi v ^
b. Readily recognized self-defining chemical symbols such as CO,, 02, etc., may
be used for these specific analysis instruments.
r The self-defining symbol “pH” may be used for hydrogen ion concentration.
Nol l Although not' a preferred procedure, when considered necessary , ,s P -
missible to insert a lower-case “r” after “F” to distinguish flow ratio. likewise,
lower-case “d” may be inserted after “T” or “P” to distinguish temperature diffe -
ence or pressure difference.

and 3-2 with recommended symbols shown in Tig. 3-10. Copies of the
olritting «. b, obtained » Bulletin ISA.RP5.1 fto,„ tin, =
ment Sooioty of Amotion, Fimburgh, F.nn.ylv.mm B .
discussion on the subject of instrumentation and control see Chap. .
In many cases, the instrumentation requirements can be mcorpo.a

r:;-".»- —- -
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Instrumentation: Complete General Identifications

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75
76 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3

BASIC INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS

Instrument process piping (Pressure,

differential, etc., connecting lead lines; All lines
also hydraulic actuating medium lines) to be
Instrument air lines i*--r*-*-
fine in
relotion
Instrument electricol leads to process
Instrument capillary tubing *-*-*-* piping

Locally Board
mounted mounted
Locally Board Locally Board
mounted mounted mounted mounted

O ©
Basic symbols for Basic symbols for Basic symbols for
instrument with combination instrument transmitter
single service and or device with two
function services orfunctions

£
Basic symbol Basic symbol for
OKI
Basic symbol 3-way Basic symbol
for diaphragm electrically for piston- body for safety
operated valve operated valve for any (relief) valve
motor valve
(solenoid or (hydraulic or valve
motor) pneumatic)

Basic symbol showing Basic symbol

Basic symbol Bosic symbol
pneumatic transmission showing pneumatic
for selt*octuated for manually
instrument (electric connection from
(integral) operated control
transmission same instrument to
requloting valve diophragm motor
except for type of
valve connection) valve

Fir,. 3-10. Recommended basic instrument symbols. (Reproduced from ISA-RP5.1 by

permission of the Instrument Society of America.)
authors 1 A simplified equipment flow sheet is made up in black and
white Mounted on top of these are transparencies which contain one
on each sheet, the detailed piping, the instrumentation and the auxiliaries
Each transparent sheet is lined with different color in . n ns mann
any or all of the flow sheets required for a complete engineering flow d.a-
gram can be observed separately or together.
4 .4 uxiliary flow sheets cover the auxiliary process requirements such
as steam, water, fuel, air, and other utilities. As with mstrumentatio ,
■ W. T. Butler, Kennecott Copper Corp., private communication, 195 .
 PROCESS DESIGN 77
CHAP. 3]

TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS FOR FLOW

t H I-' /-11-f

Displacement- Flow element (primary) Flow indicator

type flow meter [When no measuring differential type
instrument is provided) locally mounted

/-11-1

Flow recorder, Flow recorder, Flow recorder,

differential type, of rotameter pneumatic transmission,
mechanical transmission, or other transmitter local, receiver
locally mounted in-the -1 in e type mounted on board

Flow recorder, mechanical Flow recorder with

type, with direct connected pressure recording pen,
pressure recording pen, both elements pneumatic
locally mounted transmission, transmitters receiver mounted on
(Note thot in listing such a local, and receiver
combination item in specifications,
board and local
board mounted transmitter
etc., it would be written os FR-4
[Receiver should be written
and PR -2, thereby treating
os FR-5 and PR-2, and eoch
eoch element as separate entity) transmitter identified by
its own element)

Fig. 3-10 (continued).

it is possible on some jobs to combine auxiliaries on the same flow sheet

as the simplified equipment symbols. This was done by dashed lines in
i’tg. 3-4. One or more auxiliary flow sheets will be needed for more
complex jobs.

Equipment Selection

n re^'t ,°f- Coordinati“g materH energy, and engineering flow

diagrams, the design engineer is now in a position to select possible types

ma orU1itemm T " t ^ ^ °btain a C0St esti'»ate for Zh

in Chap. 4.' °“ °f pr°CeSS erlulP'»ent will be discussed next
78 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 3

TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS FOR LEVEL

Blind level controller, Level recorder, pneumatic

transmission,with board
internol type
mounted receiver, externol
type transmitter

Level recording controller,

Level indicating controller
and transmitter combined external type, pneumatic
transmission
with board mounted level
indicating receiver

Level recording controller and level

Level alarm, recorder, pneumatic transmission
internol type combined receiver board mounted

3-10 (continued).
 PROCESS DESIGN 79
CHAP. 3]

TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS FOR PRESSURE

Pressure indicator. Pressure recorder 2-pen pressure recorder,

locally mounted board mounted boord mounted, 1 - pen
pneumatic transmission

Pressure recording Pressure Self - actuated (integral)

controller, pneumatic alarm pressure regulating valve
transmission, with local
board mounted receiver

( prcA
-7**-1*— k 8 )
-
* ipr\

Pressure recording controller (differential)

pneumatic transmission; with pressure recorder
iShow controller directly
combined instrument board mounted
above diophrom if so
mounted)

Fig. 3-10 (continued).

80 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3

TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS FOR COMBINED INSTRUMENTS

r
i

Temperoture recording controller, Flow recording controller with

board mounted, resetting locally level record. Both elements
mounted flow indicating controller pneumatic transmission. Level
[Note thot "Control setting '' should be shown transmitter external type.
alongside airline to indicate cascade control) Combined receiver board mounted

Pressure recording controller,

Pressure recording controller with
board mounted, resetting
flow record. Both elements
locally mounted flow
pneumatic transmission, combined
recording controllers
receiver board mounted
Fig. 3- {continued).
 PROCESS DESIGN 81

TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS FOR TEMPERATURE

Temperature well Temperature indicator Temperature element

or thermometer (local) without connection to
instrument

—i-1
/ /
/ /
/ /
/
/

Temperoture indicating Temperature indicating Temperature recording

point connected to and recording point controller, board
multipoint indicator connected to multipoint mounted (electric
on board instruments on board measurement)

Temperature indicating Temperature controller

controller, filled system Temperature recording
of self-actuoted type controller and temperature
type, locally mounted
recorder, combined
instrument board mounted
Fig. 3-10 (continued).
82 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 3]

TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS (MISCELLANEOUS)

—r
/
/
/
/

Hond actuated pneumatic Conductivity recorder, pH recording

controller, board mounted, locally mounted controller,
with indication bgord mounted

lConveyor belt)

Speed recorder, Weight recorder, Viscosity recorder,

locally mounted locally mounted pneumatic transmission,
board mounted
{Element in sample flow line)

[.Paper machine)

\
o
\

Density recorder, Moisture recorder,

pneumatic transmission locally mounted
boord mounted
(Element in sample flow line1

Fig. 3-10 (continued).

 PROCESS DESIGN 83
CHAP. 3]

PROJECT

3-1. BASIC
Draw flow diagrams of assigned units or areas of maleic acid hydrazide production,
based upon literature search: (a) production of maleic anhydride; (b) purification of
maleic anhydride; (c) reaction for preparation of maleic acid hydrazide; (d) produc¬
tion of sodium hypochlorite; (e) production of hydrazine hydrate; (/) purification of
hydrazine hydrate; (g) purification of maleic acid hydrazide.

PROBLEMS

3-1. Blocked Qualitative Process Flow Sheet

Write all general equations involved; then sketch a simplified qualitative process
flow sheet with blocks for major unit operations, naming each block and including
chemical formulation at each station.

3-2. Simplified Equipment Flow Sheet

Repeat Prob. 3-1, except that equipment symbols at each station be substituted for
blocks, and that chemical compositions of each flow line be identified, and the chem¬
ical composition, with temperatures and pressures, be identified at each piece of
equipment.

3-3. Basic Material Balance

Organize a material balance based upon fundamental chemical and equipment
sequence; assume only pure reactants entering into the balance according to chemical
equations. Place information on flow sheets as shown in Fig. 3-4 or Fig. 3-5.

3-4. Basic Energy Balance

Using information developed in Prob. 3-3, make an energy balance and make up a
flow sheet such as shown in Fig. 3-6, or use tabular form as shown in Fig. 3-5.

3-5. Expanded Material Balance

Enlarge upon the material balance made in Prob. 3-3, including all closed-circuit
or loop flows, all impurities, all side reaction products, and new operations equipment
to dispose satisfactorily of all elements of flow and composition.

3-6. Expanded Energy Balance

Repeat Prob. 3-4, but use the information developed

in the expanded material
balance in Prob. 3-5.

3-7. Instrumentation Flow Sheet

of Pmbn3-h2e type °f inStrumentation for each Piece of equipment on the flow sheet

3-8. Auxiliaries Flow Sheet

I’raw a flow sheet basically similar to the flow sheet of Proh '1 9 k,,i i, *•.
utilities used instead of ehemicals or materials in each unit. ’ Substltute

3-9. Detailed Engineering Flow Sheets

struetl 3 through 9), con¬

ing layouts. Then draw detailed instrumental' entat,on’ equipment, and build-
sheets. (See Fig. 3-9 as a possible method.) ’ P‘Pmg’ ^ equ,Pm<®t !»y°ut flow
 CHAPTER 4

Selection of
Process Equipment and Materials

In Chap. 3, the methods used in selecting and pictorially representing

a chemical process were discussed. The next step in arriving at a pre¬
construction cost estimation and the eventual construction of a chemical
plant is the selection of (1) process equipment and (2) suitable materials
of construction for all parts of the plant. The important decisions to be
made in this type of work depend to some degree on engineering field
experience. For any large-scale plant design, the final choice is made
after critical review by seasoned process engineers. However, any well-
trained engineering student can apply his own background of know ledge
and common sense to make a reasonable selection. 1 his chaptei w ill
point out some of the procedures which can be employed to carry out the
job of selecting the best materials and equipment.

SELECTION OF MATERIALS

The design engineer who is responsible for selecting materials of con-

struction must have a thorough understanding of all the basic process
information available. He must be assured that the final choice of process
raw materials has been made and that he can work with these materia s
for laboratory corrosion testing. Unless this choice has been definitely
established, the materials of construction chosen lor certain parts o e
plant may be entirely unsuitable because of impurities which might
present in a different source of raw material. The selection of materials
Of construction can be logically planned with these points in mind.
84
 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 85
CHAP. 4]

Plan for Selection of Materials

Selection of materials is intimately connected with the design and
selection of proper equipment. A brief plan for studying materials of
construction is:

A. Preliminary selection:
1. Experience
2. Manufacturers’ data
3. Special literature
4. General literature
5. Availability
6. Safety; mechanical and physical properties
7. Preliminary tests by standard laboratory methods as check on deductions from
experience, literature, and opinion
B. Laboratory testing:
1. Revaluation of apparently suitable materials, with test pieces included in
laboratory runs of the proposed processes
C. Application of data and final selection:
1. Interpret laboratory results and other data in terms of plant operation, giving
consideration to
a. Presence of air in equipment
b. Possibility of impurities
c. Segregation of alloy constituents
d. Fabrication method
e. Avoidance of electrolysis
/. Effect of temperature
g. Effect of method of heating
h. Effect of agitation
2. Compare economic features of apparently suitable materials
a. Material cost
b. Production cost
c. Probable life
d. Lost-time costs
e. Cost of product degradation
/. Liability to special hazards
3. Determine need for semiworks check of data

Some of the items listed in the above plan

warrant discussion in more
detail.

Preliminary Selection

From the standpoint of the student in a plant design course the pre
is "h Urf .I® eCtl,°n °f materials based °n published literature references
IS about the only recourse he has to solving the problem Tn • f •

Book Company, i„o„ £?££££

86 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4
of information is Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed. The
tables appearing in this handbook are indexed below for ready reference.
Table 1. Chemical Resistance of Construction Materials; pp. 1461-1526.
Table 2. Resistance of Metals and Alloys to Corrosive Gases; p. 1526.
I able 3. Directory of Materials for Construction of Chemical Equipment; pp. 1527-
1538.
Table 4a. Materials of Construction—Base Metals; Physical Properties and Methods
of Fabrication; pp. 1539-1543.
Table 4b. American Iron and Steel Institute Standard Steels. Chemical Composi¬
tions; pp. 1543-1548.
Table 5. Precious Metals and Their Alloys; p. 1548.
Table 6a. Glass, Glass-lined, and Fused Silica Equipment; p. 1548.
Table 6b. Glass-lined and Enameled Steel; p. 1549.
Table 7. Chemical Stoneware, Porcelain, and Cements; p. 1549.
Table 8. Refractory Materials; p. 1549.
Table 9. Structural Carbon and Graphite; p. 1550.
Table 10. Physical Properties of Synthetic and Natural Rubber; p. 1551.
Table 11. Vulcanized Fiber; p. 1551.
Table 12. Wood for Chemical Equipment; p. 1552.
Table 13. Chemical Resistance of Gasket Materials; pp. 1554-1558.
Table 14. Concrete for Chemical-tank Construction; p. 1558.

Glass-lined equipment is used extensively by the chemical industry

because of its inertness to a great many chemicals. For this reason,
Table 4-1 is included in this text. As a general rule, glass-lined equip¬
ment is of the same order of magnitude costwise as the alloy or alloy-clad
equipment. It is particularly suitable for pharmaceutical processes
where trace impurities of metals in alloy construction may give trouble
in the final product. Extreme care in installing and maintaining glass-
lined equipment is required because of its poor resistance to mechanical
shock
A word of warning is necessary in the use of these tables. The choice
of materials by this method is a tentative one and should by no means
be considered as the final selection. The presence of impurities or gal¬
vanic corrosion effects can give entirely different results than predicted
by the tables. It is for this reason that the outlined plan shown on
page 85 stresses laboratory testing of possible materials o cons i uc ion
in contact with process materials. A procedure for testing can be fount
in Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 1
In some instances for an industrial design problem, the manufacture
of the equipment may have sufficient experience with the type of p.ocess
materials to render assistance in proper selection of materials.

Final Selection
Economic considerations have some part in the final selection ot ma e-
rJ, ."<1 such .kings ns MM M> Mini....... - M* - *•
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
87

Table 4-1. Pfaudler Glass-lined Equipment Application Chart*

Conden¬ Heaters Coolers Misc.

Heat exchangers sers

Industry
or
o
03
process L-.
o
O.
steps 03

o>>
<D
-Q

b£>
zn
oa

Nitration X X X
Sulfonation
Amination
Halogenation X
Oxidation X X
Hydrogenation
Alkylation
Esterification
Hydrolysis X
Polymerization
Solvent recovery X X X X X
HC1 X
H2SO4
HNO,
Acetic acidf
Acetic acidt X
Ethyl alcohol
Methyl alcohol
Butyl alcohol
Ethylene glycol
Amyl alcohol
Phenol X X
Amyl acetate
Acetone
Liquid gases X X X X
Soda ash
Caustic soda
Gas purification
Rosin and
turpentine X
Petroleum and syn.
rubber X
Rayon X
X
Pharmaceutical X X
Oils and fats X
Soaps
Paper and pulp X
By-product coke
Dyes and inter¬
mediates X X
Plastics and resins X X X X X
Sugar refinery
Food X X
Dairy X X
Brewery and distil¬
lery X X X X X X X
Diesel and gas X
engines X
Reduction gears X
Turbines
Machine tools
Steel mfging.
Power plants
Hydraulic presses
Refrigeration X
Compressors (gas) X X X X
X

33 •'TV S'IcES.Ip1”'
t Wood distillation.
ato”'" “ Wat'r; h'ate,S’ as well

X Synthetic.
X = recommended.
 (By permission of Lukens
o cS
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Co I' ■§■
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£ o>
£

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CO
Is- co <b <b
£ 5?
C/J
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^ Cb,
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C/J O •M - t
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K CO CO »o SS-
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<o

Fig. 4-1. Economics of stainless-steel cladding-—price comparisons covering ASME code construction.
N C\j
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£ O
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88
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 89

materials should not be overlooked. As an example of initial cost, the

relative prices of a selected group of fabricated equipment using various
materials of construction are: steel, 1.0; copper, 1.4; aluminum, 1.5;
lead, 1.6; type 304 stainless steel, 2.0; type 316 stainless steel, 2.3, mone
or nickel, 2.5; Inconel, 2.9; Hastelloy, 3.2. More detailed prices for
equipment are found in F igures 6-3 to 6-30.
In making a choice on this basis, the engineer is often faced with the
problem of where to use claddings or coatings over relatively cheap base
materials such as steel or wood. For example, a vessel requiring an
expensive alloy-steel surface in contact with the piocess liquid may be
built with the alloy itself or with a cladding of the alloy on the inside of a
carbon-steel structural material.
The data presented in Fig. 4-1 give a criteria for economic selection of
stainless-steel-clad construction. Similar data for other metals can be
obtained from cladding manufacturers.
Other examples of commercial coating for chemical process vessels

In the fabrication of pressure vessels, any comparison of clad steels versus the
corresponding solid high alloy must take into consideration the allowable stress
figures permitted in design. These stress allowances are established and published
under the ASME Code.
The comparisons shown on Charts 1 and 2 are based on the 1956 Revision of
Section 8 of the ASME Code for unfired pressure vessels. The clad-steel stress values
used are based on the use of the full thickness of the composite plate as permitted by
this Code. A factor of safety of 4 is used in all calculations.
Comparisons are made in the range of minus 20 to 100° and at 650, 800, and
900°F, and show the comparative merits of type A-285 Grade C flange quality,
A-212 Grade B firebox quality, and A-204 Grade C firebox quality, as backing steels
for the clad plate at each temperature. Comparisons are shown in each case for
both 10 and 20 per cent clad steels. The extra charge for the A-212 and A-204
backing steels is included in the clad-steel calculations where applicable.
All data on the charts is expressed as savings in dollars per ton in use of clad steel
of the types shown and with the backing steels shown at each temperature.
In the temperature range of 100 to 650°F, the allowable design stress values for
the steel backing plates remain constant, while those for the solid high alloy material
drop off gradually. Thus the comparative savings in clad steels over the solid
high-alloy materials in this temperature range will lie between the values shown on
the charts for minus 20 to 100° and for 650°.
In addition to the base price savings possible in the use of clad steel, these economies
are also obtainable:
Standard overweight tolerances are substantially less for clad steel than the com¬
parable plate of solid high alloy, including stainless steel and Inco alloys. This can
sTgm^rtrlnc^aLT"1"88 °" PkteS Mgh °™«ht represent
headfan™cwfnd.f.rsadTheeldS ff kSS expefnsive than solid hi«h all°y for such items as
CIS and cylinders. The difference in forming cost for large-aiameter heads retire
sents a considerable saving with clad steels. P
forVnn Ay solid,stai1niless-steel grades include the base extra of 6 cents per pound
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

include baked ceramic or glass coatings, flame-sprayed metal, hard rubber,

and many ot the organic plastics, the durability of coatings is some¬
times questionable, particularly where abrasion and mechanical wear
conditions exist. As a general rule, if there is little to choose between a
coated type versus a completely homogeneous material, a selection should
favor the latter material, mainly on the basis of better mechanical
stability.

SELECTION OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

The selection of the types and sizes of equipment for the process plant
requires considerable experience in this field to do the best job, particu¬
larly if the process is partially or completely new. If the process is an
established one or in operation elsewhere, then the task is chiefly one of
comparative calculations, scaling the equipment and accessories up or
down, and incorporating pertinent innovations and improvements that
past experience suggests. Any new process requires a complete study of
the unit operations and unit processes involved and then follows a selec¬
tion of the types and sizes of equipment required for guaranteed per¬
formance. It is true that the selection of the best equipment is a difficult
yet surmountable job for a student taking a process design course where
the process engineering is completely new. He will generally be without
benefit of a thorough pilot plant study or be seasoned by field experience.
However, he has the advantage of being freshly acquainted with the
theory and calculations of unit operations. He can set up cost equations
and determine optimum design,1 a procedure frequently omitted for
preliminary cost estimations. 13 y suitable backgiound reading in this
chapter and other equipment books plus good design calculations, he
can do an excellent job of equipment selection. The engineeiing student
should bear in mind that this procedure of design and selection with
lack of complete pilot data and experience is common practice for any
new process of industry. Competence and success in this area of engi¬
neering is a goal worth achieving.

Equipment Selection Procedures

After the engineer has listed the equipment requirements from engineer¬
ing flow sheets and made the necessary design calculations, he prepares a
Inc., New York,
1 J. Happel, “Chemical Process Economics,” John Wiley & Sons,

1 T o. Osburn and K. Kammermeyer, “Money and the Chemical Engineer,

Frentme-Han^nc^Engle^ood^Cnd for Chemical Engineers,” McGraw

H ^nSonomies,” McGraw-Hill Booh Company,

Inc., New York, 1955.

 CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS HI

specification form for each major piece of equipment using standard

equipment if possible. If outside bids are required, detailed specification
sheets must be presented to suppliers, as discussed later in this chapter.
Standard forms are frequently available from individual vendors or from
manufacturers’ associations.
If the design is to be used only for preconstruction cost estimation and
plant layout work, a standard specification sheet as shown in Table 4-2
is useful, either in part or as a whole. It is particularly suited for sum¬
marizing process equipment calculations in a plant design course.

Table 4-2. Equipment Specification Summary Sheet for

Preconstruction Cost Estimating

1. Code No_on Flow Sheet No._ 2. Date_

3. Name of equipment:_
4. Type:-:_
5. Number required:_
0. Process materials handled (type, composition):_
7. Operating conditions: Temp._Pressure_
Design throughput (mass or volume/unit time):_
8. Volumetric capacity (gal or ft3):_
9. Dimensions: Ht.-Width or diam._Length_Floor area_
10. Principal design dimension (filtering, heat transfer, on screening area, conveyor
length, etc.)____
11. Recommended materials of construction:____
12. Piping requirements: Inlet size (NPS)_Outlet size (NPS) _
Other fittings:_____
Special piping hardware (relief and check valves, snubbers, etc.):_

Materials of construction:_
13. Instrumentation requirements:
Estimated cost (installed) __
14. Utility requirements:
Electric motors: type_ ujj

Other electrical equip.: type

kva
Steam:___psi -lb /hr
Gas:-ft3/hr Compressed air _ ft3/hr
Cooling water:_ 3F max temp._
15.
gph
Construction details: _ _
16. Possible suppliers:
17. Estimated operating labor required:
18.
Cost estimation summary [see Eq. (6-1)]
Reference source___
Date of reference_
Price index type
Price index value (/*)_
Their cost (Ck) ______
Basis-purchased or installed
Present cost calculation:
Date computed_
Price index value (Ix) __
Vour computed cost
Installation cost_ -- Basis-purchased or installed
19. Remarks Total installed cost
92 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

The cost estimating section of Table 4-2 will be explained in Chap. 6.

Use of published costs and adjusted prices is recommended for student
design problems since it avoids antagonizing equipment manufacturers
with student inquiries on equipment for hypothetical plants.
Some of the material which follows points out industrial methods of
equipment selection where manufacturer contact and bidding are involved.
This is inserted for completeness and to orient young engineers just
starting out in this work.

Standard versus Special Equipment

-size
The value of using standard equipment such as pumps or stock-o^
heat exchangers is well recognized in the chemical engineering field. Per¬
formance and service are demanded from all equipment; mistakes in
judgment are hazardous—and inexcusable—if service data on like equip¬
ment for a similar or related process are available. The experience of
others is quite valuable and should be used as lully as possible. Since
the good will of the chemical engineer is the aim of all equipment manu¬
facturers, they are desirous of giving service. Much valuable information
for the solution of problems is ready for the asking, available from manu¬
facturers who see possibilities of placing orders for equipment. However,
they are equally anxious not to enter a field or process wherein they find
that their equipment will not give satisfactory service.
Although it is a chemical engineering axiom to select standard equip-
ment whenever possible, oftentimes the engineer is confronted with the
situation in which his problem requires a special design and probably the
use of special materials. In such cases he must draw upon his training
and experience to design the requisite equipment. To do this need not
awe any designer; he has his specifications; he understands the rules o
machine designing; all he needs to do is to apply himself to the task of
converting his specifications into a line picture or workshop drawing
which the shopmen can convert into a three-dimensional piece of equip¬
ment. Much of the equipment for materials handling a ™
processes is standardized and, whenever such equipment will se ve the
purpose it should be selected in preference to special designs^ y
will the first cost be substantially lower, but the duplication of equipment
and the making of repairs on old equipment will be made muc \“asIC '
One should assure himself that he has completely ex aus e e V
literature for his requirements before he embarks on the design of spec

equipment. Standard ^^^^^“eSs aTd gone through long

its original design, f'f .. standard

IS-"!"— usually been given .be M-*«•*
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

in its designing. Under such circumstances, the manufacturers can and

do deliver equipment under a guarantee of satisfactory performance. A
new design is as much an experiment for the user as for the designer;
it must stand up under use to acquire recognition for the giving of service.
But when the engineer finds himself in a situation demanding the design
of new equipment, he should have no hesitancy about executing the
commission.

Specifications

Before one makes a search of the “Chemical Engineering Catalog”

and the trade literature files, or before he corresponds with manufacturers

Table 4-3. Fractionating Column Specifications

Required: Two (2)

Tyte and Size:
Supply., one still-pot, fractionating column, complete with dephlegma-
tor condenser, all accompanying piping, gauges (pressure and vacuum), and ther¬
mometers. The unit is to be used for pilot plant study and shall conform to the fol¬
lowing specifications:
1. No. of plates: 20
2. Plate spacing: 8 to 10 in.
3. Type plates: bubble cap—skirt
4. Column diameter (inside): 12 in.
5. Still-pot heating surfaces: approx. 16 sq ft
6. Still-pot volume: approx. 30 gal
The unit shall be built to stand operation under a maximum vacuum of 15 in. Hg.
The still pot shall be jacketed for steam heating where pressures will not exceed
150 psig.
All the plates shall be built to stand operation equipped with sampling cocks for
withdrawal of samples, and affording complete drainage when desired.
A weir or other suitable flow-measuring device shall be provided for measure of
reflux ratio, in the range of from 2 to 6 gph (liquid sp gr, 1.12). The weir will be
calibrated by the purchaser.
All necessary supporting structures shall be supplied by manufacturer, along with
two receiving tanks, each of approx. 20 gal capacity.
Materials:
Of construction:
1. All metals contacting liquids or vapors shall be Type 304 stainless steel.
2. All gasketing shall be neoprene.
Handled:

1 ^ and other chlorinated hydrocarbons. Approx. 80 lb/hr is to be

handled as product; bottoms are to be approx. 10 lb/hr
Installation:

l rut is to be installed by purchaser. Assembly by the rnanufartnmr + k

DEa:!vECB°vmPlete “ P0SSib,e' “d S“ipment Sha“ -ntain 'iensZ“re “ ‘° * “

Immediate to 30 days delivery.
Allowable Variation:

Pilot^
 G3 G 0 a .1 s*
Si 03 to -G G > X O c3
w -M
G G 0 bjO 0 G 7)
£ 03 to 'm , G g
r—^ 01 >,
J4 2 03 7 .2 U
03 H ’5 O

3d
G -
w ”03 -t— 03 C3 0) b£
Gp -4-^ 03 —| O -a a
O CO 0 G fH►H a p| bX) L
o

and
-t-T -*X> • -H b£ Ph
o' 03 a r- O G > to — g3
03 £ <« X 03 g Ol
0
00 03
0
qG G -g tT 73
a 03 03
a
b£
C m
c5
O
O * 03 O O X
r* a -G G3 • c3 • fH 03
lO 03 SJ
0 03 •—1

each
feed

no c
► pen
O U0 0 0 a co^ X 03 §4 03 0
cm" (M X <D 73 ^ 0 f—; Si o ®
r . ^ HH
£ b£
Table 4-4. Comparison of Evaporator Bids from Four Major Equipment Vendors

C5 CO SO r-1 > r—^ <0 O’ OQ £ ;*

o a b£
u 0
G si a ’u
% tO 03
a 03 -P>
44 Ol 01
03
a 0: 'S
o si
o
05
o 3
si 03
-C si
G s* _
TJ O G
CO O b£
tO o 73 CO >»
Si ,2
P- 03 r-* si to
CO et: si
+-> b£ 03 o —
+p
00
si X 73 -tp
o
03
o 05 G G o
o 03 0-^0
n c) 5 — >>
o — co O
o' lO o 03 X ~ 01
o += . ~ G 73o
f—* •
o -+P G o 03
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X 2
03 _c
03 c; jg G G O £ >H
T—I CO 01 o o 1—1 02
73
Si Q
O ** 03
G G 7}
to ^
£ ocT 03
C3 §?8
c3 03
n g £ a
73 2 CO >> 7}
ro +p
tO o
o <D c3 £ G
o O bdO 73 ^ 2
03 G o -4-} *“"•
05 r. Si 3G G p
o 03 O
S3
73 <u _, ri Si
G ^ O
si 03 2 .2. -X co co
°~ o 0.
-“i PP
?r\ w * Sh — in O X
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rvi O -t-3 +p X g 03
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g
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GG o to o
03 co_ 03
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+p CO m O Si
o
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03
35
co o
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CO 03 -sp o -p o X G •g «
Si
00 G tO t4_( I oG Si
o G X
O
N co" o 2 a O UG
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^ x CO a
•
U A COv -t-3 03 G X o 53 co co
10 C-5 ° • X .03 O M 00 -P o G03 G 03 > 03 03
® lO ► H 03 03 £ M >H >H
05 Tti P- <N X o o

co
03
G o
03 03
Ph
C“ tL o co
03 x. X S-I tx
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Sh CO
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03
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p- a Si m _; G 73
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03 O
03 a 03 Si -*T?
a ■*->
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a b t) t G fc- sJ
11
03
cc
X> O G
b£
a m g
— • co >
03
co
Si
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5n G si
03 G s-
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c g c3 2 X G
P- X G *3 "d 03-- a G c3 a G G
O G aj G G p; 03 x> 03 05 G G
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73
H H X Ul
s
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94
 1

stairways)___
1

Supports not included

'P O • 0 (2
z
0
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solid
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Very complete
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requirements
• 72 I 03 -0 03 0 0 0
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d\ 44 S2 C3 12 > O S
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0
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bJD
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Mountings
<N 44 03 0 0
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Minimum
X r^i Q
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a
to
03
rH 03
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(ft -0
0 72 chaser

ports)
c3 a
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03 c3
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0
walks,
b£ 4ft
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m o1 h\ 0 c3 “ 0r 0
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platforms,

cO O ft 72
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Structural-steel

0
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CO -0
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Complete

tc 1-1 P3 0 0 Q 0
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PH < X 3 ^
1
Instrumentation.

vendor.

ci

bfi
3 *2 C*
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'ft
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03
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Miscellaneous by

'w ® ^ 0
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‘ft

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d
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cs a D
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4-4. Comparison of Evaporator Bids from Four Major Equipment Vendors (Continued)

c3
S -b ^ CD
Oh 3 of W ^ d d
^ c* c*
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b<0 <5 d oo 05
d
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05 -£
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ra • — D S3
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O D ■d c3 +j £ D - h^ dco to
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-t-Jsto~ 3c
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96
 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
97
CHAP. 4]
of equipment, he should formulate a carefully written specification in
which ranges of performance and other requirements have been care u y
worked out. The writing of specifications must not be considered a
special art, but rather a requisite1 of every chemical engineer
specifications should contain all information deemed essential including
composition, physical and chemical characteristics of materials handled,
kind and quality of service available, service requirements on the equip¬
ment, packing, and marking of containers, delivery requirements, and
quotations. Manufacturers of equipment ordinarily supply a form in
which are included the questions that the individual manufacturer deems
sufficient, if answered, to supply him with the information he needs to
satisfy the demands. However, as excellent as this service is, the time
that would be lost in correspondence may often be saved by sending a
well-written specification to the manufacturer (see Table 4-3).
Specifications for Competitive Bidding. For practically all large-scale
equipment purchases, competitive bidding is required for economic
reasons. Ludwig and Shockey2 show one example (Table 4-4) of how the
design engineer can tabulate bids for comparative study. This system
makes for easy review of the major items covering service requirements,
principal components for the proposed flow cycle, accessories furnished,
together with materials of construction and cost ratio on an installed basis.
Delivery time, experience, and reliability of the supplier and total costs
are important items to be considered in the final selection of the supplier.
For sake of completeness, a more detailed discussion of a typical selec¬
tion problem is justified. Take the evaporator problem on which com¬
parative bids were prepared and listed in Table 4-4. The design engi¬
neer’s analysis is shown in Table 4-5. He must clearly understand the
problem to analyze what is known, unknown, and desired. Each new
application of a unit operation, or equivalent piece of equipment designed
for carrying out a unit operation, should receive individual attention.
It is oftentimes better, when dealing in the area of uncertainties, to supply
to equipment manufacturers only the process data rather than exact
equipment specifications as visualized by the design engineer. On the
theory that two or more heads are better than one, several equipment
manufacturers should be permitted to propose independently equipment
and cycles of operation. In this manner a better performance and rela¬
tive cost selection can be made.

nwD' f; J- H‘ Bowman> “Business, Legal, and Ethical Phases of Engi-

Td ?d'.’ McGraw_Hi11 Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954.
(1955) E' LUdW1S and A' F' Shocke^ Guide for Picking Bids, Chem. Eng., 62(1): 183
98 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4
1 able 4-5. llow a Problem Breaks Down*
Known

Production rate and analysis of product.

Feed flow rate, analysis, temperature, approximate quantity available.
Services available to serve as design basis for steam, water, gas, etc.
Disposal of condensate (location) and its purity.
Probable materials of construction.

Unknown

Evaporation cycle, pressure, temperature, solids capacities, and concentration fea¬

tures of various evaporation cycles.
Number of evaporator effects.
Best type of evaporator body and heater arrangement.
Practice of competitors in same and related products.
Best instrumentation.
Experience record of manufacturer.

Desired

Answers to unknown above.

Operational guarantee.
Material and workmanship guarantee.
Performance record of evaporator manufacturer in same or related process.
Filtering characteristics of any solids or crystals.
Details on:
Equipment dimensions, arrangements, fabrication details.
Heat-transfer surfaces, velocities of fluids, coefficients.
Separator elements for purity of overhead vapors.
Types and details of circulating pumps, if any.
Utility requirements:
Steam
Power
Water
Air

Review These Design Features

Evaporator body
Is vapor velocity above the boiling solution reasonable for reducing entrainment?
Refer to separator manufacturer for optimum and limiting velocities.
Is the body adequately baffled to reduce upward entrainment yet mamtam low

PrArertherePlimitmg (minimum or maximum) operating conditions, and what are

thrconJorabtut860° ^requffed to prevent salt bridging in the body and consequent

PlGrowth of salt crystals must be controlled to secure good crystal size. Too high a
degree of supersaturation yields fine, hard-to-filter crystals.

i— -■■ *f"exejj1
liquor head oov.ri.g lube, to avoid dr, lube. I» heat...
“
 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 99
CHAP. 4]
Table 4-5. How a Problem Breaks Down (Continued)

Is liquor flowing through tubes at about 6-10 fps average velocity? This appears
to be reasonably good velocity for operation.
What is pressure drop through liquor side of heater?
A reasonable “U” value for over-all heat transfer appears to be 400 to 500 Btu/
(hr)(°F)(ft2). Some units may run as high as 700 to 800, but check to determine
if this value can be maintained under dirty tube conditions.

Entrainment separators
Is the evaporator body provided with auxiliary means for reducing liquor carry¬
over with the overhead vapor?
What is the required outlet vapor specification and what is the guarantee on the
separating device?

* E. E. Ludwig and A. F. Shockey: Chem. Eng., 62(1): 181 (1955).

SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERING UNIT

OPERATIONS AND PROCESSES

It is obvious from the above discussions that the design engineer must
be thoroughly familiar with unit operations and processes of chemical
engineering to select the required equipment with possible alternatives.
A student or inexperienced engineer will require background material to
aid in his selection. He has already had thorough study and calculation
training in the conventional unit operations, including absorption, distilla¬
tion, fluid flow, and heat transfer. He should also be familiar with the
unit processes as given in Groggins.1 The information compiled in the
next sections of this chapter and the References serve to supplement this
basic knowledge, particularly from an equipment selection standpoint.
There are other sources which provide additional knowledge for a better
over-all choice of process equipment. For convenience of the reader, the
basic chemical engineering equipment is listed in Table 4-6, together with
page leferences from this book and other recommended references.

Equipment Costs

The cost of equipment in many instances has an important bearing on

the final selection. For example, it would be foolish to select an auto¬
matic basket centrifuge costing $15,000 in preference to a wooden filter
press costing $1,000 for a small-scale batch operation where ample labor

ioniTT ? Pr6SS WaS a‘ready available' A complete discussion of

qu pment costs is given in Chap. 6 (page 195). Table 4-6 lists other
published sources for estimating the cost of equipment. These costs
must be brought up to date by the method of cost index raUmng a
described in Chap. 6 (page 198). °lng’ as

°rganic Synthesis’”5th ed’ Mc(W

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 101
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

In addition to the cost references listed in this table, the magazine

Cost Engineeringpublished specifically on the subject of equipment
specifications and costs, should be available to the design engineer.

Size Reduction-
Size reduction is a general term, encompassing a multitude of specific
operations, such as crushing, grinding, cutting, cracking, shearing, shre -
ding, pulverizing, granulating, rubbing, defiberizing, and hulling. Gen¬
erally speaking, different mills do different jobs, and usually one particular
type is best for a particular problem. Selection should be in terms of
performance and of cost, especially operating cost. The purchase price
itself has little effect on the over-all cost of the machine during its operat¬
ing life; low maintenance costs and reliability are the marks of piopei
equipment.
The chemical engineer should know the particle size of the feed, espe¬
cially the maximum value, the tonnage per hour required, and the par¬
ticle size and other characteristics desired in the product. He should
then look for the size-reduction machine that produces a maximum
amount of that product with a minimum of power and a minimum of
wear on the working parts.
Size-reduction equipment is often a mill with multiple functions. In
some units, drying accompanies the grinding; in others dry feeds are
blended, or a solid is dispersed in a liquid. Still other units break pieces
of ore away from worthless rock and, in conjunction with accessory
machines, separate the feed into component parts.
Size-reduction machines, of whatever design, could not do the jobs
they do without the help of accessory equipment. Detailed descriptions
of the accessories are given by Riegel.3 They include screens and air
classifiers for separating dry particles; elutriators, drum and rake classi¬
fiers, and centrifugal classifiers for wet grinding. Magnetic separators,
another accessory, aid in keeping tramp iron from entering the mill, and
sometimes in removing magnetic particles from the crushed product.
Selection of Size-reduction Equipment. The following factors are
determinants in the selection of equipment for size reduction of materials:
1. Physical properties of materials:
a. Hardness
b. Mechanical structure, i.e., whether the material is brittle or fibrous, tough or
soft, or thermoplastic

1 O. T Zimmerman and I. Lavine (eds.), “Cost Engineering,” Industrial Research

Service, Dover, N.H.

151 1952^m 11 h' Slze Reductl°n, Chemical Engineering Report, Chem. Eng., 59(8):

Corn" RlfTge1,J<(?hemical Process Machinery,” 2d ed., Reinhold Publishing

Corporation, New York, 1953.
102 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4
c. Moisture content
d. Specific gravity
2. Size of feed and product
3. Tonnage to be ground
4. Speed of the mill
5. Physical properties of grinding of equipment:
a. Shape and character of lining
b. Shape and character of grinding medium

An extensive compilation of information and data on the construction,

design, capacity, and horsepower requirements of grinding and milling
equipment of all sorts has been published in Perry’s “ Chemical Engineers’
Handbook,” 3d ed., sec. 16. This book has also compiled information on

he industrial applications of milling equipment, giving operating charac¬

teristics on a large number of products. The use of air as a conveying
nedium in grinding mills, for removing the product and for accomplishing
hying simultaneously with size reduction, is also covered in a discussion
,f closed circuiting of mills by means of air separators. .
Figure 4-2 is an application chart for size-reduction equipment, .ho g
llassffication of types and characteristics of several examples in each typ .
Figure 0-25 lists prices for typical size-reduction equipment.
 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
103
CHAP. 4]

Materials-handling Equipment
Materials-handling equipment may be either manual or mechanical.
Mechanical handling equipment is the better coordinator of processes,
not only does it eliminate manual work, but it also serves to pace the
process, tie together various pieces of equipment, and frequently convert
batch to continuous operation. To ensure the lowest cost of operation,
mechanical handling should be substituted for manual handling whenever
it can be justified. Materials-handling equipment is logically divided
into continuous and batch types, and into classes foi the handling of
gases, liquids, and solids. Liquids and gases are handled by means of
pumps and blowers; in pipes, flumes, and ducts; and in containers such
as drums, cylinders, and tank cars. This unit operation is so highly
specialized that the chemical engineer would do well to consult with com¬
petent mechanical engineers in selecting the equipment. The latter
cannot do the job alone because special materials of construction will
frequently be required, because special hazards, including corrosion, fire,
heat damage, explosion, pollution and poison, together with special service
requirements, must generally be met in design. In the main, materials-
handling problems in chemical engineering industries do not differ widely
from those in other industries except that the existence of these six
hazards will frequently influence design.
Corrosion is often the most difficult of these hazards to surmount, and
its solution will generally be based on (1) the cheapest type of equipment
available, (2) the use of a high-first-cost, corrosion-resistant material in
the best type of handling equipment, or (3) the use of containers which
adequately protect the equipment. Fire and explosion hazards are
reduced by grounding the handling equipment where static electricity
is likely to develop, by ventilation to reduce dust concentration, by
handling materials in containers to eliminate dust scattering, by the use
of low-oxygen-content gases in conveying systems, by jarproof con¬
veyances, and by screens to avoid contact with sparks or fire. Poison
hazards are reduced by remote handling or closed container conveyances.
AV here food products are handled, sanitary requirements to prevent pollu¬
tion demand sealed containers, frequently of special materials of con¬
struction, and the employment of easily cleanable equipment with
moisture-proof bearings.
Selection of Materials-handling Equipment. The selection of mate-
nals-handlmg equipment depends upon (1) the cost and (2) the work

ment'indudeT C°nsidered in choosinS materials-handling equip-

1. Chemical nature of the material to be handled

104 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4

2. Physical nature of the material to be handled

3. Character of the movement to be made, whether horizontal, vertical,
or a combination of the two
4. Distance of movement
5. Quantity moved per hour or other unit of time, such as weight,
number of pieces, or volume
6. Nature of feed to handling equipment
7. Nature of discharge from handling equipment
8. Nature of flow—continuous or intermittent
Conveyors. A belt conveyor consists of a continuous canvas, rubber,
leather, composition, or wire screen belt supported on idler pulleys, gen¬
erally arranged to trough the belt, and driven by application of power
to a head pulley. Most belts are in the range of width from 12 to 60 in.
In the large sizes, belt speeds may be as high as 600 fpm, depending on
the type of material and the loading; for packaged materials, flat belts
are used with speeds up to 200 fpm. Very high capacity is possible with
belt conveyors. They offer the further advantage of relatively low main¬
tenance, reasonable power consumption, relatively low cost, and con¬
tinuous discharge. Belt conveyors may be used on horizontal oi inclined
runs for handling practically all sorts of solids, ranging from fine powders,
through grains and crystals, to large lumps such as coal, ore, or stone.
In chain conveyors, chains are dragged through shallow trenches or
troughs and serve to convey such materials as hot ashes and hot cement
clinker. By the attachment of dogs, blocks, or plates, chains and cables
may be used for pulling cars up inclines, pulling logs up chutes in paper
mills, or dragging bulky material such as coal or stone through troughs.
When a chain is supported from trolleys run on an overhead track it is
useful for handling packages and other bulky materials such as tires.
Since the track may run both horizontally and inclined, chain trolley

When attached to platforms, slats, aprons, and pans, chams serve to

move both packaged and bulk materials at speeds from 40 tc. «* high as
100 fpm. Apron conveyors are frequently used as feeders foi handli g
coarse material to and from crushers. Such equipment, at spe .,
reduces breakage to a minimum paths that may vary

' C™TuUo”nw“h —in "*

 105
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
CHAP. 41

veying. A similar uype, me emu

it. The ribbon type is particularly
stir material which passes through it.
adapted to handling sticky materials which would tend to collect 111 a
standard conveyor at the point where the flights join the shaft.
Drag-line scrapers employ bucketlike scoops or disks which are moved
back and forth by steel cables to drag loose materials from a large storage
area, usually outdoors, toward a central elevator or conveyor hopper for
subsequent delivery to the plant. Such equipment is used foi stoiing
and reclaiming materials like coal or stone.
The use of air, or occasionally of inert gases, for the sweeping of com¬
paratively light or powdered materials through ducts has come into wide¬
spread use in the chemical industry. Pneumatic conveyors are used for
handling materials as coarse as shavings and ashes, but their greatest
application is for nonflammable materials such as soda ash, phosphate
rock, and other free-flowing chemicals and chemical raw materials. The
solids pump (Fuller-Kinyon pump) is used to a considerable extent for
the handling of pulverized materials such as feldspar and portland cement.
It uses screw feeder pressure in addition to aeration. The solids pump
is more costly than the pneumatic conveyor but employs smaller pipe,
requires no cyclone for receiving discharged material, and offers increased
flexibility in many uses.
Many forms of interfloor elevators are available for the handling of pans,
barrels, packages, trays, and other material. These generally employ
continuous chains, operating vertically, which carry platforms or arms
to support the packages. Some of them are devised for automatic
pickup and discharge.
As in the case with other manufacturers of process equipment, mate-
rials-handling-equipment makers supply information blanks to assist in
the making of recommendations.
Costs. Cost curves are presented in Figs. 6-5 to 6-9 for several of the
conveyor types of materials-handling equipment.
Solid Feeders.1 A solids feeder is any device that will maintain a
reasonably uniform flow of bulk material, implying a metering function.
It deals with solids in bulk, solid-liquid, and solid-gas mixtures which
may be free-flowing, lumpy, sticky, corrosive, erosive, fluidizable, hot,
plastic, or pasty. It deals with feeding against pressure or vacuum, with
feeding where precision is required, as well as with more usual conditions.
h mally’ since many materials tend to hang up in bins and hoppers, and
1 T. It. Olive, Solids Feeders, Chem. Eng., 59(11): 163 (1952).
106 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4
since feeders can function only if the material reaches them, bin and bin-
discharge problems enter the picture.
Almost any sort of materials-handling device that can move bulk loads
can be adapted to feeding service; many of them have belts, aprons,
screws, flights, and vibrating conveyors. These belong to the class of
volumetric feeders, which meter their loads as more or less constant
volumes per unit of time. But the weight per unit volume of bulk mate¬
rials can vary widely, as much as 15 per cent or more. If precision in
the order of ± 1 to 2 weight per cent is needed, gravimetric feeders are
required.
Feeder troubles are often actually bin troubles, since many materials
tend to bridge, arch, and hang up in bins and hoppers, thus failing to
reach the feeder at a uniform rate. Such troubles are solved by the
design of the bin itself, by the use of agitators within the bin, by jetting
air into the bin contents, by vibrating or pulsing of the bin walls, and
finally by suitable built-in dischargers.
Bin design is still the subject of controversy between those who believe
in the use of one or more straight sides all the way down to the discharge
and the proponents of full conical or four-sloped hopper bottoms. 1 he
least slope in a hopper will occur in the valleys between adjacent sides;
such valleys should generally not have less than a 45-deg slope and
preferably should be a 60-deg slope. Certain materials will tend to hang
up almost regardless of bin design.
An excellent discussion of feeders and feeding mechanisms is found in
Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 1370-1376.

Mechanical Separation
A large number of unit operations are included under the general
term of mechanical separation. This group is one of the most important
employed in the chemical industry. The separations may be grouped
into five headings as follows:
1. Separation of solids from gases
2. Separation of solids from solids .
3. Separation of solids from solids in liquids
4. Separation of solids from liquids
5 Separation of liquids from liquids
Separation of Solids from Gases. Solids are separated from gases by a
variety of methods including settling, centrifugal force filtration impinge-
men,I particles of li„.nd or or, ...ted or sticky surfaces,andby
of electrostatic precipitation. The* method, ^ covered » Jerry.
“Chemical Engineers’Handbook, 3d ed., pp. 10 o • .
£SL a‘e employed to eliminate was,, solid.
•dr to separate valuable solids from conveying air in matenals-handli g
equipment! and to separate pulverized materials from conveying air
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 10”

air-swept pulverizers. Costs of various types of separators in the dust

collection classification are presented in fig. 6-4.
Separation of Solids from Solids. Solids may be separated from solids
in the dry state by a variety of methods including.

1. Grizzlies
2. Trommel screens
3. Fine screens:
a. Shaking and gyrating screens
b. Vibrating screens
c. Rotating screens
d. Impact screens
e. Sieving and bolting
4. Magnetic separation
5. Electrostatic separation
6. Air separation

Screen Cloth. Many thousands of different meshes, sizes, grades, and

weights of screen cloth are available, manufactured from a variety of
different materials. Although the first consideration is the size of open¬
ing, corrosive and abrasive characteristics of the material are also of
paramount importance. In determining a suitable screen cloth, the
following characteristics of the process and screen should be considered:

Product Screen

Size. Size of mesh or opening

Weight and abrasive nature Wire diameter or thickness
Capacity or output. Size of screen deck
Material dry or wet. Plain or twilled weave
Chemical characteristics. ... Kind of metal or alloy

In specifying the size of screen opening, it should be noted that a square

opening has a larger area than a round opening when the diameter of
the latter is equal to the side of the square.
Separation of Solids from Solids in Liquids. The resistance offered to
the fall of particles through a liquid is used in several methods of separa¬
tion of particles. Some of these methods depend principally on differ¬
ences in particle size and others on differences in specific gravity. All
these schemes were developed in the metallurgical industry, where they
are used to a much greater extent than in the chemical industry. The
following arbitrary classification is offered for this equipment:

1. Basis of particle size:

2. Basis of specific gravity:
a. Settling basins
a. Hydraulic jigs
b. Classifiers
b. Concentrating tables
c. Elutriators
c. Flotation machines
d. Cyclones

Of these several methods, only the classifiers have been used to any con
108 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4
siderable extent in the chemical industry, although the equipment of the
second group is being used to an increasing extent in the concentration of
nonmetallic materials for chemical processes.
A classifier developed by the Hardinge Company also finds application
in the chemical industry. This type of classifier consists of a revolving
cylinder with a conical bottom and containing a spiral flight, which, when
the cylinder rotates, tends to convey all material that settles to the
central discharge. Fines overflow with the water from the lower end.
Separation of Solids from Liquids. A wide variety of equipment is
employed in the separation of solids from liquids. In general, however,
there are five principal divisions of this field as indicated in the following
classification:

A. Pressing: 3. Pressure:
1. Expellers a. Plate filter presses
2. Curb presses b. Leaf pressure filters
B. Draining: c. Continuous
1. Natural draining D. Centrifugal:
2. Drag conveyors 1. Batch
3. Classifiers 2. Semicontinuous
C. Filtration: 3. Continuous
1. Gravity: E. Settling and decanting:
a. Sand filters 1. Thickeners:
b. Bags a. Nonmechanical
c. Nutsches b. Mechanical
2. Vacuum: 2. Liquid separators:
a. Intermittent a. Swing pipe
b. Continuous b. Multiple drawoff

Filters. Since filtration is one of the most commonly used operations,

both in chemical plants and in metallurgy, a great variety of filters have
been developed. Filtration is the operation of separating a solid from
a liquid by means of some form of membrane, usually a wire or fabric
filter cloth. The membrane retains the solid, while the liquid passes
through under whatever pressure is being used to bring about the
111 ^ion
The continuous type of vacuum filters has three principal representa

UT Drum-type vacuum filters in which the filter membrane covers the

outer periphery of the drum, example Oliver. .
2 Drum-tyi filters in which the filter membrane covers the inner
nerinherv of the drum, example Dorco.
3 Vacuum filters with disk- or spindle-shaped filter elements, exa p
American Oliver horizontal filter. .. 2
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 109

which will rapidly build a thin, unbroken cake on the filter surface. A
precoat filter, using filter aid as a base, can be successfully adapted where
only the filtrate is valuable.
Filtration rates on a previously untested problem cannot be reliably
estimated. Small-scale test units, employing a single dip leaf, can be
utilized in the laboratory to give a more accurate estimate.
Filters of the continuous type require little labor and have the advan¬
tage over batch-type pressure filters by giving a continuous discharge.
Furthermore, in certain filters, the cake can be dried to a greater extent
after washing by permitting warm air to be sucked through the cake
before discharge. Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed.,
p. 968, describes a test procedure to be used for estimating filter areas.
To establish some of the factors affecting a filtration problem and to give
the reader some idea of possible filtration rates, Table 4-7 is included.
More exact capacities, however, should be determined by laboratory
tests. Costs for vacuum filters as well as other types are found in
Fig. 6-13.
The principle of pressure filters differs from that of vacuum filters only
in the fact that a positive rather than a negative pressure is used to force
the filtrate through the filter membrane. On this account, pressures as
high as feasible can be attained. Consequently, materials not filterable
on vacuum filters may be handled by this means. Filter presses are of
three general types: those employing both plates and frames, those using
recessed plates, and continuous rotary pressure filters.
Leaf pressure filters are of several types, but the principal variations
are (1) filters containing stationary leaves and (2) filters containing
rotating leaves. The latter give better uniformity of cake but are more
expensive. The first type is exemplified by the standard Sweetland
filter and the Kelly filter. The rotating-leaf type is exemplified by the
\ allez filter which uses either pancake-type elements or radial leaves
rotating within a cylindrical casing.
Filter Cloths. Success in filtering depends largely on the suitability of
the membrane chosen for the separation in question. Filter cloths are
of numerous materials including cotton, nylon, natural and synthetic
>ers, glass fibers, wool, formed rubber, metallic and nonmetallic fibers
and metals and alloys. No general-purpose filter cloth, suitable for all
materials, has ever been developed. To assist in filtration, it is often
necessary to add a filter aid to the sludge before passing it onto the filter
filter aids are generally composed of diatomaceous earths, which are

clarification^ lTd r SUbstanCeS filtered' assist materially in

clarification by depositing a noncompressible solid on the cloth and

CKarS*P7T »»» Z.“u

y USeful for the removal °f very finely divided materials.
 m
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. Perry (ed.), “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
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110
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

Thickeners and Centrifugals. The simplest form of thickener is an

ordinary settling tank arranged for the decantation of the clear liquid
after settling. Nonmechanical, continuous settling tanks have cornea
bottoms from which thickened slurries high in solids are continuously dis¬
charged. The most widely used thickener is the mechanical type, of
which the Dorr is typical. Cost estimates for continuous thickeners are
shown in Fig. 6-29. .
A centrifugal separator consists of a rotating bowl or basket into which
the materials to be separated are fed. One type, operating by filtration,
uses a perforated basket on which the solids are retained while the liquid
passes through. The other uses a solid basket or bowl against which
the solids deposit, while the liquid remains close to the center and is
withdrawn over a dam. This latter type operates by accelerated settling
and decantation and is also used for the separation of immiscible liquids.
The volume capacity of a basket centrifugal is only one factor in deter¬
mining time capacity. To estimate the size required it is also necessary
to know the operating cycle that can be maintained. Table 4-8 lists a
Table 4-8. Typical Capacities of Basket Centrifugals*
(Basis: 40-in. basket diameter; 7.8 ft3 per load)

Product Cycle time, min Basket load, lb Capacity, tons/hr

Top-suspended machine:
Sugar. 2-5 350-500 2-5
Inorganic salts. 10-15 350-700 0.7-2.5
Organic crystals. 10-20 250-350
o
4^

i—1

O
1

Fine powders. 30 350 0.35

Link-suspended machine:
Waste. 10 80 0.4
Textile piece goods. 15 70-120 0.15-0.25

* J. C. Smith, Chevi. Eng., 69(4): 140 (1952).

few typical cycle times and weight capacities for 40-in. machines in a
variety oi industries. In general, bottom-discharge machines with
mechanical unloaders have shorter cycles than underdriven machines
Free-draining crystals in a slurry of 50 per cent or more crystal concen¬
tration (e.g., sugar massecuite) can be handled at very high production
rates, with 2- to 5-min cycles for charging, washing, spinning, and unload¬
ing .. pecial large valves and feeder lines must be used for such short
cycles.
In general chemical service, it is well to assume tentatively four to six
o.u s pei lour for fairly free-draining crystals in concentrations of 25 per
wZf'ZVr r f' l"
0 pel cent solids, two charges per hour may be assumed.
1~ than
With fines,
112 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT
- DESIGN
- [chap. 4
slimes, or compressible products, or flat crystals, cycles of 45 min or longer
may be expected, especially if washing is needed (chloride removal par¬
ticularly) or if the solid-liquid ratio is low. Where the solids are so fine
that they might be lost through fine screens or through strips of filter
cloth held in place by expander rings, it is desirable to use an underdriven
machine with a filter bag, which can easily be inserted in such a machine
and removed for washing. With an underdriven machine the slower
hand unloading is required but this may be of little consequence where
high-priced products are handled or fines loss may be avoided. Filter
bags are convenient to use when a variety of products must be handled
in the same machine. Two to four loads per hour (with two a safe aver¬
age estimate) should be figured for underdriven centrifugals, depending
on crystal size, slurry consistency, and washing conditions. With either
type of centrifugal it is necessary to increase the cycle times when slimy
or fine-grained products are handled.
The horizontal-shaft ter Men automatic centrifugals are of high-tonnage
batch type with automatic cycle control of charging, spinning, washing,
and discharging. Capacity varies with the material handled, the capacity
given being based on a cake discharged with 13.5 per cent moistuie, feed¬
ing a slurry of 20 per cent solids having a particle size of 60 per cent on
200 mesh and 89 per cent on 400 mesh. The continuous type of machine
is used for separating free-draining solids from slurries of high solids con¬
centration (in general, 40 per cent or more solids of crystalline, gianular,
or fibrous character, with at least 90 per cent retained on 100 mesh).
Capacity varies widely with the material handled.
The rotating-conveyor-discharge type utilizes the conical horizontal
revolving chamber, throwing the solids against the inner face of the cone,
from which they are scraped and moved forward to the small discharge
end while the liquid flows out at the larger end of the cone. Assuming
an ordinary crystalline material, a discharge capacity of 30 cfh corresponds
to about 1 ton of solids per hour for the 18- by 20-in. machine, with other
sizes in proportion to the indicated output volumes The maximum
feed rate should not be exceeded. The relative clarifying capacity
depends on the settling characteristics of the material handled In a
typical application, a 20 per cent solids suspension of ^Cl^ls

"°o„Z
(mostly plus 200 mesh) is separated from a 25 per cent electrolytic NaO
solution discharging solid-free caustic and solid salt of 4 to o per cent
and Tel tL, 03 p« «* *0* • « ► ”“h

in
 1 to
CHAP 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

shown in Table 4-9. Apparently small changes in operating conditions

mav make large differences in capacity. For example, a substantial
increase in capacity occurs in certain liquid-liquid ‘^mctaon ope^tmns
in penicillin manufacture when a very small amount of wetting agent
added to help break emulsions.

Table 4-9. Power Loads and Typical Capacities of

High-speed Centrifugals*

Typical
Power
throughput
Material handled load,
Type capacity,
hp
gph

.... 1,200
Tubular. Transformer oil
Diesel lube oil 2 350
Olive oil and 2 200
water
()rganic chemicals .... 40-400

Disk. Turbine oil .... 1,000

Vegetable oil .... 450
Lube oil 100-150 (small)
2 225-250 (large)
Organic chemical .... 40-70 (small)
liquids 300-500 (large)
Three-way separator (Sharpies Auto- Wool grease from 18 1,500
jector) scouring liquor

* J. C. Smith, Chem. Eng., 59(4): 140 (1952).

High-speed, centrifuges are of two types: (1) the Sharpies type, which
employs a long hollow bowl of small diameter and is rotated at a very
high speed, and (2) the DeLaval type, employing a short disk bowl of
large diameter. Such equipment is used largely for clarification and for
separation of immiscible liquids.
A variation of the high-speed type, for intermittent discharge of the
solids, is the rotojector which uses hydraulic pressure generated by the
rotation of the bowl to uncover ports for occasional discharge of the solids.
Installed costs of typical centrifugal separators are graphed in Fig. 6-3.

Heat-transfer Equipment

Heat-transfer equipment in the form of heat exchangers and condensers

is a vital part of the chemical process industries. Heat exchangers are
used for the cooling or heating of all sorts of process materials, while
condensers are used largely for the condensation of vapors from evapora¬
tors and consequent production of vacuum, and for the recovery of
materials volatilized from stills.
114 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4
Heat Exchangers. Heat exchangers are built in a great number of
designs, but three types are most common: (1) coils submerged in liquid;
(2) tubular heat exchangers consisting of tubes supported within a shell
by means ot tube sheets, one of which may float to provide for differential
expansion between tubes and shell; (3) double-pipe heat exchangers con¬
sisting of two concentric pipes, one lor each fluid. They may be of the
bare tube or extended (fin) surface design if the heat-transfer coefficient
for one fluid is very low, e.g., in the case of gases or viscous liquids.
Recommended standard heat-exchange design practice has been set
up by standards committees.1-2 For example, stock lengths of tubes are
8, 12, 16, and 20 ft; tubing should be specified to match one of these
lengths. Shell sizes are NPS up to 24 in. with rolled plate used for
larger-diameter requirements. Minimum baffle spacing is 2 in. or one-
fifth the ID of the shell, whichever is greater, while the smallest allowable
pitch is 1J4 times the tube OD.
It is thus necessary to consider certain practical limitations when a
heat exchanger is designed. Selections should be made from standard
items if possible. This will prove to be less expensive than using non¬
standard items from both an initial investment and maintenance stand¬
point. Exchanger surface should be divided into enough separate bun¬
dles so that no single one is too heavy for the maintenance crew to handle.
Condensers. Many condensers are constructed along the lines of one
of the heat exchangers mentioned above, principally types 1 and 2. In
these cases they are known as surface condensers and are used where it is
necessary to avoid mixing the condensed phase with the cooling fluid.
Condensers for use on evaporators are generally of the jet type, in which
the cooling water mixes with and condenses the vapor. Jet condensers
are of two types: one in which the flow of vapor and cooling water is
parallel and the other in which the flows are countercurrent. Jet con¬
densers are generally provided with a barometric leg consisting of a tail
pipe extending beneath the surface of water in the hot well which serves
as a barometric seal. By this means, water may be removed from the
condenser at any vacuum possible with the existing cooling water tern
perature and without the use of a vacuum pump. However, it is gen¬
erally necessary to provide a small dry vacuum pump or ejector for tie
removal of noncondensable vapors. # .
Still a third form of condenser is the eductor type, consisting o a
venturi-type jet compressor in combination with a surface condenser.
This type requires large volumes of cooling water but has t ic ac \ an age
of operating at a higher cooling-water temperature by reason of the
compressor action of the jet and of operating without a vacuum pump.
1 Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers’ Association, Inc., 53 Park PL, New 1 ork.
2 AIChE-ASME Joint Committee on Heat Exchanger Testing roce ures.
 i i r.
CH VP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

Design Procedures. There is ample material in the engineering

literature describing design methods for heat exchangers. In geneiu ,
they are based on economic optimum design equations m which basic
variables of fluid velocity and heat-transfer area are counterposed.
Increasing fluid velocities means higher heat-transfer coefficients, a corre¬
spondingly lower heat-exchanger size, and lower annual fixed costs for a
given heat duty. The resulting higher pressure drop increases the pump¬
ing cost so that an economic design can be worked out in terms of cost
equations. A corollary case can be introduced into the cost picture if
one of the fluid streams is costly and used only for sensible heat-transfer
pickup, e.g., cooling water as a utility, not a process fluid. Increasing
the water velocity in a heat exchanger of fixed design would increase the
hourly water rate and operating cost.
Calculations on the above basis are complex, tedious, and time-con¬
suming. Simplifying assumptions can often be made, such as (1) power
costs on the shell and/or tube side negligible, (2) flow rate of one or both
fluids fixed, (3) constant temperature of one fluid throughout the entire
exchanger, e.g., in a condenser. However, the more rigorous equations
lend themselves to easy solution on digital computers (see Chap. 1).
The calculation procedure is usually the same and only the substituted
numbers vary in each case.2 It is recommended that the instructor
develop the basic equations in class and then use a digital computer in
class demonstration for rapid solution, if time permits and the necessary
equipment is available.
The following general procedures should be followed in designing heat
exchangers:
1. Specify material and enthalpy balances in the exchanger, specifying
inlet and outlet temperatures of all fluids where possible. (See Perry’s
“Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., fig. 16, p. 479, for a cooling-
water case.)
2. Specify all fluid properties: density, bulk and wall viscosities, ther¬
mal conductivity, specific heat, and latent heat.
3. Calculate and estimate heat-transfer coefficients and fouling factors
4. Pick a standard heat-exchanger layout and hence a trial area: length,
pitch, and size of tubes, baffle arrangement.
5. Route fluids to shell-and-tube sides: use tube side for corrosive
1 D'tQ' “Process Heat Transfer,” pp. 239-252, McGraw-Hill Book Com¬
pany, Inc., New York, 1950.

r W‘ H' Adams, ‘‘Heat Transmission,” 3d ed., pp. 431-441, McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., New York, 1954.

d Z/mvP 'Til “Chen’ical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., sec. 6, particularly

p. 4/9, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950

1-1958) E' GUhenS’ Jr'’ L6t C°mpUterS Pick Your Exchangers, Chem. Eng., 65(3): 43
110 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

and/or high-pressure conditions; use the shell side for condensing fluids
or low-pressure-drop requirement.
6. Calculate the heat-transfer area and pressure drop. Repeat the
procedure until calculated and assumed areas match and pressure drop
is an economical value, generally below 25 psi.
Specification Sheets. Certain basic information is required for prepar¬
ing heat-exchanger designs and quotations. The Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers’ Association issues specification sheets which serve as
both a request form by the purchaser and a final bid form by the supplier.
Copies are available on request. Important information to be made
available to the designer is:

1. Fluids handled
a. Name and chemical formula
b. Physical properties for heat-transfer equations1
c. Per cent liquid, vapor, and noncondensables
d. Corrosion allowances1
e. Type of cooling water if required—raw or treated
2. Flow rates: average and/or maximum, lb /hr
3. Temperatures in and out
4. Pressures: operating pressures and allowable pressure drop1
5. Quantity of fluid vaporized or condensed, lb/hr
6. Heat-exchange duty, Btu/hr1
7. Fouling factors1
8. Available space1

From this information the supplier develops the optimum design for bid
purposes. In large chemical companies the complete mechanical design
is worked out by their own design group. Further information sent to
the fabricator for construction bidding then includes:

1. Tube-side construction details

a. OD, length, wall thickness (BWG), and pitch
b. If fins are required, number, thickness, and height of fin
c. Number of passes
d. Material of construction
2. Shell-side construction details
o. ID, OD, and thickness
b. Number of passes
c. Baffle arrangements
d. Material of construction , ,
3. Type of tube sheet and shell construction, i.e., floating or fixed hea
4. Code requirements and test pressure
5. Remarks

Cost Rubin2 presents extensive cost data on varieties of heat exchang¬

ers Uth detailed specifications on sizes and materials of constructs.
1 Optional—may be suggested to the supplier.
. F. L. Rubin, Chem. Eng., 60(10): 202 (1953).
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 117

These are based on 1953 purchased costs and should be multiplied by

1.5 to be put on an ENR 750 (1958) basis. A composite graph of heat-
exchanger costs on an installed basis is presented in fig. 6-14.

Mass-transfer Equipment
The transfer of mass as well as heat from one material phase to another
is quite commonly encountered in chemical process flow sheets. The
same physical laws, rate equations, and design principles can be applied
to mass-transfer operations as occurring in absorption, adsorption, crystal¬
lization, distillation, drying, extraction, fluidization, and humidificationA
Equipment is designed to obtain intimate contact between phases, in
either a stagewise or continuous manner, and many special types of equip¬
ment have been developed for any given operation. This discussion will
be limited to the conventional types of equipment.
Contacting Columns. A tall cylindrical column or tower can be filled
with packing for continuous contact of two or more phases or fabricated
with a number of trays at fixed distances apart for stagewise contact
operation. Such columns, either alone or in series, are commonly
specified for separations in gas absorption, distillation, extraction, and
humidification.
Trays are designed with the following types of gas-liquid contactors:
1. Bubble caps: round or rectangular cups with serrated edges inverted
over nozzles spaced uniformly over the plate area; require downcomers on
each tray.
2. Sieve plates: numerous small holes of to ^(g-in. diameter spaced
on uniform triangular pitch to cover about 15 per cent of the plate area;
require liquid downcomers on each plate; sieve trays are cheaper to
construct and give lower pressure drop for the same plate efficiencies.
3. Turbogrid trays:2 use rectangular slots instead of circular holes; no
liquid downcomers required; have the lowest cost and best operating
performance.
Packing for towers consists of rings, berl saddles, Fiberglas pads, and
helices (see Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 685).
Because oi uncertainties of scale-up and ease of flooding, packed towers

tes than 2 ftS6d f°r large'SCale °Perations> being limited to diameters

A modification of the packed tower has been made by Schiebel3 in

NewRYorkyi755a1’ “ MaSS'transfer ^rations,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,

HU, L^ComSnVlStw Y<^ ^

= En8G
(1954).
ne^
" ’
^ 60<1): 57 (1954>-
le n' ^ng' ^rogr' Symposium Ser., 60(10): 73
118 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

w liich a vertical column is designed with a series of alternate mixing and

calming sections in stagewise operation. Each mixing section has a
paddle-type stirrer turning on a common axial shaft to mix intimately
the two counterflowing phases. The calming section is packed with wire
mesh to coalesce small droplets and separate the two phases. Stage
efficiencies are higher than in plate columns, giving lower column height
and improved throughput.
The stage efficiency of sieve-plate towers for extraction can be increased
by use of a pulse wave generated at the base of the column. The discon¬
tinuous phase rises or falls to the next plate in its passage through the
column and is forced through the sieve-plate holes by the pulsing energy
wave. The finely divided jets of discontinuous phase create additional
surface area and improved agitation within the vicinity of the plate.
This type of column is particularly well suited for fission-product separa¬
tion in the nuclear field,1 since column height and shielding requirements
can be reduced by factors of 2 to 4 over packed or sieve-plate designs.
The pulse column has the disadvantage of high pulse power requirements
and scale-up difficulties beyond 3-ft-diameter columns because of lack
of suitable pulse generators.
Cooling Towers. Since the operation of condensers depends upon ade¬
quate cooling water of sufficiently low temperature, economy sometimes
dictates the use of recirculation and of atmospheric evaporative cooling.
For this purpose, either spray ponds or cooling towers are employed.
Spray ponds are rarely used except in large installations, whereas cooling
towers have the advantage of ease of operation and relatively small size.
In either case, advantage is taken of the evaporative cooling of the water
in contact with air. Cooling towers are of two types: natural draft and
forced draft. In either type, the water is distributed over a large surface,
usually of wood grids, so as to facilitate evapoiation.
Design Methods. Continuous contactors are rated on the basis of a
height of transfer unit (HTU) or a height equivalent to a theoretical
plate or stage (HETP) with equilibrium data, material and energy balances
used in evaluating the number of transfer units or equilibrium stages.
Design methods for binary systems and simple ternary systems have
been handled in previous chemical engineering courses by the McOabe-
Thiele graphical method and by graphical or analytical integration o
approach to equilibrium differential equations. Multicomponent dis¬
tillations by key component calculation methods are descnbed in eny s
“Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed„ pp. 622-629. Highspeed
computers are applicable to the problem and a key code is now available
from computer manufacturers. 70
. G. Sege and F. W. Woodfield, Chem. Eng. Progr. Symposium Ser., 60(13). 17.

(1954).
CHAp 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 119

The economic balance enters the plans for contacting equipment design.
calculations,1 the pivot point in **. ■ 1
which can vary between minimum and total reflux values. I g
reflux ratios require greater quantities of steam and cooling wa er an a
larger column diameter, but the column height requirements are lowered.
The economic reflux ratio is usually 1.1 to 1.2 times the minimum for
most cases. For gas adsorption and humidification calculations there
is an optimum gas velocity calculated on the basis of a balance between
tower fixed charges, which decrease as gas velocity increases, and power-
costs for pumping the gas through the tower. A second optimum for this
equipment involves tower height as a function of solute value lost and
the cost of removing the solute from the solvent.
Costs. Preconstruction cost estimates can be made for packed and
plate towers, using Fig. 6-30. For more accurate costs, an assembly
drawing should be prepared and sent out for bid.
Crystallizers. Crystallization involves, generally, the evaporation and
subsequent cooling of a solution to the point of supersaturation, wheie-
upon the formation of crystals takes place. Much of the work that has
been done in the evolution of crystallization apparatus has been pointed
toward the control of crystal size, since trade demands frequently are
rigorous in this regard.
The phenomenon of a salt coming out of solution is especially complex
because it involves diffusion, formation of nuclei, and crystal growth, all
of which may take place simultaneously. At present, it is not possible
to calculate the rates of any of these exactly and so crystallizer design
remains empirical. Many different types of crystallizers are produced
to meet the various demands.3
Since supersaturation is the important prerequisite of crystallization,
crystallizers can be conveniently classified according to the primary
methods by which supersaturation is brought about or released by (1)
supersaturation by cooling, (2) supersaturation by evaporation of solvent,
(3) supersaturation by adiabatic evaporation (cooling plus evaporation
by vacuum), (4) circulation of solution over crystal bed to release super-
saturation produced by one of the above methods, and (5) salting out.
The oldest and simplest representative is the tank crystallizer. It con¬
sists of an open tank, either rectangular or circular in section, exposed to
the atmosphere, which provides the necessary cooling. Frequently,
ropes, rods, oi lead strips are suspended in the bath to provide a base

1 A. P. Colburn, Ind. Eng. Chem., 28(5): 526 (1936).

’T- K'nh1!rr,dJnd R‘ L* Pigford’ “Absorption and Extraction,” 2d ed., p. 246,
McCraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952.

p 3E„,Garr1!tt a"dG’ P- Rosenbaum, Crystallization, Chemical Engineering

Report, Chem. Eng., 65(16): 125 (1958). S
120 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

upon which crystals can grow. Crystals tend to build to a very large
size on these strips and on the walls of the tank. They are removed by
hammers or crushers in the case of the strips. This method also gives
some crystals of various sizes all the way down to a fine sludge. Impuri¬
ties are frequently occluded in the product from this crystallizer, espe¬
cially in the case of tank bottom material. The obvious defects in this
method are the large floor space it requires, the high labor cost, the large
quantities of material in process, the lack of control, and the consequent
poor quality of the product.
The agitated batch crystallizer provides agitation and artificial cooling.
The water or other coolant is circulated through cooling coils and the
solution is agitated by the propeller blades on the central shaft. The
agitation performs several useful functions: (1) it increases the rate of
heat transfer and keeps the solution temperature more nearly uniform;
(2) it produces a large number of nuclei so that the number of small crys¬
tals increases; (3) it provides a better opportunity for the crystals to
grow uniformly instead of forming agglomerates. The over-all result
is the production of comparatively small but uniform crystals. Coil
cooling design gives rise to the deposition of solids on the cooling
coils, an action that rapidly reduces the rate of heat transfer, this
necessitates frequent cleaning by dumping or dissolving the adhering
crystals which may result in the introduction ol excessive water into the
system. The Acme crystallizer employs two oppositely directed helical
coil sections. Because of greater coil length, it is customary to arrange
multiple decks with countercurrent flow of solution and cooling water.
A crystallizer that has been used to a considerable extent in Europe is the
Wulff-Bock which consists of a shallow, inclined trough set on rollers so
that it can be rocked from side to side. This crystallizer has small
capacity but can make unusually large crystals. The Jeremiassen, or
Oslo, crystallizer has recently been introduced into the United btates.
It is made in various designs for multiple-stage evaporation, evaporation
with recompression of the vapor, vacuum cooling, or cooling to low
temperatures with cooling liquids. However, all these forms control
crystal growth by causing the supersaturated solution, cooled to.crystal¬
lizationtemperature, to pass upward through a perforated plate above
which crystal nuclei are kept in suspension. Positive circulation is mam
tained by a centrifugal pump. Crystals are removed continuously by a
salt elevator or some other suitable means. Double-pipe crystallizers a
folind in the chillers used in the petroleum industry to separate wax from
oil, represented by the Vogt oil chiller, the Buflovak crystallizer, the
in’gton inclined chiller, and the dual-worm crystallizer ,
<a„its that exhibit little increase in solubility with temperatu ( •§•>
2££> - fluently b. <•
rator provided with some form of salt separator. It is also crystal!*
SC
 191
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

in the long-pan open grainer. The Bufiovak grainer is used chiefly for the
conversion of ammonium nitrate into a granular product. 1 he solu tion
of ammonium nitrate first is concentrated to about 9/ per cent sola s in
open pans heated with coils and is poured into the previously heated
graining kettle; cooling water is then circulated while the solidifying mass
is granulated by means of the agitator which is set close to the bottom
and to the side wall of the kettle. As the material cools down, it reaches
a transition point at which it changes from one crystal form into another.
During this transition some heat is developed which is sufficient to evapo¬
rate most of the residual moisture. The sugar vacuum pan which is
designed especially for the graining of sugar comes under the classification
of a crystallizer evaporator. It is designed to provide the highest possible
rate of evaporation and economy of operation. The Lafeuille rotary
rapid-cooling crystallizer is widely used in the American and European
beet sugar industry and in many cane sugar factories.
In a vacuum crystallizer, the solution is exposed to a pressure below its
corresponding vapor pressure, resulting in both evaporation and adiabatic
cooling. V acuum crystallization may be accomplished batch wise or con¬
tinuously. In principle, the vacuum crystallizer is essentially a vessel
which may be evacuated to extremely low pressure, usually by steam-jet
ejectors, into which the feed may be introduced. When the desired final
temperature is reached, the vacuum is broken and the charge dumped for
filtering or centrifuging. In vacuum crystallization, (1) heat transfer is
not inhibited by salted-up or corroded media; (2) the end temperature is
not limited by the temperature of the available cooling water; (3) operat¬
ing costs are low; and (4) relatively easy control and regulation of condi¬
tions are possible. The circulation vacuum crystallizer maintains the
temperature of the solution just within the supersaturated region such
that no new crystals are formed and crystal growth takes place only on
crystals already present in solution. The Krystal vacuum crystallizer
lequiies no heater, the feed being mixed with the circulating mother
liquor and conducted to the vaporizer where the sensible heat of the feed
and heat of crystallization are utilized to evaporate the solvent. The
Zaremba crystallizing evaporator employs circulation of the solution but
does not have a separate container for the crystal bed. The Swenson
evaporator comprises mainly a cooling system of either the flash or heat-
exchange type and a separate classification and magma control zone
wherein the dissolved material is precipitated under controlled conditions.
It is possible in this design to separate the supersaturation system from
the precipitation portion of the cycle and control each one independently
oi the other. J

Cry imitation by Salting Out. Thompson and Molstad' suggested that

crystallization using organic precipitants has definite commercial possi-
• R. Thompson and M. Molstad, Ind. Eng. Chem., 37: 1244-1248 (1945).
122 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

bilities. They also pointed out that the use of organic solvents offered
improved fractional crystallization in many cases. The proposed process
and equipment can be found in the reference cited.
Costs of Crystallizers. Representative installed cost data for several
types of crystallizers are shown in Fig. 6-10.
Dryers. According to Marshall and Friedman (Perry’s “Chemical
Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 800) drying refers to the removal of
liquid, usually water, from a solid. There is no hard-and-fast distinction
between drying and evaporation, except that the former usually concerns
solids that are not in solution, whereas the latter deals with the concen¬
tration of solutions. A further distinction, necessarily, is in the type of
equipment employed. Drying may be accomplished by various means,
but the only one to be considered here is the means employing evaporation
of the water. The mechanical forms of drying, including centrifuging,
pressing, filtering, and draining, are sometimes used in advance of thermal
drying in order to reduce the moisture content and decrease drying costs.
In all types of dryers, some means must be provided for supplying
the heat required to evaporate the moisture present, and for removing the
vapor. A rough classification may be based on the method of removing
the moisture during evaporation, thus dividing dryers into two types: (1)
dryers in which the moisture is swept away from the material by air or
other gas and (2) dryers in which the moisture is removed by condensation
in a separate condenser, with the material placed within a vacuum cham¬
ber. In the first type, heat is generally conveyed to the material by
the same air which removes the moisture. On the othei hand, occasion¬
ally the air may be supplied at atmospheric temperature and the diying
accomplished simply by increasing its degree of saturation. In the
second type, heat is generally supplied to the material indirectly by con¬
tact with heated (generally steam-heated) surfaces.
A more extensive classification of dryers is based upon the type of
material to be dried. This is logical, in view of the fact that dryer form
is largely determined by material form:

A, Materials in sheets or masses carried through on conveyors or trays:

1. Batch dryers:
a. Atmospheric cabinet dryers
b. Vacuum chamber and shelf dryers
2. Continuous dryers:
a. Continuous conveyor and tray dryers
b. Roll dryers
B. Granular or loose materials:
]. Rotary dryers:
o. Atmospheric, direct heat, countercurrent
b. Atmospheric, direct heat, parallel current
c. Atmospheric, direct heat, two-pass
 123
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

d. Atmospheric, indirect-direct heating

e. Vacuum rotary
C. Paste and sludges or caking crystals:
1. Agitator dryers:
a. Atmospheric
b. Vacuum
D. Materials in solution:
1. Drum dryers:
a. Atmospheric
b. Vacuum
2. Spray dryers:
a. Air
b. Superheated steam

For the drying of materials in sheets or masses, dryers capable of sup¬

porting the material in the desired atmosphere for an adequate period of
time are necessary. In batch dryers, material is held in place and sub¬
jected to the desired conditions or cycle of conditions. In continuous
dryers, the material is conveyed through the dryer, generally through a
number of zones where different conditions are maintained.
Practically all atmospheric cabinet dryers fall within two general classi¬
fications: (1) those dryers in which the material is supported on trays
placed by hand on shelves within the drying cabinet and (2) those in
which the trays are wheeled into the cabinet on trucks. Both types are
used extensively for handling such products as pigments, dyes, and other
granular and pasty materials. In the truck type of tray dryer, operations
either may be on the batch system or may be semicontinuous, in that
one or more trucks may be run into the dryer at intervals, while an equal
number of trucks are removed at the same time from the other end. By
this method of operation, the material progresses through the dryer in a
semicontinuous manner. Vacuum drying is required for many products
which would be injured by the higher temperature of atmospheric drying.
Furthermore, in some cases, vacuum drying is more economical because
its heat can be supplied at low temperature by means of exhaust steam.
Frequently, drying under vacuum is much more rapid than atmospheric
drying. Vacuum dryers for solids are similar to the atmospheric cabinet
dryers mentioned above, except that the cabinet is of much heavier con¬
struction, adapted to be held under vacuum, and provided with a con¬
denser and vacuum pump. Conveyor dryers include nontilting and tilting
pans, belts of various sorts, traveling buckets, rolls for handling web and
sheet materials, festoon carriers, and chain conveyors for hauling tray
rucks. A rotary dryer consists of a slightly sloping cylinder, open at
both ends and supported on rolling wheels; the material is fed at one
en , an uel (gas, oil, or powdered coal) is burned at the other end
Numerous variations are possible, but the fundamental differences
124 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4
depend only on whether the heating medium supplies its heat to the
material undergoing drying by direct or indirect contact. Agitator dryers
generally consist of a vertical cylindrical shell 5 to 6 ft in diameter, pro¬
vided with a steam jacket and a heavy slow-speed agitator for scraping
the bottom. They are useful for the handling of pastes and sludges as
well as caking crystals and various noncaking materials such as wood
flour. Material is fed through an opening in the top and raked from a
door in the side. These dryers may be operated either under atmospheric
pressure or under vacuum.
When materials are to be carried from solution to the dry state in one
operation, the drum dryer is generally employed. This consists of either
one or two drums on the surface of which the material to be dried is
sprayed in a thin film. The heating medium is conducted to the inside
of the drum. As soon as the material has been dried, it is scraped from
the surface of the drum. The principal variations of construction in
atmospheric drum dryers relate to the number of drums and to the method
of applying the solution.
When drying must be carried from solution to solid under low-tempera¬
ture conditions, vacuum drum dryers are sometimes employed. Such
equipment is similar to the single-drum dryer mentioned above, except
that the drum must be enclosed in a chamber capable of evacuation.
Furthermore, means must be provided for discharging the solids without
breaking the vacuum.
Spray Dryers. Spray dryers generally consist of a chamber through
which heated air passes upward, countercurrent to the fall of finely divided
droplets of the material to be dried. The spray of material is produced
either by conducting the solution under pressure to spray heads or by
turbine-type dispersers. The bottom of the drying chamber ordinarily
contains some form of conveyor for removing the dried matenah buch
dryers are employed in the manufacture of soap powder, milk powder, and
similar materials. . , „ , in~ft
Dryer Costs. Representative dryer costs on an installed IJoS p
basis are given in Fig. 6-11. . , vT^n+- n
Evaporators.1 Evaporation is empirical and a lot of the minima
is available only in manufacturers’ files; it is also true that there are a
wide variety of problems and solutions. Each problem is affected y a
variety of variables and must be treated individually. The best solution
depends on the local conditions, properties of material, plant heat
ance cost, and the availability of utilities like power, steam, and cooling

^Evaporation is the removal of vapor (solvent) from a relative non-

JS2TSZ.
.
i. ».»y. —• - “'"l"
E. Lindsey, Evaporation, Chemical Engineering Report, Chen,. Eng., 60(4).

(1953).
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT ANI) MATERIALS 125

completely removed and the concentrated product remains a liquid,

although sometimes a very viscous one.
Basic considerations in any evaporation process are:
1 To supply the heat necessary: sensible, latent, heat of solution, and
heat of crystallization. (The last two are sometimes improperly omitted
in heat-balance calculations.)
2. To separate the vapor from the concentrate.

A - air
S - steam
D - drips
T - thick liquor
F - feed
V - vapor
t
-tubes

F-

I I I I |11 I 111 **

I If
D T
V
ic)

M'l
M.
II
r 1V
J ■

/ 'i1' .5
.S :Hll1' c__^
D
[y r o

^If
(d) (e) if)
Fig. 4-3. Typical types of evaporators, (a) Typical horizontal-tube evaporator;
(b) long-tube evaporator without vapor head; (c) standard vertical-tube evaporator;
(d) basket-type evaporator; (e) long-tube natural-circulation evaporator without
downtake; (/) forced-circulation evaporator; (g) long-tube natural-circulation evapo¬
rator with downtake; (h) Buflovac inclined-tube evaporator; (i) Griscom-Russell
evaporator [,/. Hferry (ed.) by permission from “Chemical Engineers' Handbook”
6d ed., fig. 15, p. 506, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950.]

3. To minimize (usually) any chemical change, thermal decomposition

or growth of organisms that might tend to occur simultaneously
1 he preferred types in use today are (1) climbing-film long-tube vertical
ype, (2) forced-circulation type, and (3) falling-film long-tube vertical
type. Examples of these types are shown in Fig. 4-3. Mechanical com-
p ession and multiple effect are favored where high evaporation tempera-
ures and relatively high fuel costs exist.
The steam-jet and heat-pump cycles are favored when the evaporation
‘ *U'h a low the vapor, cannot readily be eondenLl'with
tb. cooling water available and when the,. I. ^ ,| £
126 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4
heating-medium temperature. Conditions in the Florida citrus industry
favor the jet and heat pump. Here cooling water runs 75 to 85°F.
Evaporation must be done about 60°F—certainly no higher than 80°F—
in the falling-film type used and 104°F is about the upper safe limit of
the heating medium to avoid a cooked flavor. Many citrus evaporators
combine the jet or heat pump with multiple-effect operation.
Classification of Evaporators. According to Badger (Perry’s “ Chemical
Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 505) evaporators can be classified as
follows:

A. Apparatus using solar heat

B. Apparatus heated by direct fire
C. Apparatus with heating medium in jackets, double walls, etc.
D. Steam-heated evaporators with tubular heating surfaces:
1. Tubes horizontal:
a. Steam inside tubes
b. Steam outside tubes
2. Tubes vertical:
a. Standard (calandria) type
b. Basket type
c. Long-tube type
d. Forced-circulation type
3. Tubes inclined
4. Specially shaped tubes

In certain industries, single-effect evaporation cannot be used as an

economy measure because of the comparatively high temperature main¬
tained in the first effect. In the case of heat-sensitive materials such as
concentrated milk products, fruit juices, and pharmaceuticals, it is often
necessary to use multiple-effect vacuum evaporators and accept high
operation cost in order to preserve the quality of the product.
Small water stills, caustic dehydration pots and, of course, steam boilers
are the principal representatives of direct-fired evaporators. Much
small-scale evaporation is accomplished in jacketed kettles and similar
apparatus. Such evaporation is generally atmospheric, although, it t e
kettle construction is suitable, it may be carried out under vacuum
Horizontal-tube evaporators usually have the steam inside the horizontal
tubes. This type is best suited for nonscaling, noncrystallizing, anc
non viscous solutions. The bodies of horizontal-tube evaporators vary
between 5 and 10 ft with tube lengths from 3 to 10 ft. Standard and
basket-type evaporators are essentially similar in that they emp oy a
vertical cylindrical evaporator body of diameter less than the ' ’ con¬
taining a number of vertical tubes with the steam outside. Ihese
constructed in sizes with diameters from 6 to 24 ft. In the standard type
the steam space is formed by tube sheets wh ch extend honzontahy
across the shell, with space allowed for a central downtake.
 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
127

basket type, the heating element is a separate unit and the downtake is
an annular ring between the shell and the heating element. The long-
tube natural-circulation (Kestner type) single-pass and the Webre forced-
recirculation type are additional types. The standard vertical-tube
evaporator is especially adaptable to solutions that deposit scale 01 ciys-
tals. The application of the basket type is similar. The long-tube type
is not suitable for scaling and salting liquids, while the forced-circulation
type, by the addition of a salt separator, may treat either salting or clear
liquors. This last type is especially adaptable to the evaporation of
viscous materials and liquors requiring expensive materials for the heating
surface. Because of the high velocity, the coefficient of heat transfer is
especially high in this type. Heating surfaces from 35 to 8,000 ft2 are
available.
Inclined-tube evaporators are similar in construction to the long-tube
type except that, by reason of the slope of the tubes, these need not be
so high. This type employs recirculation and, because of the high
velocity attained, gives a high coefficient of heat transfer. Such evapora¬
tors are generally not suitable for salting and scaling liquids, although
in some modifications the ready removal of scale from the tubes is
accomplished.
Coiled tubes, or slightly bent tubes, are employed in strike pans for
crystallizing second and third sugars in sugar mills with capacities of 25 to
120 tons, varying from 8 to 18 ft in diameter, and also distilled-water
evaporators. The design is such that temperature changes cause move¬
ment of the coils and thus serve to crack off scale.
hvaporator Costs. With so much variation in evaporator construction,
materials, and accessories, manufacturers are reluctant to give standard
cost figuies. The most reliable method seems to be to estimate the unit
cost as cylindrical shells, plates, heads, tubes, fittings, etc., based on the
weight of material and the unit material and labor costs. This is the
method generally used by fabricators. A published set of cost curves
foi preconstruction cost estimating is given in Fig. 6-12.

Fluidization1

A fluid bed is a relatively stable mixture of a fluid

finely divided solids which is intermediate between
128 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4

can be handled satisfactorily with some gradation in size preferred for

smooth fluidization.
Fluid-bed techniques for producing intimate contact between small
solid particles and fluids are standard design practice where these charac¬
teristics are desirable:
1. High rates of reaction between solids and gases under controlled
conditions: exposed reaction surface area is inversely proportional to
particle size so that a large reaction surface per unit volume of reactor is
possible; violent agitation which occurs between the carrier gas and the
solids creates high rates of mass and heat transfer at very uniform tem¬
perature conditions.
2. Uniform reactor temperatures: fluidized beds have high thermal
conductivities as compared to the carrier gas alone, leading to very uni¬
form bed-temperature profiles when compared to fixed-bed operation.
3. High rates of heat transfer: heat-transfer rates from the fluosolids
mixtures to any transfer surface within the agitated zone are quite large
as compared to gases alone, with values as high as 200 Btu, (hr)(ft )( t)
being reported; thus, minimum heat-transfer surface is required when
using fluid-bed reactors.
4. Ease of transport of solids: the fluidized solids behave as a liquid,
so they can be transported from one reactor to another for adding oi
removing heat, or for carrying out another step in the process.
Basic Operation of a Fluid-Solids System. The principal components
of a fluidized solids system are shown in Fig. 4-4a as ©—the fluid-bed
reactor, ©—the solids transfer lines, and ©—the solids recovery system
Various combinations of these elements can be used as shown m Fig. 4-
and in Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., fig. 21, p. lblJ,
and flo- ?2 p 1620. A qualitative explanation of fluid-bed operation is
given next; quantitative evaluations are found in the design section

Reactor. Finely divided solid particles are transferred from

a fixed bed to a fluidized bed when the gas velocity creates a pressure drop
sufficiently great to overcome the total weight of the solids in the >e.
The gas isYintroduced via a bottom grid plate. Increases in gas veloc y
wilf cause the bed to expand in volume and the beddensr^to decrease
in n m‘inner depending on the species of gas, solids paiti -

grow in size as they rise, causing s ugg g- Prids should

Sri b, even distribution of ga. .. .ho the
the
STX. of .ho Slid .0 balance ,h, p. drop un.f.rmly across

entire grid area.

 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
129
CHAP. 4]
Cleon product
gos
A
Spent
fluidized
-Electrostatic gas
precipitator

External
cyclone
Internal
cyclone

Fluid-bed
height

Recovered
fines Heat-transfer
coil

Slurry feed
Grid

Product
solids
Product
solids
Fluidizing
Reoctonf gas
gas

M id)
Fig. 4-4.Schematic diagrams of fluid-solids systems, (a) Reactor with bottom solids
discharge and internal cyclone. (6) Reactor with external cyclone and side slurry
feed.

Typical particle size ranges employed in fluid-bed reactors are:

Particle size range for

Type of process major percentage of the solids
Fluid catalytic cracking 30-80 microns
Fluid coking
20-100 mesh
Phthalic anhydride production 20-200 mesh
Shale retorting
8-100 mesh
Roasting
34 in* to 80 mesh

Transfer Lines Pneumatic conveying of solids is an important factor

in successful fluid-bed operation just as pumping of liquids is vital in

i°n whiPch0Csolifl0PfleratiTS' LT are divided hlt0 two types: ^ndpiPes

hu h solids flow downward concurrently with the gas and risers in
i,5U CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

which the action is countercurrent. The mixed density must be con¬

trolled so that hydrostatic balances are maintained. For rapid transport
of solids, a “dilute phase” or low density (less than 10 lb/ft3) is main¬
tained, using superficial gas velocities of 25 to 35 fps.
Solids Recovery Equipment. Gas take-off from the surface of the fluid
bed is accompanied by entrainment of solids, particularly of the fine
and intermediate size range created in part by attrition. A hindered
settling or disengaging zone above the bed is provided and the fine par¬
ticles with low free-fall velocities are carried over into dust-recovery
equipment consisting of one or a combination of dry or wet cyclones,
multiclones, and electrostatic precipitators. Bag filters are prone to
plug but must sometimes be used where expensive solids are involved.
Cyclones may be placed within the reactor shell (Fig. 4-4a) or external
to it (Fig. 4-45), depending on the freedom of the cyclone operation from
mechanical troubles.
Application of Fluidization in Process Industries. Commercial fluidi¬
zation had its greatest growth with catalytic cracking processes in the
petroleum industry, later expanding within this industry to include
desulfurization, hydroforming, and fluid coking. Fluidization cannot
be used for processes employing expensive solids because of the high cost
of solids losses, e.g., platinized catalyst processes.
The nonpetroleum applications of fluidization have been expanding
rapidly with such processes being included as manufacture of phthalic
anhydride by oxidation of naphthalene, calcining of limestone, roasting
of ores, and production of high-purity metals by thermal decomposition
of metallic salts.
Design Methods. Important design variables in fluidized-bed calcula¬
tions are gas velocity and pressure drop, rates of reaction, and heat trans¬
fer. In nearly all cases, a low scale-up ratio from pilot plant fluidized-
bed reactors should be the basis for accurate designs, since production
rates in terms of lb/hr-ft2 of cross section are uncertain for new processes
and often decrease with increasing size of reactor. However, some pre¬
liminary design estimates can be made on the basis of past performances
with this type of equipment.
Rates of Reaction. The following production figures for several types
of processes are typical:
Processing rate, lb/hr-ft2
Chemical reaction
250-400
Fluid catalytic cracking of petroleum.
20-50
Roasting of zinc sulfide or iron pyrites concentrates
50-100
Calcining limestone.

Reactor Size and Shape. On the basis of flow-sheet material balance

requirements and rate of reaction, the total square feet of reactor bed
CH\P 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

required to do the job can be computed. The number of units required

depends on the allowable maximum diameter of a single unit. Reactors
as large as 60 ft in diameter have been operated successfully.
The total shell height to diameter ratio varies from 2 to 5, being larger
for small-size units, for multiple-bed operation, or for solids separations
within the reactor proper. If the height-diameter ratio is too low, con¬
siderable bypassing of reactants, low conversion, and higher entrainment
result. The actual fluo-solids bed height is often as low as 20 per cent
of the actual shell height to provide an adequate disengaging zone.
Gas Velocity and Pressure Drop. The minimum gas velocity in feet
per second (ymin) required to fluidize a fixed bed of solid particles has been
correlated by Leva et al.:1

0.005dp2eo3(pp — p/)g
(4-1)
(1 — €0 )fif

where dp = 6/Sp and Sp is the surface area per unit vol, ft-1
e0 = fixed-bed void volume (usually from 0.3 to 0.5)
pp = density of solids, lb mass/ft3
pf = density of fluidizing gas, lb mass/ft3
Pf = viscosity of fluidizing gas, lb mass/ft-hr
g = gravitational acceleration, ft/sec2
Practical operating velocities range from 0.5 to 3 fps; higher rates cause
excessive carry-over to the solids-gas separating system.
The pressure drop through the bed is equal to the weight of solids
it contains for bed expansions of 20 per cent or less. It can be calculated
from the following equation:

Ap = L(1 — e)(pp - Pf)g/ge (4-2)

where Ap = pressure drop in the fluid bed, lb force/ft2

L = total fluid-bed height, ft
gc = gravitational constant, lb mass-ft/lb force-sec2
€ = expanded-bed void volume
The relationship between the percentage of bed expansion (X) and < is
given by
_ e0 + 0.01X
1 + 0.01X 0-3)

where X is a complex function of the gas velocity.2

Actual pressure drops at bed expansions greater than 20 per cent are
higher than calculated by Eq. (4-2), sometimes as much as 50 per cent

51MU™)1' Gmmmer’ N- Weintraub’ and M- Polkhik. Chem. Eng. Progr., 44:

Newark H195o!at1’ “ Flu,dlzatlon” PP- 12-13, Reinhold Publishing Corporation,

132 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4

higher, depending on reactor geometry, and also increasing with fluid

Reynolds numbers.
Heat Transfer. Fluid-bed reactors are characterized by high heat-
transfer coefficients on the side walls and on internal heat-transfer devices
such as coils or axial bayonet-type tubes, with heat-transfer coefficients
ranging from 50 to 125 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F). Coefficients between the gas
and solid particles of high surface area are somewhat higher than attained
under natural convection conditions. For example, a natural convection
coefficient for 50-ju particles in air is around 200 and, in a fluidized system,
this value would be even higher.
Correlation equations of Gamson1 can be used for estimating heat
transfer within the agitated zone of the reactor.
For transfer to side walls,

*- m m - *»(fr" <* - •>-

For transfer to internal heating and cooling devices,
(4-4)

0.80
dpG -

(4-5)
Jh = 2 5 (1 - «)-
M/

where cp = specific heat of fluidizing gas, Btu/lb ^

kf = thermal conductivity of fluidizing gas, Btu/(hr)(ft2)( F/ft)
G = mass velocity of fluidizing gas, lb/hr-ft2
Heat transfer to the side walls often suffices for handling many mildly
exothermic reactions. If highly exothermic reactions are being con¬
sidered, designs might incorporate one or more of these methods. 1
add internal coils, (2) recycle the bed through an external cooler, (3)
use the sensible heat in the fluidizing gas, and (4) reduce the icactoi
diameter to increase the surface area to volume ratio. The same con¬
siderations apply to endothermic processes but these are much mo
difficult to handle designwise.
Costs of Fluidization Systems. Published cost information on t .
systems is lacking. As a method of approach for preconstruction cost
StoTtioi, .1 installed «i,idi«t.ion equipment, use the *****
STS.., the tenet.,

: rr ssXsind" IX - ~~ >»» »* «■

Mixers and Blenders

Mixing, to a greater extent than any other

r’^t—r^eat number of types of mixers have been

> B. W. Gamson, Chem. Eng. Progr., 47(1): 19 (1951).

CH\P. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

developed, many of which are far from satisfactory. Furthermore, each

industry lias developed its own particular form of mixer, whereas it is
probable that, with a better scientific basis, a comparatively smaller
number of types would serve for all industries.
Valentine and MacLean (Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,”
3d ed., sec. 17) have stated that the practical aims of mixing are four:
1. To produce simple physical mixtures, such as that of two or more
miscible fluids, two or more uniformly divided solids, or a mixture of
phases where no reaction or changes ol particle size take place.
2. To accomplish physical change, such as the solution of one com¬
ponent in another, the formation of crystals from a supersaturated solu¬
tion, the selective adsorption of minor constituents by adsorbents such as
fuller’s earth, and the flocculation or deflocculation of particles.
3. To accomplish dispersion, wherein a quasi-homogeneous product is
produced from two or more immiscible fluids, or one or more fluids with
finely divided solids.
4. To promote a reaction. This latter is perhaps the most important
use of mixing in the chemical industries, since intimacy of contact between
reacting phases is necessary as a condition of proper reaction.
The requirements of a satisfactory mixer, according to Valentine and
MacLean, are (1) that it yield a desired degree of mixing at the point of
most intense agitation, (2) that a satisfactory rate and direction of motion
of the entire body of material, however remote from the mixing element,
must be established and maintained, and (3) that it require the minimum
expenditure of power and in the shortest, most economical period of time.
Whether a particular type of mixer will meet these criteria in a given prob¬
lem can often be determined only by experiment. Valentine and Mac-
Lean have divided some 40 types of mixers into the following:
1. Flow mixers
2. Paddle or arm mixers
3. Propeller or helical mixers, including screw conveyors
4. 1 urbines or centrifugal impeller mixers
5. Colloid mills and homogenizers
6. Miscellaneous types including slurry, mass, solid, and drum mixers
t will be noted that this classification is based upon equipment rather
than materials.
In flow mixers the material is pumped and the mixing effect produced
by interference with the flow. Mixers of this type are used in continuous
or circulating systems, generally for miscible fluids or occasionally for
e mixing o two phases. This principle of mixing is employed in mixers

ntredi011! • ’TT* Up0n an°ther’ in iniectOT fixers where a second

in'air Uft mdT "I Wk6 mai" Stream’ in baffle and orifice columns,
air-lift and long draft-tube mixers, in mixers using centrifugal pumps
134 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN
- --[CHAP. 4

with or without recirculation, and in towers for the absorption of gas in

liquids.
Paddle or arm mixers include a great number of types ranging from
simple paddles to combinations of stationary and movable paddles and
double-motion agitators consisting of two paddles operating in opposite
directions; horseshoe type of scraper agitator, traveling paddle agitators,
off-center paddle, mulling wheels within a rotating pan, epicyclic course
paddles, and heavy double-arm dough mixers with impellers of the Z or S
type for the handling of heavy, doughy, gummy, and plastic masses.
Propeller mixers operate with peripheral speeds in the range between
1,000 and 2,000 fpm. The portable types generally use two propellers
with blades set to propel in opposite directions (push-and-pull type).
The propeller may be driven from the top or through the side of the tank,
with or without a draft tube surrounding the propeller.
Turbine mixers use impellers similar to a centrifugal pump impeller,
submerged in the material to be mixed and rotated at moderately high
velocity. The impeller may or may not be provided with stationary
deflecting rings. One patented form of the turbine mixer, the turbomixer,
is made in a number of variations for both batch and continuous mixing of
liquids ranging from low viscosity up to that ot paints and for the con¬
tacting of liquids and gases.
The action of colloid mills is a combination of fluid shear and impact
caused by high centrifugal force. Although there are many different
types of construction, all colloid mills operate by forcing the materials to
be dispersed or emulsified between surfaces placed very close together and
having a high relative velocity with respect to each other. Colloid nulls
have very high power requirements, the commercial units varying from
5 to 100 hp at 3,000 rpm.
The homogenizer consists of a high-pressure hydraulic pump m com¬
bination with a spring-loaded valve through which the pressure is sud¬
denly released so as to give a very high degree of impact of the comP°*ients
being emulsified against a plate or ring. Pressures in excess of 1,000 psi
^ LlliUluiiiovA *^o i- ' * . . /»

generally employed. Homogenizers are used m the production o

are
certain pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, and to a considerable extent m
the dairy and ice-cream industries.
The tumbling barrel, ball mill, rake mixer, Vee-cylinder blenders, paper
beater mixing or compounding roll, and putty chaser arc among the
mTsceUaneous types of mixing equipment. The compounding of heavy
semidry masses has led to the introduction of the rotating pan mill, which
has a revolving pan as well as a circular motion of the muller.
Power Consumption of Mixers. Valentine and MacLean n, Perry s
tt Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., sec. 17, give theoretical horse
f« propellers. The, .«« tto. U» P—r —f-
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 135

tion of colloid mills and homogenizers, for production of 100 gph, will
vary between 20 and 50 hp. These authors also give figures on power
consumption for occasional specific problems.
Choice of Process Mixers. A great number of specific pieces of process
equipment incorporate mixers of one sort or another, usually foi the pro¬
motion of reaction. Among these pieces of equipment may be mentioned
autoclaves, bleaching equipment, cookers, chlorinators, digesters, dis¬
solvers, emulsifiers, extractors, kettles, nitrators, percolators, retorts,
reducers, and sulfonators.
As has been indicated, mixer choice frequently is a matter of experience
or experiment. Consequently, the tabulated data of Valentine and
MacLean, in which specific recommendations for certain mixing ranges
are made, should be of great value. Practically any material of construc¬
tion may be used in a mixer. Mild steel is the most common material,
but almost all the special metals and alloys, as well as nonmetallic coat¬
ings, can be used.
Costs. Installed cost data on practically all types of mixers and
blenders are given in Figs. 6-15 to 6-21.

Tanks and Reaction Vessels

Storage, transportation, and processing of materials, particularly gases

and liquids, require the use of tanks and reaction vessels for a wide varia¬
tion of temperature and pressure conditions. A few principles employed
in this type of materials handling will be presented.
Storage of Liquids. Bulk storage of liquids is generally handled by
closed tanks to prevent escape of volatiles and contamination. In some
instances, such as water storage, where contamination and dilution are not
a factor, large open reservoirs can be employed. Natural terrain, con-
crete-walled excavations, or concrete tanks without tops are typical
construction. Reinforced-wall design is required and the concrete must
be waterproofed with a suitable paint to prevent any possibility of leaking.
. ,Stora&e of liquid materials in a typical process industry is carried out
in tanks classified as spherical or vertical and horizontal cylindrical.
nice safety is an important consideration in storage tank design, the
National Fire Protection Association1 and the American Petroleum Insti¬
tute- publish rules for safe design and operation. Vertical tanks are most

Zh!c°? wGr T °Utd0°r St0mge for such materials as petroleum

construction ^ V *pical °f eleVatcd vertical outdoor
. uction. They are used for maintaining a uniform head of water
stoie water for temporary emergencies and for fire protection. Hori-

Storage, Handling and Use of Flammable Liquid,” NFPA No in I M,c 1

"s :”deCd°,n0ASrCiatiOn’ 60 ^-march Boston, Mast ll54 ’

Standard 12c, Amencan Petroleum Institute, 50 W. 50th St.,’New York.
136 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4
zontal tanks are most frequently found inside buildings where floor loading
and allowable headroom are prime considerations. A scries of horizontal
pressure vessels of 2 to 6 ft in diameter are used for bulk storage of liquids
under pressures greater than 250 psig. Typical piping includes individual
pressure relief valves and a common header. Spherical tanks using the
thin-steel construction of vertical storage tanks are economically designed
for pressures ranging between 2 and 250 psig.
Venting of storage tanks is an important design consideration. In the
low vapor-pressure, nonflammable category, an inverted U or downcomer
cap of the open type should be specified. The venting capacity in terms
of scf air should be twice the pumping rate. Storage of flammable
liquids requires flame arrestors on all vapor openings. Flame arrestors
consist of a number of thin slotted plates in a small chamber of 40- to
60-mesh wire screen of such a design that rapid heat dissipation prevents
sustained combustion. Tanks for conserving valuable fluids of sig¬
nificant vapor pressure are vented via pressure-vacuum controlled open¬
ings. These are commercially available and work on an open-close
pressure range tolerance. This avoids loss by normal tank breathing
caused by ambient temperature cycling.
Gas Storage. Atmospheric pressure gas can be stored in vertical
cylindrical tanks commonly known as wet- or dry-seal gas holders The
wet gas holder maintains a liquid seal of water or oil between the top
movable inside tank and the stationary outside vertical tank. A dry-seal
holder maintains a seal between the inner and outer tanks by means oi a
flexible rubber or plastic sheet. It is specified where dry gas storage is a

^Recent developments in bulk natural gas or gas product storage show

that pumping the gas into porous underground strata is the cheap**
method available. High-pressure gas must be stored in a bank ot sphen
cal or horizontal cylindrical pressure \ essels.
' Transportation of Liquids. Tank cars, consisting of horizontal cyhn-

f 4 000 to 12 000 gal. Materials of construction o e

range from 4,000 to 12,uuu Liauids which attack carbon
must conform to corrosion specifications Liq COat-
steel are handled in lined tanks. A11°y ^dmg, mbber ^ ^
ings, and glass or lead linings are pre\. elevated temperatures are
mally solid at room temperature u . loading and unloading,
handled by use of internal heating coils. Dunn o^
1 Pamphlet No. 9, Interstate Commerce Commas,on, Bureau of L.,
St., New York.
CH VP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
137

steam, Dowtherm, or hot oil is circulated to liquefy the tank contents,

which can then be removed by pumping, siphoning, or blowing.
Tank cars can be either rented from railroads or purchased outright
from fabricators. Rental rates vary from $50 per month for steel tank
cars to $250 per month for stainless-steel tank cars with special fittings.
Purchased price of tank cars is 40 to 60 per cent higher than that of the
tank itself (see Figs. 6-26 and 6-27).
Tank trucks moving on highways furnish a second method of trans¬
portation, generally for short-radius haulage. Design considerations
are similar to those for tank cars. The maximum tonnage is limited by
state and ICC regulation with a top loading of 15 tons in most states.
In recent years, pipeline pumping has been used for moving large-
volume raw materials, such as petroleum, for thousands of miles across
country at a cost lower than for tank cars and competitive with water
transportation.
Transportation of Gases. Insulated tank cars are available for ship¬
ping liquefied oxygen and nitrogen. Where high-pressure gas is trans¬
ported locally, trucks carrying racks of horizontal cylindrical pressure
vessels are available. Smaller volume deliveries are made in vertical gas
cylinders. All designs must conform to ICC regulations.
Transportation of gases, particularly from petroleum operations, via
pipelines over a range of several thousand miles is a common practice in
the gas industry. (See pages 142 to 144.)
Processing of Materials. Tanks, towers, and reactors of all types are
common in chemical processing. Open-head tanks of thin-gauge steel
to autoclaves of 3,000 psia are typical. For comments on the design of
vessels ol this category, see the following section on mechanical design
and fabrication (pages 150-151).
Cost of Tanks and Reaction Vessels. Installed cost data for typical
equipment discussed in the previous sections are given in Figs. 6-26, 6-27,
6-28, and (>-50. V here jacketed tanks are required, add 35 per cent to the
installed cost prices.

Electrical Equipment

Motors. Certain fundamental considerations must be taken into

account in selecting the correct motor and control for a given job The
first factor to consider is the size or horsepower rating of the motor
miuired to handle the job; with standard drives, most machinery builders

machine^o thlt T* fif® h°rSepower demanded by their particular

d recommended n r the(nearest hiSher standard horsepower rating
nr ' commended. On drives of an intermittent nature, where peak loads

izsrrr'r!* -v •< »•««. 4.

• occur, the motor rating ,s based not only on torque capabilities
138 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4
but also on thermal capacity sufficient to handle the average or root-
mean-square loads.
Some process equipment such as reciprocating pumps, compressors, and
conveyors must be started while fully loaded; other drives such as cen¬
trifugal pumps, fans, and agitators have light loads at starting. Many
applications require considerably more torque to start and accelerate the
load than to run it; the reverse is also true. Starting torque, maximum
or breakdown torque, inertia of the load, and the accelerating time must
be considered.
The operating speed characteristics of the process equipment dictate
the type of motor and control to be applied. Most drives operate at a
speed lower than that of the motor, thus requiring some form of speed
reduction. The gearing may be via direct-connected coupled motor or
a speed reducer may be used. Variable or adjustable speed performance
must be definitely established as to speed range, degree of speed adjust¬
ment, and load requirements at all speeds. Constant-torque or constant-
horsepower drives both require variable-speed or multispeed motors with
suitable control equipment.
Classification of Motors. Motor and control selection is strongly influ¬
enced by the ambient conditions under which they will be operating.
The National Electric Manufacturers Association1 has classified motors
according to mechanical features, particularly cooling methods as ielated
to surrounding conditions:
1. Open machine: windings directly exposed to cooling air
a. Dripproof: material cannot enter the motor if the approach angle is not greater
than 15° from the vertical
b. Splashproof: material cannot enter the motor if the approach angle is not grea er
than 100° from the vertical
2. Totally enclosed machine: cooling is not done by open, direct exchange am i
ambient gas, but motor is not gastight
a. Non ventilated: no method provided for cooling
b Fan-cooled: forced circulation by an integral fan unit
c Explosion-proof: motor built to prevent ignition of combustible gases by sparks,
flashes or explosions and to withstand an explosion within the motor housing
d. Dust-explosion proof: same as (2c) except it deals with combustible dust-laden

, "erproof: prevents water, even in a direct stream, from entering the motor:
leakage which may occur around the shaft is prevented from entering the oil
reservoir by automatic draining

If the location is indoors, the temperature and availability of clean

ventilating air must be investigated. For outdoor operation, concern
don should be given to prevailing weather, rain, snow, sand, or dust
storms and especially extremely high or low temperatures such as abo
1 NEMA Standards for Motors and Generators, 1955; National Electric Manufac¬
turing Association, 155 E. 44th St., New York.
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 139

40°C or below 10°C. In explosive atmospheres, the liquid, vapor, gas, or

dust involved must be clearly established so as to specify suitable elec¬
trical equipment. Special pumps and agitators are specified to operate
with submerged motors. Hazards such as corrosive fumes, acid spray,
excessive moisture, oil vapor, salt air, abrasive dust, steam, and fungus
growth must be given serious attention to make sure motors and controls
are selected with proper protection, or are located away from the con¬
taminated area. Provision must be made to take care of any abnormal
vibration, shock, or tilting that may be transmitted from the driven
machine to the motor, or controlled through shafts, couplings, and
mountings.
Motors and controls are rated for satisfactory operation at rated load
without exceeding the nameplate temperature rise, with an ambient
temperature not exceeding 40°C, at any elevation from sea level up to
3,000 ft; the motor temperature rise will increase 1 per cent of the name¬
plate rise for each 330 ft above 3,300 ft. For operation above 6,000 ft,
continuous duty resistors, autotransformers, and control circuit trans¬
formers must be dropped to 75 per cent of their normal kva rating.
Power Supply. A few plants may be located in areas where only direct
current is available from the local power supply; the combined demand
for large amounts of low-voltage d-c power and low-pressure steam for
process work may well be chosen for all drives throughout the plant,
particularly if materials-handling equipment such as cranes, hoists, and
car dumpers is being operated or if a number of machines require speed
adjustment. If a great many constant-speed motors and/or if large
horsepower ratings are involved, economic considerations may justify
bringing in a new a-c power supply or installing a-c generating equipment
to permit the use of squirrel-cage or synchronous driving motors. Alter¬
nating-current motors are designed to operate successfully at rated load
with a variation in voltage of plus or minus 10 per cent of rated voltage
or a variation in frequency of plus or minus 5 per cent of rated frequency.
. ny deviation from rated frequency and voltage will result in changes in
power factor, torque, speed, and efficiency.
Metal-clad switchgear equipment with air or oil circuit breakers should

5 000™/ °k v.Start!ng and controllin§ motors for operation above

o,000 volts or (2) where the motor rating exceeds the capacity of industrial
contiol contractors and circuit breakers. For low-voltage circuits a
separate starter, with or without a combination air circuit breaker for
s or -circuit protection, might be specified for each motor Where
un bei of motors are operating near a central location, the choice might
be a group control or control center with air circuit breakers and coTtfc

^rd^r^ " * -partme:tT“

140 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4

AC MOTORS DC

Compound wound
Normal -torque

Medium -torque
squirrel cage

squirrel cage

squirrel cage
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

Series wound
Synchronous

single phase
Wound rotor

Shunt wound
High-torque

High -torque
single phase
single phase
Low-torque
High-slip
1 1 - Satisfactorv

Agitators Vz to 15 hp
-

A ttrition and ball mills 20 to 900hp -

Banbury mixers 200 to 900 hp -

Beater up to 200hp
-

Blowers up to 500hp
-

Bucket elevators - 5 to 25 hp
•:-:L:Lxvv
Chippers up to 1,500 hp
-

Compressors up to 600 hp -

Conveyors - 3 to 100 hp
Cranes and hoists 3 to 150 hp -

Crushers 5 to 300 hp
-

Extractors 3 tolOOhp
-

Fans - up to 150hp
Grinders [pulp) ~ 1,000 to 4,000hp
Grinders and granulators - ’A to 30 hp
Hammer mills - 20 to 200 hp
Jordons - up to 400 hp
Kilns - 20 to 100 hp
Mixers - 2 to 200 hp
Pulverizers - !0 to 250 hp -
Pumps (centrifugal) - up to 1, OOO hp
Pumps (reciprocating) - up to 200 hp
Shredders - 5 to 300 hp
Stokers - 5 to 50 hp L
STARTER TYPES
Squirrel cage Mognetic full or reduced voltage.
Wound rotor Manual, semimognetic or full magnetic with secondary resistance.
Synchronous Magnetic full or reduced voltage.
Single phase Monual or mognetic full voltage.
Direct current Manual or mognetic with field and armature resistance.

RECOMMENDED VOLTAGES
Motor hp Voltage
Up to 150 550 or less
200 to 2,000 2,300
2,000 to 6, OOO 4, 160
Above 6, OOO 13,800
specifications and applications. Applications and starter
Fig. 4-5. Typical motor
types due to V. J. Kropf, Chern. Eng., 58(/)'. 124 (1951).

Power Factor. Most public utilities have a clause in their power con¬
tracts requiring a plant with low power-factor loads to pay a penal v
charge or an increased rate; the power factor of a motor represents t e
percentage of the load or power current to the total line curlen .
line current is made up of magnetizing or reactive current and pove.
active current. This reactive current represents just as real a bind
to the power system as the active or load current, even though it docs
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 141

not represent any actual work accomplished at the driven machine. 1 he

limiting factor of both generators and transmission lines as v^ell as plant
distribution systems is current- or ampere-carrying capacity. The power
company not only charges process plants for the kilowatthours used but
also imposes a severe penalty on any plant with excessive reactive loads.
Attention is being given to raising plant powder factor in an effort to keep
power costs and equipment investment to a minimum. Many plants use
overexcited synchronous motors with 80 per cent leading power factor for
constant-speed drives to compensate for the lagging power factor of other
machines. Power companies usually permit some lagging current with¬
out penalty so that the power factor need only be brought up to the
minimum allowable value or a little above it to obtain the most favorable
power rates. Consideration must also be given to plant-wiring capacity
and transformer ratings in determining exactly how far to go in correcting
plant power factor to gain the maximum benefits.
Demand Charges. Power companies usually include a so-called
demand charge in their rate structure based on the maximum load carried
during a given period of time; the power cost is sometimes computed on
maximum demand alone (see Table 6-13). Thus a peak load for only
1 hr or 1 day, regardless of how light the normal load may be, can result
in electrical charges of the same amount as though the plant had actually
used the peak power every day for the entire billing period. In most
process plants, motor-driven machinery represents a continuous power
load rather than an intermittent one. There are many applications,
however, requiring various motor operations from time to time as the
occasion demands. The plant operator or process engineer may save
his company a good many dollars in demand charges by scheduling addi¬
tional motor loads at off-peak periods and by operating the plant for a
majority of the time or for as much time as is practical at or near the
maximum peak power required.
Application of Types of Motors and Typical Costs. A classification of
types of motors applicable to specific processing equipment has been pre¬
paid by Ivropf m Fig. 4-5 with costs of motors given in Table 6-2 and

Gas Facilities

gafr'aTueM^r86 ^ °f heatin* Sases< air> and process

gas n a liquefied oi compressed gas state must be provided in most

dLulsedPfnCtheeS' J St°rage transPortatio» of gases have been

mscussed in the section on tanks and reaction vessels S ,<1
£X3T“,or “■* '-
’"** . 63(6): ,76 (,»5«).
142 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4
Gas Requirements. Modern chemical processes require one or more
gases under a wide range of pressures and temperatures, as shown in
Fig. 4-6. Air-handling equipment is still in the largest demand, with
such requirements as:

Pressure range,
Type and use Requirements
psig

Instrument air. 25-35 Extremely dry, oil-free

Utility air for motors, hoists, 100-125 Condensed phase oil and water
solids transport, fluid jet removed by centrifuge or filter
pumps, blow cases, and clean¬
ing
Process air for oxidation. 15-3,000 Same as for utility air
Liquid air separation. 100-600 Extremely dry, oil-free

Gas-moving Equipment. The principal types of equipment available

for gas pumping are blowers, compressors, ejectors, fans, and vacuum
pumps. The following is a general guide for selection of equipment based
on pressure and capacity requirement:

Max discharge pressure Inlet capacity

Type range, cfm
commercially usable, psig

Compressors:
Tlppinronatinp'. 40,000 10-10,000
Cpntrifiurfl.1 . 3,000 500-100,000
Rotary displacement. 150 100-5,000
Avifl.l flow. 100 100,000-5,000,000
Blowers:
30 20-70,000
Untnrv .
30 1,000-100,000
Centrifugal turboblower.
1 100-30,000
Fn ns .

Vacuum equipment Min suction pressure, mm Hg

O
Rotary displacement.
. ^ V 10“2
Steam jet ejectors. r v in -3
Mechanical rotor or vane, oil seal. 5 X 1C
• 1 X 10
Diffusion.

The reader is referred to Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,”

3d ed., pp. 1258-1261, 1439-1456, for a general description and for calcu-
lation methods on gas-moving equipment.
Selection of Compressor Equipment. Compressors for such gas processes
as liquid-air separation, hydrogenation, and desulfvuization must be non-
lubricated to avoid possible explos.ve reaction with 1ub,gating
Graphite rings are used in reciprocating compressors, and labv
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

mechanical seals are designed for centrifugals to provide the nonlubrica¬

tion features.
In general, reciprocating compressors are more economical than cen¬
trifugals for capacities below 10,000 cfm, but accurate total annual cost
comparisons should be made, starting at 1,000 cfm.

o Freon -11 refrigeration

o Chlorine liquefaction
o Freon-114 refrigeration
o Carbon dioxide to soda ash towers
o Plant service air |
o Low-pressure air fractionation
o Air for nitric acid
o Freon-12 refrigeration
o Steam-methane process for hydrogen
o Freon -22 refrigeration
o Ammonia refrigeration
o Engine starting
o Propane refrigeration
o Ethylene refrigeration
° Partial oxidation process for hydrogen
° Medium -pressure polyethylene
o Feed gas for ethylene
o Medium -pressure air fractionation
° Recycle gas for catalytic reforming
o Cor bon dioxide for dry ice
° Pipeline boosting
Low-pressure ammonia synthesis o
Nitrogen liquefaction o
High-pressure air fractionation o
Carbon dioxide for urea o
Oxo synthesis o
Medium -pressure ammonia synthesis o
Hydrogen for coal hydrogenation o
Medium high-pressure ammonia synthesis o
High-pressure ammonia synthesis o
Highest pressure ommonia synthesis o
Polyethylene synthesis o

10 10 10 ” 10“
10'
Maximum pressure levels for large-scale processes psig

process indusw i0mrt^ °fp- «•

co^JrrSSi0n' JransPortati°n of large volumetric rates of

For ,/' fluids.ls most economically accomplished by pipelines
lo. example, gas pipelines are used to transmit gases suclfas natural
gas, acetylene ethvlenp nnH tpp / , b as natural
to several thousandmi’lP=r t (propane, butane), over distances up
600 psi suction and 800 to 1 200 psi operatinS a* 300 to
ouu to 1,200 psi discharge, are stationed along the
144 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

pipeline to maintain gas-flow rates. Pipeline design is discussed in

Chap. 9.
Costs of Gas-moving Equipment. Figure 6-23 gives installed costs of
gas-moving equipment based on rated volumetric input. These costs
are for preconstruction cost estimating only. The maintenance cost
picture should also be examined when installed costs of several different
types of compressors are about equal. For example, centrifugals require
less maintenance than reciprocating or rotary machines.

Pumps and Pumping

The severe pumping demands in modern chemical plant service require
continuous heavy duty for long periods with freedom from forced shut¬
downs, flexible operating characteristics, ease of control, availability in
wide choice of materials of construction to meet a wide range ol operating
conditions (head, capacity, temperature, viscosity, etc.), maximum inter¬
changeability of pumps and parts, handling of solids and abrasives in
suspension, and a design that can tolerate some erosion and corrosion.
Pumps are used in chemical plants for a great number ot purposes in
transferring liquids, colloidal solutions, or solids suspended in gases or
liquids from one point to another. Pump transportation covers both
long and short distances, horizontal and vertical, under pressure heads
ranging from subatmospheric to very high pressures. Pumps are also
used to produce both high and low pressures in equipment to aid physical
or chemical processing reactions. Siphons, air-lilt systems, acid eggs,
and barometric legs are but rarely used in chemical plants for limited
applications; reciprocating pumps are next in extent of usage with cen¬
trifugal pumps being the major choice for chemical plants.
Reciprocating Pumps. The reciprocating pump is the oldest and best-
known form of pump. The delivery of liquid is effected by the displace¬
ment of a piston or plunger. As a general rule, reciprocating pumps are
used for comparatively small capacities against lg ea s- r wv!er
they will operate on higher suction lifts and will handle fluids ot higher
viscous consistency than centrifugal pumps. Since they will keep the
prime they are particularly suitable for installations that require auto¬
matic control. The capacities depend on the displacement of the plunge
and the speed with which it is operated. By increasing the speed, the
capacity may be changed without affecting the head except for incieasec
; the pip. by the

vacuum, compound, i filtpr-nress

hltei press hydraulic-press,
ny creamery, > the>
proportioning, fuel-oil, lime, and magma pumps, borne
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 145

capacity of reciprocating pumps are found in Perry’s “Chemical Engi¬

neers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 1426-1436.
The limitations of reciprocating pumps are (1) costly design to con¬
struct in special alloys, (2) rubbing contact and danger of seizure limit
choice of materials, (3) large space requirements, (4) pulsating flow, (5)
not generally suitable for dirt or abrasive-laden liquids, (6) relatively
inflexible operating characteristics, (7) most types require protection
against overpressure and power overload, and (8) reciprocating rod
difficult to seal against leakage.
Diaphragm Pumps. This is the only pump that is immune from
clogging and abrasive wear in handling pulps, sludges, and other non-
homogeneous materials. The suction type is an open pump and is not
designed to work against pressure heads. Diaphragm pumps have also
been developed to fill the recognized need in the chemical, metallurgical,
and sanitary fields for a pump that has all the wearing and operating
advantages of the open-suction type, with the additional property of
forcing pulps and sludges to high elevations or through horizontal pipes
for long distances. Capacities of diaphragm pumps can be varied by
changing the speed, length, and diameter of the piston diaphragm and
cylinder.
Centrifugal Pumps.1 The flow produced by a centrifugal pump is free
from pulsations, and its advantages are numerous. Such pumps are
compact, rugged, dependable, and simple to operate. They may be
operated manually or employ combined manual and automatic operation.
Auxiliary stand-by gas-engine drives may be used with either turbine or
m°toi drive, ensuring constant service. They will operate against a
closed discharge without building up dangerous pressures and will deliver
an inci eased capacity at reduced heads. The centrifugal pump has no
valves to stick, no reciprocating parts that must constantly be kept in
motion to prevent corrosion, and no close tolerances. Centrifugal pumps
are more dependable, easier to maintain, and cost less to install than
reciprocating types.
The centrifugal pump must be primed each time it is started. It will
not develop so high a suction lift as the reciprocating pump, and it shows
a decreased capacity when handling viscous liquids. Although a single-
stage pump has delivered at a head of 1,000 ft, practical designs limit the
head to not over 300 ft per impeller. For the higher heads, two or more
impellers are connected in series, the discharge from one impeller being the
suction of the next; the total head is the head of each impeller n uh pi ed

ent is built in one case and is known as a multistage pump each imnellor

““"o'
y, *Tr
hemical Engineers’ “* ““ “
Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 1417-1419.
146 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

one pump casing on account of the length of shaft. Room for a large
shaft is difficult to get because of the space required to lead the liquid into
the eye of the impeller, and a long shaft must be rigid in order to prevent
undue vibration. Where more than six stages are required, the usual
practice is to split the requirements into two pumps placed on both ends of
the motor shaft, and back to back to neutralize end thrust by having one
pump oppose the thrust of the other. As the capacity of the centrifugal
pump varies with the speed and the head varies with the square of the
speed, it is important that the pump be operated at the proper rate.
No installation should be made without checking speed, capacity, horse¬
power, etc., with the tables given for the pump by its manufacturer.
Specification of Centrifugal Pumps. Typical specifications of the all-
metal chemical centrifugal pumps are (1) deep stuffing box; (2) plenty ol
room for mechanical seal; (3) rugged construction of casing, bearings, and
shaft; (4) provision for water cooling of bearings; (5) extra erosion-cor¬
rosion allowance for longer life; (G) external bolting often used on casings
to permit use of special alloys; (7) simplified castings; (8) impeller nut
integral with impeller; (9) a solid corrosion-resistant shaft at the pump
end; (10) maximum interchangeability of pumps and parts, through
simplification and standardization in design; (11) flanged connections and
elimination of drains and vents to reduce corrosion (of threads, and at
sharp corners) and leakage; (12) easy adjustment of impeller clearance m
casing- (13) means of collecting leakage; (14) protection of bearing ous
in a bearings, and base plates from corrosion; (15) availability with either
open, semienclosecl, or closed impellers for different conditions, and
(16) special designs such as self-primmg and submerged.
Rotary Gear Pumps. These employ two meshing gears within a close-
fitting case Liquid is trapped by the gear teeth and carried from intake
to discharge The meshing of the gears seals the pump against backflow.
The screw pump is a special type of gear pump, employing too meshing
scuews iT a figure-of-eight casing. Such pumps are built to hand e any
liquid or semiliquid that will flow through a suction pipe, such as mo to,

brin., water, heavy a,.cl Ugh. “ttat pr.seur.s «p to

b- eZdi.g cellulose
1,000 psi oi moie. t P * • The slidinq-vane pump
nitrate solutions at pressures as high as 2,600 PSi- to
embodies an eccentric casing; either the rotor or ring
the casing or the casing is e lptica in s nq ^ rest station-

typ«:«- ,
ary ring. Because o adapted to the pumping oi
rotary gear and vane P h as molasses, tar, soap, and oil.

Sj:*r.iSig.n-—*-*y* -
 CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 147

by either piston or centrifugal pumps. Rotary pumps usually depend for

their lubrication on the material being pumped and, if long life is desired,
should not be used for liquids that do not have some lubricating qualities.
They are built with close clearances and consequently should not be used
for handling liquids containing grit or solids.
Materials of Construction for Pumps. The materials used in pump
construction depend upon the service demanded. Although all-purpose,
corrosion-resisting materials do not exist, there are materials that have
great resistance to specific corrosive reagents, and the knowledge of the
chemical reactivity between various chemical solutions and materials of
construction is necessary in proper pump selection.
Glass, porcelain, enamel-lined, and stoneware pumps have but limited
application owing to the inability to withstand mechanical and severe
thermal shock. The high silicon-iron alloys such as duriron, tantiron,
and corrosiron are more applicable to severe mechanical shock than the
materials mentioned above, but nonmachinability and the high cost of
grinding these very hard and brittle materials restrict their application.
Lead and lead alloys are applicable for pump materials but are limited to
uses wherein lead does not enter into the reaction. Special hard lead,
firmly adherent to a supporting outer shell of cast iron or other metal, has
been adopted as practicable. Hard-rubber-lined, Pyrex, and plastic
pumps aie also available and highly desirable for pumping hydrochloric
acid.
Brasses and bronzes, iron-base alloys, nickel, monel, magnesium alloys,
hard rubber, plastics, tin, aluminum, and like metals must be added to
ordinary gray and white cast iron as materials for pump construction.
Practically any alloy or modern metal can be fabricated into pumps, and
it remains only for the chemical engineer to stipulate the kind of solution
e wishes to handle, or the kind of metal, and the pump manufacturer will
attempt to construct a pump for the service demanded. (See Perry’s
Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 1424 )

Summary of Information Required for Selecting Pumps1

1. Capacity and head:
a. Maximum for each.
b. Permissible or desirable range for each.
c. Possible future change in requirements.
Desirable operating characteristics:
а. Constant head and capacity, or
б. Variable capacity and nearly constant head, or
c. \anable head with some variation in capacity, <
“ capacity against variable heads, etc.
automate'leST.may.Cal‘ for.variable speed, throttli or bypassing. Manual or
’ 1 hese factors influence selection of dri
See item 8 below.)
olman, Pumps, Chem. Eng., 69(3): 155 (195
148 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4
3. Nature of the liquid—Is it volatile? Lubricating? Corrosive? Unstable?
Effect of temperature, pressure, shear rates, time, etc., on its properties. (The
name of the liquid may be helpful in pump selection, but is not essential in itself
if complete data are furnished.)
4. Nature and size of solids in suspension.
5. Corrosion data—suitable materials of construction.
6. Range of operating temperature—Possible crystallization, solidification. Expan¬
sion problems? (Temperature may also influence materials of construction.)

5 10 20 50 100 200
1 Pump output, hydraulic hp

Flo 4-8. Over-all cadencies of— and drivers. rf * *

J. Happel, Chem. Eng., 60(1): 181 (195.H.I

7. Viscosity range-affects suction How“!I^^XwabM^ item 3 above). Plant

8. Tvpe of power or prime mover aval. emergency standby equip-

rrisss xssu* - -———'

ss 1” “"“'Sts'rs1'
,.en trifocal pumps are presented in lugs
horsepower. . . .953 are presented in Fig. 6--4.
11. Costs. Costs of pump equipment for 1 JO
 CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 149

ig. 4-9. Steam consumption of steam-driven pumps. [Courtesy of It. M Braca and
J. Happel, Chem. Eng., 60(1): 181 (1953).]

20 50
Broke horsepower
!IC;- ^lciencies ot three-phase induction motors. [Courtesy of R M Braca
andJ. Happel, Chem. Eng., 60(1): 181 (1953).] J
150 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4

Process Auxiliary Systems

Design and cost information for process piping, insulation, instru¬

mentation, and power systems is discussed in Chap. 9. Methods of han¬
dling preconstruction cost estimation of these auxiliary systems are given
in Chap. G.

MECHANICAL DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF EQUIPMENT

Although chemical engineers in plant design work are not usually

responsible for detailed mechanical design and fabrication of chemical
engineering equipment, they should have some knowledge of these
methods.

Development of Equipment Design

This is the province of mechanical engineers who work from the design
conditions as set up by the process engineering group and transmitted via
specification sheets. These sheets give pressure, temperature, pov er, and
approximate size requirements in addition to suggesting materials ol
construction. Standard equipment and construction items aie utilized
where possible, and designs are monitored by code regulations, such as the
ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels1 and others.2 Designs take
into consideration such items as allowable stress under maximum working
pressure and temperature, economic design, using such items as standaid
dished heads, wind loading on outside equipment, vibrational analysis,
power and torque requirements for agitation, and many similar problems.
For further background on this subject, the reader is referred to Hesse
and Rushton3 or Rase and Barrow.4
The results of these calculations are conveyed by sketches to engineer¬
ing draftsmen who prepare detailed drawings tor shop fabrication.

Equi ment Fabrication

The type of fabrication depends on the specific equipment being maim
factured. The most common fabrication methods for chermc d en^t-er-
ing equipment are those related to the preparation of tanks and pressu
vessels.

■ American Society of Mechanical Engineers 29 W 39th,8t New

2
Synopsis of Boiler Laws, Rules and Regulations by .aa A Boilerand
(USA and Canada), National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Undenv

M:CHC Equipment Design,” D. Van Nostrand

Cm.Bar^ Project Engineering of Process Plants,” John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.

 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 151
CHAP. 4]
Fabrication of Vessels. Shop construction men, working from shop
prints, make the basic layout of the equipment by marking on flat sheets
and other required metal forms. Excess material is removed by shearing
of straight-line, thin sheet sections or by flame cutting of sections up to
16 in. in thickness. Ease of oxidation of the metal is a requirement for
the oxygen-gas torch, and carbon steel is easily cut. Alloy metals require
an inert gas plasma jet flame. If the material is heat labile, expensive
sawing methods may have to be substituted. Holes are also cut out for
nozzles and manholes, and then the edges are ground in preparation for
butt welding.
Shaping of the cast pieces to design dimensions is done by such mechani¬
cal operations as bending, pressing, rolling, stamping, or die spinning, with
or without heat addition and subsequent annealing. Jigs, straps, jacks,
hoists, and wedges are used to assemble the pieces for seam-joining
procedures. Final hand grinding and edge alignment are followed by
tack welding. Butt-welding joints and other parts are then fused
together by electric-arc welding. The shielded-arc method is used
almost entirely for this type of joining. The compatible metal-wire or
rod electrode used is covered with a chemical flux coating which partly
vaporizes in the heat of the arc to form a protective inert gas blanket over
the molten pool of base and weld metal during cooling. Automatic, con¬
tinuous-feed welding machines are generally used for routine welding of
long seams with hand operation reserved for small or more complex sec¬
tions. Heliarc welding, in which a gas blanket is maintained by a jet of
helium or argon, is required for highly oxygen-sensitive alloys, such as
Hastelloy. Brazing and silver soldering are common for joining small
sections of cast-iron, steel, or copper-base alloys.
Preliminary testing is done next to uncover flaws in joining, and some¬
times in the metal itself. Nondestructive test methods, such as ultra¬
sonics and X- or gamma-ray inspection, are used on main welding seams.
Dye penetration, hydrostatic, or air-soap tests are also used to locate
leaks and cracks. Helium or Freon leak detectors are necessary for
more critical leak testing, particularly on high-vacuum equipment.
fabrication methods develop working stresses in the equipment which
may have to be relieved by heat treating to impart maximum strength and
prevent stress corrosion. A final hydraulic test at two to three times the
!;' e °peytmg pressure, as specified by code or local regulations, must
be made before the vessel is delivered to the customer.

pressm‘CamTcofi°fher Equipm,ent E(luiPme‘d, such as pumps, Corn-

Many of the r rS’ f madC fr°m CaStingS’ foi™> “d stampings.
152 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

EXAMPLE OF AN EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION JOB*

For this example, representative equipment suppliers have been speci¬

fied by use of the Chemical Engineering Catalog.”2 This gives the
student practice in using this excellent reference. Additional specifica¬
tions were obtained from the equipment suppliers’ pamphlets. Detailed
information of this type is not required for preconstruction cost estimating
as developed in Chap. 6. Only materials of construction and the data
required to use the abscissas of the cost estimating curves are generally
sufficient.
Sample Calculations for Equipment Design

A-l. Benzol transfer pump

Duty: Explosion-proof pump capable of delivering tank carlot of technical benzol to

storage in 3 hr

Benzol rate: = 44.5 gpm

o X bO
Maximum head: 15 ft
Selection: 50-gpm pump with 1-hp motor at 1,200 rpm recommended

A-2. Benzol storage tank

Duty: Storage capacity for 2 weeks’ processing required plus allowance for tank
carlot
2 029
Daily consumption: q §79 x 8 33 =

Two weeks' supply: 10 X 278 = 2,780 gal

Tank carlot: 8,000 gal
Minimum tank capacity: 2,780 + 8,000 = 10,780 gal
Safety allowance: 10 per cent or 1,078 gal
Selection: Two tanks of 6,000 gal (nominal) capacity each. Dimensions and speci¬
fications as recommended by Henderson.3

A-3. Benzol feed pump

Duty: Explosion-proof pump to feed technical benzol continuously into chlorinator
10,483
Benzol rate: = 1.0 gpm
0.879 X 8.33 X 24 X 60
Maximum head: 20 ft
Selection: 7-gpm centrifugal pump with >$-hp motor

A-4. Water demineralizer

Water requirements: o 33 x 24 =
Selection: 10-gph Barnstead cation-anion exchange unit with full automatic controls

1 Reference: Manufacture of Benzene Hexachloride, Chap. 3. (Note that the letter-

number references, for example, A-l, of equipment in the sections which follow are
based on the equipment flow sheet in Fig. 3-2.)
2 Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1959.
3 J. G. Henderson, Chem. Eng., 54(3): 106 (1947).
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 153

A-5. Chlorine evaporator

Duty: A device capable of evaporating 4,228 lb of liquid chlorine per day using hot
water at 150°F as the heating medium
Heat requirements:
Latent heat of chlorine:1 121.0 Btu/lb at 30.1 F
Max. heater temperature:1 150°F as the heating medium

Net heat of evaporation: X 121 = 21,300 Btu/hr

Sensible heat:^8 (150 - 30.1) X 0.223 = 4,700 Btu/hr

Total heat input: 21,300 + 4,700 = 26,000 Btu/hr

Log mean temp, difference: 148°F
Assume over-all heat-transfer coefficient: U = 75 Btu/(hr) (ft2) (°F)
Q 26,000
Heating area required: 2.34 ft2
U X AT ~ 75 X 148 =
Selection: Hairpin-type heat exchanger, mounted vertically, with 5 ft2 of heating
surface and ample free space on shell side

B-l. Chlorinator

Basis of design: Extrapolation of subpilot reactor conditions and results: Reactor

charge consisting of 2,038 g of organic phase and 285 g of the aqueous phase
permitted the absorption of 20 liters/hr (59 g/hr) of chlorine at a reaction
temperature of 70°C with 99 per cent conversion of the chlorine
Deductions: To absorb 4,228 -5- 24 = 176 lb of chlorine per hour will require a
minimum of

17%9 X 2,038 = 6,080 lb of product phase

Corresponding weight of aqueous phase:

jj5]Q X 6,080 = 1,309 lb

Calculation of minimum volume of reactor:

Volume of product phase: 6,080- 709 rro 1

1.0340 X 8.33.

Volume of aqueous phase:-1,342- 1 ue

1.0975 X 8.33.
Add 50 per cent extra capacity for safety factor
Add 20 per cent for free board
Total capacity required

Selection: Jacketed-type XXL Pfaudler glass-lined reaction kettle with glass-lined

agitator, nominal 1,500 gal capacity

Reflux condenser

The basic heat balance equation is

Heat input + heat of reaction at 25°C = heat output

T. Anderson, Ind. Eng. Chem., 39: 845 (1947).

154 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

Heat and material balance data as developed in Chap. 3 were used to prepare Fig.
3-6. The reflux heat duty shown on this figure is 3,718,568 Btu/24 hr, or
155,000 Btu/hr.
Heat-transfer requirements:
Assume: Cooling water enters at ‘25°C and leaves at 35°C
Vapors are condensed at 70°C and condensate is cooled to 30°C
Over-all heat-transfer coefficient U = 100
Log mean temperature difference: 18°C (32.4°F)

Minimum condensing surface:

_Q_ = 155,000 = f
U X AT 100 X 32.4
Selection: Pfaudler glass-lined double-jacketed condenser with 62 ft2 of condensing
surface. (Note: A further factor of safety is contained in the cooling afforded
by 163 ft2 of cooling area of the reaction kettle jacket.)

B-3. Vent gas separator

Duty: An expansion chamber in which the condensate from B-2 may be separated
from the vent gases without entrainment
Selection: Pfaudler glass-lined vacuum receiver of 50 gal capacity

D-l. Dilute acid receiver

Duty: Storage for 1 week’s supply of dilute acid

3 127
Daily storage requirements: - X 8.33 = 286 gal

Weekly storage requirements: 5 X 286 = 1,430 gal

Selection: 1,500-gal horizontal glass-lined storage tank

D-2. Acid still feed pump

3,127_
14.28 gph
Acid flow rate: \ 9975 x 8.33 X 24

Head: 20 ft
Selection: proportioning pump

D-3. Acid stripping still

Duty: Required to strip a 36 per cent HC1 product from a 25 per cent feed; bottoms
to contain 20 per cent HCl

Still conditions:

Temp., HCl, HCl,

Lb /hr
°C wt % mol %

25.0 14.1 130.4

65
26.0 21.7 38.8
75
20.4 11.2 91.6
Bottoms. 110

Mols vapor rising (mole distillate): 1.765 mols/hr

Mols liquid descending: 4.562 mols/hr
; \. 4-56^ =
Reflux ratio (still used as stripper only). 1J65
CH\P. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 1 DO

Determination of theoretical plates required: The calculation of the plate requirements

was made by the McCabe-Thiele method.' The equ.hbnum curve for IICl-
water was calculated from data given in the " Chemical Engineers Handbook.
Number of theoretical plates required: 2 + reboiler
Assume plate efficiency of 50%
Actual plates required: 2 -4- 0.50 = 4 + reboiler
Assume maximum free vapor velocity equals 1.0 fps
1.765 X 359 X 383 _ n 0/1A nfo
Max. vapor rate: 60 x 60 v 275

Cross-sectional area of column: 0.246 -4- 1.0 — 0.246 ft2

Required diameter of column: 6.72 in.
Selection: A Karbate column of 8 in. nominal diameter will be used. Four bubble
cap plates and a reboiler will be furnished. Using a plate spacing of 18 in.
requires a column height of 12 ft.

D-4. Acid still condenser

Heat of condensation of water: 589 X 540 X 1.8. 572,500 Btu/day

Heat of condensation of benzene: 7 X 95 X 1-8. 1,200
QQl
Heat of solution of HCl:3 X 17,400 X 1.8. 505,400
o6.5
Sensible heat: 931 X 1.0 X (75-30) X 1.8. 75,400
Total heat transferred. 856,200 Btu/day
Assume: Over-all heat-transfer coefficient, U = 100
Log mean temperature difference: 25°C (41°F)

Heat-transfer area required: ^ ^ = 24 X^IOO^X 41 = ^ ^

Selection: Heat exchanger using 10 BWG 18 tubes, 2 4 in. diam., 4 ft long, in nominal
6-in. shell

D-5. Cone. HC1 receiver

Didy: Storage of one day’s supply of 36 per cent HC1 acid

931
Daily storage requirements: p17g9 x g 33 = 95.9 gpd

Selection: 100-gal glass-lined receiver

D-6. Cone. HC1 pump

Duty: Iransfer of 36°Be acid from receiver to storage and from storage to tank car
Selection: 10-gpm pump

D-7. Cone. HC1 storage

Selection: A 10,000-gal rubber-lined steel tank recommended to allow sufficient

capacity to store a tank carlot of muriatic acid in addition to 2 weeks'
production

1 J. H. Perry (ed.), “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 591, McGraw-Hill

Book Company, Inc., New York.
2 Ibid., p. 166.
8N. A. Lange, “Handbook of Chemistry,”
p. 1504, Handbook Publishing Co.,
Sandusky, Ohio, 1956.
156 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4
D-8. Acid recycle pump

2,196
Liquid rate: 10.4 gph
1.057 X 8.33 X 24
Selection: 20-gph volumetric pump

E. Crude product pump

14,319
Flow rate: 1.152 gpm
1.034 X 8.33 X 24 X 60
Selection: 10-gpm pump

F-l. Caustic make-up tank

Daily caustic make-up: ■

l.UUo X
*I, 0
o.oo
=371 gal

Weekly make-up: 371 X 5 = 1,855 gal

Selection: 2,000-gal steel tank equipped with Lightnin angular off-center agitator

F-2. Caustic transfer pump

Duty: Transfer 1,855 gal of 1 per cent caustic solution to storage in 3 hr

Flow rate: 1,855 4 3(60) = 10.3 gpm
- -

Selection: 10-gpm cast-iron centrifugal pump

F-3. Caustic storage

Selection: Horizontal steel tank to hold 2 weeks’ supply of 1 per cent caustic, i.e.,
4,000 gal capacity

F-4. Caustic feeder

3,101
Flow rate: = 15.4 gph
1.006 X 8.33 X 24
Selection: Proportioning pump with automatic pH control

F-6. Neutralizer

Duty. A resistant vessel of sufficient capacity to permit 1-hr retention of materials

14,319 . 3,101 _ 2 Q34
Daily flow rate: x 0340 x 8.33 + 1.006 X 8.33 ’

Hourly flow rate: 2,034 4 24 = 85 gph

- -

Selection: 100-gal glass-lined kettle with agitator

F-6. Spent caustic separator

Duty: One hour's retention of process materials required to effect satisfactory

separation of the two phases involved
Selection: 200-gal steel tank with conical bottom

G-l. Flash still feed pump

14>31^-- = 1.15 gpm

Flow rate. ] 0340 x 8>33 X 24 X 60

Selection: Same as item A-3

 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 157
CHAP. 4]
G-2. Flash still

Requirements: A continuous evaporator of sufficient size to hold 8-hr charge with

enough heat-transfer area to evaporate 391 lb of solvents per hour
Heat-transfer calculations:
Heat of evaporation (Btu/day):
For benzene, 8,337 X 90.6 X 1.8. 1,359,600
For monochlor, 969 X 77.6 X 1.8. 135,350
For BHC, 24 X 70.0 X 1.8. 3,000
For water, 45 X 540 X 1.8. 43,750
Sensible heat:
Feed stream, 14,299 X (100 - 60) X 1.8. 1,029,500
Recycle stream, 7,230 X (100 - 30) X 1.8. 912,000

Total heat transfer, Btu/day. 3,483,200

Hourly heat transfer: = 145,100 Btu/hr

Assume steam is available at 15 psig (122°C) and the over-all heat-transfer

coefficient U = 200
Mean temperature difference: 122 — 100 = 22°C, or 39.6°F

Heating surface required: y ® ^ ^= 18.21 ft2

12 153 X 8
Required capacity of vessel: x 025 x 8 33 X 24 = 474,2 gal

Selection: Continuous evaporator and stripper of 500 gal capacity with heating
surface of 20 ft2

G-3. Flash still condenser

Heat-transfer requirements (Btu/day):

Heat of evaporation (see G-2).
1,541,700
Sensible heat: 9,376 X 0.45 X (100 - 30) X 1.8
531,100
Total heat transfer.
2,072,800
Hourly heat transfer: 2JLQ7^8QQ = 86>3G6 Btu/hr

Assume over-all heat-transfer coefficient U = 50

Log mean temperature difference: 23°C, or 41 °F

Condensing surface required: = 42.1 ft’

Selection: Single-pass stainless-steel condenser of 50 ft2 condensing surface

G-4. Solvent receiver

Ltvty: Retention of 1 week’s production of solvents

Daily capacity requirements:-^499_ __

1.011 X 8.33 A,i~8 gal
11 eekly capacity requirements: 5 X 1,128 = 5 640 gal
Selection: 6,000-gal, mild-steel tank, lead-lined

H-l. Crystallizer feed pump

Flow rate:
um^Ts/^x^oTeo = 9,79 gpm
Selection: 10-gpm centrifugal pump
158 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4
H-2. Crystallizer

Duty: To crystallize out major fraction of dissolved BHC from still bottoms by
cooling to 30°C
Heat transferred (per hour):
Sensible heat:
Q 41 K
For benzene, X 0.444 X (100 — 30) X 1.8. 7,920
24

For monochlor, X 0.309 X (100 - 30) X 1.8. 3,000

24

For BHC, x 0.211 X (100 - 30) X 1.8. 7,540

24
For water, 2^4 X 1.000 X (100 — 30) X 1.8.. 126
For trichlor, % X 0.350 X (100 - 30) X 1.8. 116

Total sensible heat, Btu/hr. 18,702

4 776 i ipr
Heat of crystallization:-pp X 5.87. 1,166

Total heat transferred, Btu/hr.. 19,868

Over-all heat-transfer coefficient U: In a similar crystallization (66 per cent hexa-
chloroethane in perchloroethylene) using a 6-in. Vogt crystallizer, the over¬
all coefficient was found to be 12 Pcu/(hr)(ft*)(°C). It is assumed that
this value of U is valid for the present requirements and that cooling water
enters at 25°C and leaves at 35 C.
Log mean temp, difference: 23°C, or 41°F
Q 19,868 _ ,n , m
Cooling surface required: jj ^ Af ~ X 41 ™ *
Selection: Double-pipe crystallizer, nominal 8 in. diameter To consist of 4 sec lions
each 20 ft long; each section shall be jacketed for 18 ft of its leng . et i\
heat-transfer area will be 153 ft2; total volume 24.9 ft3; process material

retention time 3.33 hr.

1-1. Continuous centrifuge

Solids separated: 4,923 4- 24 = 205 lb/hr

Clarified liquor: ppjpp^^T)^ “ 32 9 gph

Selection : Continuous centrifugal having a capacity of 550 lb/hr

1-2. Recycle liquor receiver

Duty: Storage of one day’s supply of recycle liquor

7,230 _ ygQ p.q]
Daily storage requirements: YlOO X 8.33
Selection: 1,000-gal horizontal storage tank of steel construction with lead hmng

1-3. Wet crystal hopper

Duty Retention of one day’s supply of wet crystals

Capacity requirements: (apparent density assumed to be 1.5)

4,800_= 51 2 ft3
1 5 X 02 5
• i * ni (3/ in 1 bin with tapered bottom to fit
Selection: 4 ft. diam X 6 ft stamless-steel M, »
on dryer screw feeder. Capac.ty equals 80 ft .
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 1^4

J-1. Rotary vacuum dryer

Duty ->00 lb /hr of BHC crystals containing 3 per cent volatiles (largely benzene)
‘is to be dried to M per cent volatiles. The solvent is to be recovered.
Type of equipment: A continuous vacuum rotary dryer is recommended for case ot
solvent recovery, rapid evaporation, reduced drying time, and a minimum of
loss and injury to the BHC product. .
Heat balance assumptions: Operating temperature, 60°C; operating pressure, -0 in.
vacuum (Note: Boiling point of benzene at 20 in. of vacuum is 45.5°C); drying
time required, 1 hr minimum; over-all heat-transfer coefficient, 10 Btu/hr;
water (in jacket) in at 80°C, out at 60°C.
Heat balance calculations (Btu/hr):
Heat of evaporation:

For benzene. 83 X ^. 607

„ , . 39 X 77.0 X 1.8 227

For monochlor,-^.. ^‘

. 1 X 563 X 1.8 A9
For water,-^.. ^
24
Sensible heat:

Of B1IC, 4’776 X 0211 X (60 ~ 30) x 18. 2,267

24
24 X 0.30 X (60 - 30) X 1.8 1A
24
Radiation loss: 20 per cent. 630

Total heat requirements. 3,789

Log mean temp, difference: 25°C, or 45°F
Q 3 jgg
Heat-transfer area required: ^ ^ ^ ^ = 8.42 ft2

Assuming a safety factor of 4, the actual design area will be 33.68 ft2.
Selection: Solvent recovery dryer. Nominal diameter, 1 ft 6 in.; length, 7 ft 0 in.
Actual drying time: Assuming 20 per cent of the dryer volume is occupied by the
solids, the retention time will be 1.74 hr.
K-l. Dry BHC hopper

Requirements: Two hoppers to hold one day’s supply of BHC product each

Daily capacity requirement: — = 51 2 ft3

1.5 X 62.5
Selection: 4 ft diam. X 6 ft stainless-steel hopper with conical bottom terminating
in 12 in. diam. outlet fitted with sliding-vane valve
K-2. BHC packaging and storage

Duty Packing area and storage for 2 weeks’ production of dry benzene hexachloride
( ontainers: 100 lb fiberboard drums, 16 in. diam. X 25 in.
Drums filled per day: 4,800 -i- 100 = 48
Drums per two weeks: 48 X 20 = 960
Height of stack: 3 drums
Floor area required: 960 X 1.78/3 = 570 ft2

L-l. Solvent still feed pump

Flow rafp •_ 9,499

' 0.908 X 8.33 X 60 X 24 = 0 872 SPm
Selection: Same as item H-l
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4

L-2. Solvent still

Calculation of number of theoretical plates: The McCabe-Thiele method will again be

used with benzene and chlorobenzene as the key components. The equilibrium
data will be calculated from vapor-pressure data given by Perry.1

Equilibrium data:

Vapor pressure, mm Hg Mol fr of benzene

Temp., °C
c6h6 C6H6C1 In liq. In vapor

80 760 1.000 1.000

90 1,016 208.4 0.683 0.914
100 1,344 293 0.444 0.786
110 1,748 405 0.256 0.589
120 2,238 543 0.128 0.378
130 2,825 719 0.0195 0.0726
131 760 0.000 0.000

Still conditions:
Feed: (Temp., 40°C; bp, 84°C)

Component Lb Mols Mol fr

Benzene. 8,420 108.10 0.904

Monochlor. 1,008 8.96 0.075
BHC. 24 0.08 0.001
Trichlor. 3
Water. 44 2.44 0.020

Total. 9,499 119.58 1 .000

Bottoms:

Component Lb Mols Mol fr

10 0.128 0.014
Benzene.
1,008 8.960 0.975
Monochlor.
24 0.084 0.010
BHC.
Trichlor. 3
1,045 9.172 1.000
Total.

Distillate:

Lb Mols Mol fr
Component

8,410 107.8 0.9777

Benzene.
44 2.44 0.0223
Wafpr .
8,454 110.24 1.0000
Total.

i Op. cit., pp. 153, 155, 165.

 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
161
CHAP. 4]
q-line calculations:
Feed enters at 40°C; average mol wt, 79.3
Average specific heat, 37.1 cal/(g mol)( C)
Average latent heat, / ,330 cal/g mol
To heat 1 g mol of feed at 40°C to saturated vapor at 84°C requires

37.1 X (84 - 40) + 7,330 = 8,960 cal/g mol

r 8,960 00
Therefore, q = = 1*22
1.22
Slope of q line, 22 = ^
, , • . * 0.99 0.33
Assuming reflux ratio equals 2, then the y intercept — % \

Theoretical plates required, 7

As a safety factor, assume plate efficiency is 33 per cent
Actual number of plates required, 21

Determination of column diameter:

Superficial vapor velocity in column (fps):

u = Kv 0.56 fps

where Kv = 0.14
Pi = 969
P2 = 56.2
-p, fl 110.24 X 359 nicof
Free vapor flow, 24 x 60 X 60 = 0 458 fps

Column area required, 0.458 -f- 0.56 = 0.81 ft2

Minimum column diameter, 6.5 in.
Selection: An 8-in.-diam. column with 21 bubble cap plates spaced 18 in. apart.
Each plate is to contain six 2-in. standard bubble caps. Feed connections will
be provided on the fourth and adjacent plates.
Reboiler:
Nominal capacity: Sufficient to hold one day’s supply of feed liquor, i.e., 114 gal
Heat-transfer requirements:
Product rate, 110.24 24 = 4.59 lb mols/hr
Hourly vaporization, 3 X 4.59 = 13.77 mols/hr
Heat of vaporization, 13.77 X 7,330 X 1.8 = 181,700 Btu/hr

To heat feed to boiling point, X 0.467 X (84 - 40) X 1.8

T , i , , = 14,500 Btu/hr
total heat requirements: 196,200 Btu/hr
Assume that 75 psig steam is to be used as the heating medium and the over-all
heat-transfer coefficient U = 150
Log mean temp, difference: 39°C, or 70°F

Heating surface required: _Q_ _ 196,20

18.7 ft2
U X AT 150 x :
Selections: A 100-gal still pot containing 71 ft of l>£-in. BWG
16 stainless-steel
tubing will be used. The designed heat-transfer area is 37.2 ft2.
i0Z CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

L-3. Solvent still condenser

Condensing surface required:

Assume over-all heat-transfer coefficient U = 100
Cooling water enters at 25°C and leaves at 35°C
Heat transferred, 181,700 Btu/hr
Log mean temp, difference, 50°C, or 90°F

Condensing surface, -r;——-= -181,700

& ' U X AT 100 X 90 •
Selection: Heat exchanger with 41 ft2 of condensing surface. (This is a duplicate of
item G-3.)

L-3a. Condensate cooler

Duty: To cool condensate from 80°C to 30°C

Assume: Over-all heat-transfer coefficient U = 75
Cooling water enters at 25°C and leaves at 35°C
Log mean temp, difference: 18°C, or 32.4°F
8,454 X 0.482 X (80 - 30) X 1.8
Heat transferred: = 15,273 Btu/hr
24

Min. cooling surface required: JT

Q ~ _
15,273
0 = 6.28 ft2
l /\ Ai / O X O^.t;
Selection: Double-pipe heat exchanger with 9.5 ft2 of surface

L-4. Wet benzol receiver

Duty: Storage capacity for one day’s receipts

8454
Required capacity: ^ x 8 33 = 1,127 gal

Selection: Nominal 1,200-gal welded horizontal steel tank

L-6. Wet benzol pump

Flow rate•
ttou) rate. Q--—
880 x 8 33 x 24 X 60 = 0.80 gpm

Selection: Same as item F-2 except bronze

M-l. Monochlor pump

1,045
4.73 gph
Flow rate: 2 107 x 8.33 X 24

Selection: Same as item H-l

M-la. Monochlor cooler

Duty: Cool monochlor from 131 to 30°C

Assume: Over-all heat-transfer coefficient U = 75
Log mean temp, difference: 30°C, or 54°F
T 1.045 X 0.320 X (131 - 30)_X_L8 = 9 Btu/hr
Heat transferred:-' 24~~

Required cooling surface: ^ - °-625 ft2

Selection: Double-pipe heat exchanger of 1-in. iron pipe with IH-in. jacket; length,
6 ft; cooling surface, 2.06 ft2
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
163

M-2. Monochlor storage

Duty: Storage capacity for a tank carlot plus 2 weeks production

Daily 'production: ^ x 8 33 = ga^

1.135 gal
Two weeks' production: 10 X 113.5.
Add tank carlot.
8,000
9.135 gal
Required tank capacity.
Selection: 10,000-gal horizontal all-welded steel tank

Equipment Specifications

A-l. Benzol transfer pump

No. required: Two

Material handled: Technical benzol at 30°C
Capacity rating: 50 gpm
Type: 1CNF-52 open impeller centrifugal
Maximum head: 15 ft
Material of construction: Bronze
Size inlet: iy in.
Size outlet: 1 in.
Mounting: Rigid steel base, flexible motor coupled
Motor: 1-hp, 220-400-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, squirrel-cage induction, 1,750 rpm
Available from: Worthington Corp., East Orange, N.J.

A-2. Benzol storage tank

No. required: Two

Type: Horizontal, all-welded
Nominal capacity: 6,000 gal
Dimensions: OD 8 ft 0 in., length 18 ft 0 in.
Construction: In accordance with ASME Code U 68 for Unfired Pressure Vessels;
all-welded with flanged and dished heads; shell thickness y2 in., head thickness
Vie, in.
Connections: Manhole 18 in., skimmer 6 ips, drains 3 in. (2 required), gauge con¬
nections 1}<Z in.; 2-in. vent
Material of construction: Mild steel
Available from: Lancaster Iron Works, Inc., Lancaster, Pa.

A-3. Benzol feed pump

No. required: Two

Capacity rating: 7 gpm (max)
Materials handled: Wet technical benzol at 30°C
Type: D-ll centrifugal, single-stage
Total head: 20 ft
Material of construction: Type 316 stainless steel
Size outlet: l/i in.
Size inlet: y in.
Mounting: Integral with motor
Motor: H-hp, split-phase induction, 60-cycle, 110-volt
a-c, General Electric
explosion-proof motor
Available from: Eastern Industries, Hamden, Conn.
104 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4
A-4. Water demineralizer

No. required: One

Capacity rating: 10 gph
Type: DM-10 Standard
Service: 24-hr operation per day
Controls: Full automatic control system
Dimensions (space requirements): Length 34 in., width 17 in., height 46 in.
Available from: Barnstead Still and Demineralizer Co., Inc., Boston, Mass.

A-5. Chlorine vaporizer

No. required: One

Type: Pfaudler type UB, hairpin tube bundle heat exchanger
Heat transfer area: 5 ft2
Service: Vaporize 4,228 lb of liquid chlorine per day
[Tube size: ^4-in. No. 14 BWG copper
Average length of hairpin: 4 ft
No. of hairpins: 4
Shell dimensions: Nominal 6-in. diameter, 60-in. over-all length
Connections: Liquid chlorine inlet 1 in., chlorine gas outlet 2 in., hot-water con¬
nections in.
Maximum pressure: 160 psi
Gaskets: Garlock 900, liquid chlorine service
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester 4, N.Y.

B-l. Chlorinator

No. required: Two

Type: XXL series Pfaudler glass-lined, jacketed, reaction kettle with agitator
Model No.: R-78-1500-1000
Nominal capacity: 1,500 gal
Jacket heating surface: 158 ft2
Kettle dimensions: Outside diameter 84 in., over-all height 110 in.
Materials of construction: %-in. open-hearth, steel-lined with acid-resistant g ass
Kettle connections: Outlet 3 in. flanged (supported stuffing-box type), manhole 18 m.
with full-vision peephole, vapor outlet 8 in. vertical flanged, agitator opening
6 in. ID, inlets 4 in. vertical flanged (3 required) . . , ..
Jacket connections: Overflow lM in. (2 required), steam or water inlet 2 in., bottom
drain 1 lA in. .
Mounting: Six 3-in. pipe legs, setting kettle 18 in. oH floor
Agitator: Type: 54-in. three-blade impeller, glass-covered, hollow shaft lor
mometer
R.p.m.: 90 .
Drive- Tvoe R-LBH with Pfaudler special gears n
Motor: 20-hp, 220-440-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle a-c, squirrel-cage in uc ion,

Stuffing box: Pfaudler high-duty type with bronze sleeve

Chlorine diffuser: 1-in. silica tube with twenty-five k-m. tange
Gaskets: Corning Type R-3
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N.1.
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
165

B-2. Reflux condenser

No. required: Two

Type: Pfaudler glass-lined, double-jacketed condenser
Condensing surface: 62 ft2
Dimensions: OD 30in., ID 22 in., over-all length 70 in.
Material of construction: Open-hearth steel; annular condensing chamber covered
with acid-resistant glass
Connections: Vapor inlet 6 in., condensate outlet 2 in., cooling-water connections 2 in.
Gaskets: Corning Type R-l
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N.Y.

B-3. Vent gas separator

No. required: Two

Type: Glass-lined vacuum receiver, Type VR-50
Rated capacity: 50 gal
Duty: Separate benzene-chlorobenzene-muriatic acid condensate from chlorine-
containing gases
Maximum temperature: 30°C
Dimensions: Diameter 24 in., over-all length 41 in.
Connections: Handhole 5 in., openings 2 in. (2 required), outlet 2 in.
Gaskets: Corning Type R-l
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N.Y.

C. Decanter

No. required: One

Type: Glass-lined receiver
Rated capacity: 100 gal
Materials handled: Chlorobenzene layer (sp gr 1.0340), muriatic acid layer (sp gr
1.0975)
Maximum temperature: 70°C
Material of construction: 7 i6-in. open-hearth steel covered with acid-resistant glass
on inside
Dimensions: Diameter 30 in., over-all height 43 in.
( onnections: Handhole 5 in. with peephole, openings 2 in. (2 required), bottom
outlet 2 in., side outlet 2 in.
Gaskets: Corning Type R-3
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N.Y.

D-l. Dilute acid receiver

R o. required: One
Type: Horizontal glass-lined tank
Rated capacity: 1,500 gal
Actual capacity: 1,841 gal
Materials handled: Muriatic acid at 60°C
Over-all dimensions: Diameter 78 in., length 100 in.
Connections: Manhole 18 in., outlet 2 in., opening 2 in.
Materials of construction: K6-in. open-hearth steel
glass-lined interior
Model No.: HW-508
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N.Y.
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

D-2. Acid still feed pump

No. required: Two

Capacity rating: 20 gph
Type: Milton Roy Simplex controlled volume model MD1-25-56 HB
Material handled: 25 per cent muriatic acid at 60°C
Maximum head: 20 ft
Materials of construction: Hastelloy B stainless steel with Hastelloy B catchall gland
cup and Teflon packing
Motor: J-^-hp, 110-volt, single-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, General Electric right-angle
gearhead open motor, 56 rpm
Available from: Milton Roy Company, Philadelphia, Pa.

D-3. Acid stripping still

No. required: One

Type: Karbate bubble cap column
Duty: Strip product containing 36 per cent HC1 from a 25 per cent feed with 20 per
cent HC1 in bottoms
Maximum pressure: 5 psi
Maximum temperature: 110°C
Material of construction: No. 28 Karbate column and bubble caps carbon-steel
supports
Dimensions: Nominal diameter 8 in., length 8 ft
No. of plates: 6 standard 8 in.
Reboiler: Lower 2 ft for column to be jacketed for 40 psi steam
Registry: U.S. Bureau of Internal Revenue
Available from: National Carbon C o., Inc., New 5 oik

D-4. Acid still condenser

No. required: One

Type: Fixed-tube sheet condenser
Service: Condense 36 per cent, muriatic acid vapor at 100°C
Tube length: 4 ft
Tube size: Yt-in. BWG 18
No. of tubes: 10
Shell diameter: 6 in.
Over-all dimensions: 12 in. diameter X 5 ft length .
sholl
Materials of construction: Everdur tubes; tube sheets and bonnets, mild steel
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N.Y.

D-6. Cone. HC1 receiver

No. required: One

Capacity rating: 100 gal
Type: Pfaudler glass-lined receiver, model V K mu
Character of contents: 22°Be muriatic acid at 30°C
Dimensions: OD 30 in., height 43 in. ,, . 2 :n

Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N.Y.

CHAP. 4] SELECTION OE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
167

D-6 Cone. HC1 pump

No. required: One

Rated capacity: 7 gpm
Type: D-ll centrifugal, single-stage, open impeller
Service: Intermittent transfer of 36 per cent muriatic acid from receiver o s orage,
and from storage to tank car
Maximum head: 25 ft
Material of construction: Hastelloy C
Size inlet: J4 in.
Size outlet: H ln- ,,
Motor: %-hp, 110-volt, split-phase induction, 60-cycle, a-c, General Electric totally
enclosed motor
Available from: Eastern Industries, Inc., Hamden, Conn.

D-7. Cone. HC1 storage

No. required: One

Nominal capacity: 10,000 gal
Type: Horizontal all-welded steel tank, rubber-lined, vented
Character of contents: 22°Be muriatic acid
Dimensions: OD 9 ft 0 in., length 23 ft 6 in.
Construction: All welded mild steel with flanged and dished heads. Head thickness
?{6 in., shell thickness Y in., internal lining Gi6 in., acid-resistant rubber
Connections: Manhole 18 in., skimmer 6 in., drains 3 in. (2 required), gauge con¬
nections in.
Supports: 4 concrete saddles
Available from: Lancaster Iron Works, Inc., Lancaster, Pa.

D-8. Acid recycle pump

No. required: Two
Capacity rating: 20 gph
Type: Milton Roy Simplex controlled volume pump model No. MD1-25-56-HB
Liquid handled: 20 per cent muriatic acid at 110°C
Maximum head: 30 ft
Material of construction: Hastelloy B stainless steel with Hastelloy B catchall gland
cap and Teflon packing
Motor: K-hp, 110-volt, single-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, General Electric right-angle
gearhead open motor, 56 rpm
Available from: Milton Roy Company, Philadelphia, Pa.

E. (’rude product pump

No. required: Two
Rated capacity: 7 gph
lype: D-ll centrifugal, single-phase, open impeller
Materials handled: Chlorobenzenes containing muriatic acid at 70°C
Maximum head: 20 ft
Material of construction: Hastelloy C
Size inlet: Y in.
Size outlet: Y in.
Motor: Gs-hp, 110-volt
’ split-phase induction, 60-cycle, a-c, General Electric totally
enclosed motor
Available from: Eastern Industries, Inc., Hamden, Conn.
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

F-l. Caustic make-up tank

No. required: One

Nominal capacity: 2,000 gal
Type: All-welded vertical tank
Character of contents: 1 per cent caustic at 30°C
Over-all dimensions: Diameter 7 ft 0 in., height 7 ft 0 in.
Construction: 34-in. mild steel, all-welded open tank
Connections: Skimmer drain 1 in., final drain 1 in., agitator opening 1 in., hole 6 in.
from bottom of tank, 2-in. vent
Supports: Four 3-in. pipe legs, 6 in. off floor
Available from: Lancaster Iron Works, Inc., Lancaster, Pa.

F-la. Caustic make-up tank agitator

No. required: One

Type: Lightnin 1-hp angular off-center agitator
Dimensions: Propeller diameter 6 in., shaft diameter in., effective shaft length
8 in.
Material of construction: Steel propeller and shaft, bronze bearings
Motor: 1-hp, 220-440-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, squirrel-cage induction, 1,750 rpm
Available from: Mixing Equipment Co., Inc., Rochester, N.Y.

F-2. Caustic transfer pump

No. required: One

Nominal capacity: 10 gpm
Type: H CNF-42
Materials handled: 1 per cent caustic at 30°C
Maximum head: 20 ft
Size inlet: 1 in.
Size outlet: % in.
Material of construction: Cast iron
Motor: 34-hp, 110-volt, single-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, squirrel-cage, induction, 1,200
rpm
Mounting: Rigid steel base, flexible motor coupling
Available from: Worthington Corp., East Orange, N.J.

F-3. Caustic storage

No. required: One

Nominal capacity: 4,000 gal
Type: Horizontal all-welded steel
Character of contents: 1 per cent caustic at 30°C
Over-all dimensions: Diameter 7 ft 0 in., length 15 ft 6 in.
Construction: All-welded mild steel with Hanged and dished head; head thickness
34 in., shell thickness He in- , . , , .
Connections: Manhole 18 in, skimmer 1 in, drain 2 in, openings 1 in. and 2 in,
gauge connections 134 in-> vent 2 in.
Available from: Lancaster Iron Works, Inc, Lancaster, Pa.

F-4. Caustic feeder

No. required: Two

Capacity rating: 23 gph
 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
169
CHAP. 4]

Type: Milton Roy Simplex volumetric feeder pump MD1-25-56

Material handled: 1 per cent caustic at 30°C
Maximum head: 95 ft . , J . , .
Material of construction: Cast-iron liquid end with 316 stainless-steel valve sea s
and plunger, 440 stainless-steel ball valves and neoprene packing
Size inlet: H in.
Size outlet: % in. .
Motor: 3^-hp, 110-volt, split-phase induction, 60-cycle, a-c, General Electric, series
right-angle gearhead open motor, 56 rpm
Mounting: Integral cast-iron base
Available from: Milton Roy Company, Philadelphia, Pa.

F-5. Neutralizer

No. required: One

Nominal capacity: 100 gal
Type: Pfaudler type P glass-lined reaction kettle, unjacketed, with agitator
Kettle dimensions over-all: Diameter 34 in., height 61V2 in.
Connections: Openings 2 in. (2 required) and 3 in. (2 required), bottom outlet 2 in.,
handhole 5 X 8 in. with peephole, agitator opening 2 in.
Materials of construction: %6-in. open-hearth steel-lined with acid-resistant glass
Agitator: Type: 36-in. impeller with baffle (90 rpm)
Drive: hp, 110-volt, single-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, squirrel-cage, induction with
type PB reduction from 1,200 rpm
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N.Y.

F-6. Spent caustic separator

No. required: One

Nominal capacity: 100 gal
Type: Vertical tank with conical bottom
( haracter of contents: Chlorobenzene layer (sp gr 1.0340), 46 Per cent caustic layer
(sp gr 1.006)
Dimensions: Diameter 24 in., height 66 in., cone angle 45°
Connections: Handhole 5 in., openings 2 in. and 1 in., bottom drain 1 in., side drain
1 in.
Construction: All-welded of Y±-u\. mild steel
Available from: Lancaster Iron Works, Inc., Lancaster, Pa.

G-l. Flash still feed pump

No. required: One

Capacity rating: 7 gpm
Type: D-ll centrifugal, single-stage, open-impeller
( haracter of liquid: Chlorobenzenes
Total head: 20 ft
Material of construction: Type 316 stainless steel
Size inlet: K in.
Size outlet: x/± in.
Motor: bs-hp, split-phase induction, 60-cycle, 110-volt a-c
General Electric
explosion-proof motor
Mounting: Integral pump and motor
Available from: Eastern Engineering Co., New Haven, Conn.
170 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

G-2. Flash still

No. required: One

Nominal capacity: 500 gal
Type: Artisan combined continuous evaporator and stripper
Character of contents: Chlorobenzenes at 105°C
Services: Continuous
Over-all dimensions: Diameter 5 ft 0 in., height 7 ft 2 in.
Connections: Handhole 5 in., openings 2 in. (2 required), vapor outlet 4 in., bottom
drain 3 in.
Heating coil: Surface area 20 ft2, dimensions 76 ft of 1-in. BWG 18 stainless-steel
tubing, type 304
Accessories: Knockback coil, spiral baffle, entrainment plate, safety valve
Materials of construction: J46 stainless steel, type 304
Gaskets: Corning type R-3
Available from: Artisan Metal Products, Inc., Boston, Mass.

G-3. Flash still condenser

No. required: One

Type: Fixed-tube sheet heat exchanger
Condensing surface: 41.3 ft2
Over-all dimensions: Nominal diameter 6 in., length 60 in.
Tube size: /4-in. BWG 18
Tube length: 4 ft
No. of tubes required: 12
Operating pressure: 5 psi , , ,
Materials of construction: Tubes, tube sheets, and bonnets of type 304 stainless stee
shell of carbon steel
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, NA .

G-4. Solvent receiver

No. required: One

Nominal capacity: 5,000 gal
Type: Horizontal welded steel, lead-lined
Character of contents: Chlorobenzenes at 30°C
Dimensions: Diameter 8 ft 0 in., length 18 ft 0 in. t. i n_
Construction: In accordance with ASME Code forUn fired
welded with flanged and dished heads; shell thickness h head

Material'"/construction: Mild steel lined with Ke-in. homogeneously bonded lead

Supports: 3 concrete saddles
Available from: Lancaster Iron Works, Inc., Lancaster, Pa.

H-l. Crystallizer feed pump

No. required: Two

Rated capacity: 10 gpm . ,,
Type: Model E-7 centrifugal, single-stage open impe
Character of liquid: Chlorobenzenes at 100 C
Total head: 35 It
Size inlet: )4 in-
Size outlet: in*
 171
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

Type 316 stainless-steel shaft, casing, and impeller;

Material of construction:
cast-iron base
Qpnj • Mechanical rotary type with Teflon sealing rings
IZlr uZ, split-phase Induction, 110-volt, 60-cycle, a-c, explos.on-proof frame
Available from: Eastern Industries, Inc., Hamden, Conn.

H-2. Crystallizer

No. required: One unit

Type: Double-pipe crystallizer
Materials handled: Benzene hexachloride in chlorobenzenes
Terminal process temperatures: In, 100°C; out, 30°C
Effective heat-transfer area: 153 ft2
Over-all dimensions: Height 5 ft, length 22 ft, width 2 ft
No. of sections: 4
Length per section: 20 ft
Inner pipe: Nominal 8 in.
Scrapers: Vogt spiral spring type (36 rpm)
Jacket: 10-in. pipe
Materials of construction: Inner pipe, 304 stainless steel; scrapers, 304 stainless steel,
jackets, carbon steel
Connections: For process material, 4 in.; for cooling water, 2 in.
Motor: 5-hp, 220-440-volt, 60-cycle, 3-phase, a-c, squirrel-cage induction, 1,750 rpm
Speed reducer: Type E Westinghouse, 5-hp double reduction unit, ratio 47.3:1
Drive: Sprocket chain coupled
Mounting: Upright integral unit on four 6-in. channel iron supports
Available from: Henry Vogt Machine Co., Louisville, Ky.

1-1. Continuous centrifuge

No. required: One

Nominal capacity: 550 lb/hr
Type: ter Meer continuous centrifugal
Size: 5-12
Over-all dimensions (approx.): Length 40 in., width 24 in., height 32 in.
Connections: Solids discharge 4 in. X 24 in. approx.; filtrate discharge 3 in. X 6 in.
approx.; slurry entrance 4 in.
Drive motor: 2-hp, 220-440-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, squirrel-cage induction,
1,750 rpm
Materials of construction: Basket, screening, and piping of 304 stainless steel; housing
and base of cast iron
Mounting: Cast-iron base with four foundation boltholes
Available from: Baker, Perkins, Inc., Saginaw, Mich.

1-2. Recycle liquor receiver

No. required: One

Type: Horizontal, welded steel, lead-lined
Nominal capacity: 1,000 gal
Character of contents: Chlorobenzenes at 30°C
Dimensions: Diameter 4 ft 0 in., length 11 ft 6 in.
Construction: In accordance with ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels; all-
welded with flanged and dished heads; shell thickness in., head thickness
172 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4

Connections: Manhole 18 in., skimmer 2 in., drain 4 in., nozzles 2 in. (2 required),
gauge connections l1^ in.
Materials of construction: Mild steel, lined with 2'3 2-in. homogeneously bonded lead
Supports: 3 concrete saddles
Available from: Lancaster Iron Works, Inc., Lancaster, Pa.

1-3. Wet crystal hopper

No. required: One

Type: Stainless-steel bin
Nominal capacity: 80 ft3
Character of contents: Wet BHO crystals
Dimensions: Cross section 4 ft diam., over-all height 6 ft
Connections: Top opening 3 in. X 6 in., discharge 12 ft 8 in. diam., peephole centered
in one side 5 in.
Construction: All-welded of /■'iQ-in. stainless steel, 45 taper at bottom
Available from: Acme Coppersmithing and Machine Co., Oreland, Pa.

J-l. Rotary vacuum dryer

No. required: One

Type: Acme continuous jacketed solvent recovery dryer
Material handled: 200 )b/hr of BHC containing 3 per cent volatiles (largely
benzene), to be dried to 0.5 per cent moisture
Maximum temperature: 60°C
Dryer dimensions: Nominal diameter 1 ft 0 in., length 7 ft 0 in.
Heating surface: 34 ft2
Working capacity: 6 ft3 .
Over-all dimensions: Height 4 ft 4 in, width 2 ft 0 in, length 8 ft 6 m
Accessories: Screw conveyor with lifting flights, variable screw feeder (0 to 5 rpm),
automatic discharging device . .
Material of construction: 304 stainless steel for process contact sections; carbon stee
for jacket, supports, etc.
Drive- 2-hp, 220-440-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, squirrel-cage induction motor,
coupled to appropriate gear reducer driving scraper at 36 rpm (variable-spe

Available from: Acme Coppersmithing and Machine Co., Oreland, Pa.

J-2. Vacuum condenser and receiver

No required: One (combined unit)

Type: Stokes No. 85-0 surface condenser
Size: 0
Cooling surface: 10 ft2
Receiver capacity: 8.5 gal receiver diameter 17 in.

£=“ —..——2 *■*“

njwssrsis*-. -a—* - —
Available from: F. J. Stokes Machme Co., Philadelphia,

J -3. Vacuum pump

No. required: one
Type: Type W reciprocating vacuum pump
 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
173
CHAP. 4]
Vacuum required: 28 ft
Model: 3275-W
Displacement: 10 cfm
Pump speed: 810 rpm
Material of construction: Bronze
Motor drive: 1%-hp, 220-440-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, squirrel-cage induction
motor, 1,750 rpm with V-belt drive
Mounting: On 10-in. channel iron base
Available from: F. J. Stokes Machine Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

J-4. Recovered solvent pump

No. required: One

Capacity rating: 7 gpm
Type: D-ll centrifugal, single-stage
Materials handled: Benzene and chlorobenzene at 30°C
Total head: 20 ft
Material of construction: Type 316 stainless steel
Size inlet: 34 in.
Size outlet: 34 m-
Motor: 34-hp, split-phase induction, 60-cycle, 110-volt, a-c, General Electric
explosion-proof motor
Mounting: Integral with motor
Available from: Eastern Industries, Inc., Hamden, Conn.

K-l. Dry BHC hopper

No. required: Two

Nominal capacity: 80 ft3
Type: Stainless-steel bin
Character of contents: Dry BHC crystals
Dimensions: Cross section 4 ft diam., over-all height 6 ft
Construction: All-welded %6-in. stainless steel with conical bottom terminating in
12-in.-diam. outlet
Connections: Top, 8 in. X 12 in. flanged opening, outlet, 12 in. diam., fitted with
sliding vane valve; 5-in. peephole centered in one side
Available from: Acme Coppersmithing and Machine Company, Oreland, Pa.

K-2. BHC packaging

No. required: One

Type: No. 41 Vibrox drum packer
C apacity rating: 100- to 750-lb drums
Over-all dimensions: Length 40% in., width 23 in., height 25% in.
Motor. 1-hp, 220-440-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, squirrel-cage induction, 1,750 rpm
Accessories: Jack-type lift and casters for portable use
Available from: B. F. Gump Co., Chicago, Ill.

K-2a. BHC storage

Capacity of area: To hold 4 weeks’ supply of BHC

( ontainers: 110-lb drums
Max. drums stored: 960
Height of drum storage pile: 3 drums
Dimensions of drum: 16 in. diam. X 25 in. height
174 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 4
Floor area required: 570 ft2
Height of ceiling: 9 ft
Type of floor: Monolithic concrete

L-l. Solvent still feed pump

No. required: Two

Rated capacity: 10 gpm
Type: Model D-ll single-stage centrifugal
Character of liquid: Chlorobenzene at 30 C
Total head: 20 ft
Size inlet: J4 in.
Size outlet: 14 in. . . ..
Material of construction: Type 316 stainless-steel shaft, casing and impeller; cast-
iron base
Seal: Mechanical rotary type, Teflon sealing rings
Motor: H-hp, split-phase induction, 110-volt, a-c, 60-cycle, General Electric explo-
sion-proof motor
Available from: Eastern Industries, Inc., Hamden, Conn.

L-2. Solvent still

Column:

No. required: One

Type: Bubble cap tower
Nominal diameter: 8 in.
No. of plates: 21
diam., downspout 1 in. diam.
Plate specifications: 6 bubble caps 2 in.
Plate spacing: 18 in.
Working pressure: Atmospheric
Max. working temperature: 131°C
__ . i * !__
* feed connections K in. (on 3d, 4th, and 5th plates),
r.
Connections: Vapor outlet 4 in.
reflux inlet 1XA in.
Over-all height: 33 ft
Material of construction: Stainless stee

Still pot:

No. required: One

Type: Unjacketed kettle with heating coil
Nominal capacity: 100 gal
Heating surface: 37.2 ft2 , . ki in.
Over-all kettle dimensions: Diameter 3- •, 8 . (2 required), handhole 5 in.,
Connections: Vapor outlet 8 in. flanged ope^V Velio valve 1 in.
bottom drain 1 in., level gauge connections 4
Mounting: Four 2-in. pipe legs, 18 in. hig
Material construction: H-m. stainless stee
111 Me from: The Handler Co., Rochester, N.Y.

L-3. Solvent still condenser

No. required: One

Type: FTS heat exchanger
Condensing surface: 30 ft2
CHAP. 4] SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 175

Over-all dimensions: Nominal diameter G in., length G in.

Tube size: %-in. B\\ G 18
Tube length: 48 in.
No. of tubes required: 12
Operating pressure: 5 psi . , , , , ,,
Materials of construction: Tubes, tube sheets, and bonnets of 304 stainless steel, shel
of carbon steel
Available from: The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N.\ .

L-3a. Condensate cooler

No. required: One

Type: Double-pipe heat exchanger
Cooling surface: 9.5 ft2
Construction: Two sections, 14 ft each, of 1-in. stainless-steel pipe jacketed with
13^-in. wrought-iron pipe; to be fabricated on site

L-4. Wet benzol receiver

No. required: One

Type: Enclosed kettle
Nominal capacity: 100 gal
Character of contents: Wet benzene
Over-all dimensions: Diameter 30 in., height 48 in.
Connections: Handhole 5 in., openings 1 in. and 2 in., bottom drain 2 in.
Material of construction: mild steel
Supports: Three 2-in. pipe legs, 12 in. high
Available from: Lancaster Iron Works, Inc., Lancaster, Pa.

L-5. Wet benzol pump

No. required: One

Rated capacity: 10 gpm
Type: 1 CNF-52 open-impeller centrifugal pump
Materials handled: Wet benzene at 30°C
Maximum head: 30 ft
Size inlet: 1 ¥2 in.
Size outlet: 1 in.
Material of construction: Bronze
Motor: 1^-hp, 110-volt, single-phase, 60-cycle, a-c, squirrel-cage induction, 1,750
rpm
Mounting: Rigid steel base, flexible motor coupling
Available from: Worthington Corp., East Orange, N.J.

M-l. Monochlor pump

No. required: One

Rated capacity: 10 gpm
Type: Model D-l 1 single-state centrifugal pump
C haracter of liquid: Chlorobenzene
Total head: 20 ft
Size inlet: H in.
Size outlet: in.
Material of construction: Type 316 stainless-steel shaft
casing, and impeller, cast-
iron base
176 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 4
Seal: Mechanical rotary-type
Motor: 14-hp, split-phase induction, 60-cycle, 110-volt, a-c, General Electric
explosion-proof motor
Available from: Eastern Industries, Inc., Hamden, Conn.

M-la. Monochlor cooler

No. required: One

Txjpe: Double-pipe heat exchanger
Cooling surface: 2.1 ft2
Construction: 6 ft of 1-in. stainless-steel pipe jacketed with wrought-iron
pipe; to be fabricated on site

M-2. Monochlor storage

No. required: One

Type: Horizontal, all-welded steel
Nominal capacity: 10,000 gal
Character of contents: Monochlorobenzene at 30°C
Over-all dimensions: Diameter 9 ft 0 in., length 23 ft 6 in.
Construction: In accordance with ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels, all-
welded with flanged and dished heads; shell thickness in., head thickness,
y f p. in. . .
Connections: Manhole 18 in., skimmer 6 in., nozzles 3 in. (2 required), drain 6 in.
gauge connections 13^ i*1-
Material of construction: Mild steel
Available from: Lancaster Iron Works, Inc., Lancaster, Fa.
 CHAPTER 5

Plant Layout1

The arrangement of equipment and facilities specified from process

flow-sheet considerations is a necessary requirement for accurate pre¬
construction cost estimating or for future detailed design involving piping,
structural, and electrical facilities. Careful attention to the development
of plot and elevation plans will point out unusual plant requirements and,
therefore, give reliable information on building and site costs required for
precise preconstruction cost accounting.

PLANNING LAYOUTS

Factors in Planning Layouts

Rational design must include arrangement of processing areas, storage

aieas, and handling areas in efficient coordination and with regard to
such factors as:
1. New site development or addition to a previously developed site
2. Future expansion
•L Economic distribution of services—water, process steam, power, and
gas
4. Weather conditions are they amenable to outdoor construction?
5. Safety considerations—possible hazards of fire, explosion, and fumes
6. Building code requirements
/. W aste-disposal problems
8. Sensible use of floor and elevation space

llant; layout study is not an entirely necessary requirement for preliminary cost
estimation work, as shown by several methods in Chap. 6 on economic ZlysTs
in
in this™? "t
this chapter Gis m°re aCCUrate C°St amilysis work is squired, the information given
very important. g
177
178 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 5

Methods of Layout Planning

To start a detailed planning study, space requirements must be known

for various products, by-products, and raw materials, as well as for
process equipment. A starting or reference point, together with a
directional schematic flow pattern, will enable the design engineers to
make a trial plot plan, as explained below. A number of such studies
will be required before a suitable plot and elevation plan is chosen.

Unit Areas Concept. The basic blocks with which to buildlan anwjgej
ment for plot plans are often used in the unit area concept 1 hisunet
( is oirticularly well adapted to large plant layouts. Unit
lai are often ZinZeAy means of distinct process phases and opera¬
tional procedures, by reason of contamination. and by safety ^
Thus the delineation of the shape am ex tasks
interrelationships of eaeh .re. in , P«
pl.nni„g> problem,
 C
c3

O
03
03
a

o
>»
oS

cS
a
302'-

‘ft

<N

6
i—i

179
 Cj
>
o

73
r.
cj

C
>>
oi

o
r*

cdi

d
kH

180
CHAP. 5] PLANT LAY0UT

within each area are shifted about on crosshatched scale paper. A group
of experienced engineers will work together with this method to provide
a basic plot plan from which can be prepared detailed two-dimensional
diagrams, as shown in a related series of drawings (Figs. 5-1 to 5-3).
The preparation of a scale model of the plant can be started simultaneous v
in the layout planning procedures.

F
5-4. Inexpensive scale model. (Courtesy of Blaw-Knox Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.

Scale Models. Recent developments in the use of scale models have

shown the advantages of this method over the detailed two-dimensional
mi 10 . iguie .1-4 is a view ot a study model costing less than $1 000
It was made from blocks of wood and cardboard set on J4 in. to the foot

*™, rPT “V— to d„,l«p

“d c”“‘ b« “«1 I«r piping and ulilitie. layout.
Z and

B a more comP*ete model costing $5,000 to $10,000. It is

182 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 5

Fig. 5-5. Elaborate scale model. (Courtesy of Blaw-Knox Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.)

n-li. ( i >m mi- -i: 11 rl Mill inn I pl.i n I i li'si^nrM with nnl of "»kW in fig. M.
'ourtesy of Blaw-Knox Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.)
CHAP. 5] plant layout

used for detailed layout of process piping, utilities, and control facilities.1
Dimensional accuracy on models is about +H2 m. so that most sea e-ups
are accurate to within an inch. Figure 5-6 shows the actual plant bui t
from this model. Cost estimation of these facilities and isometric layou
diagrams to scale can be obtained readily from the model with as much as
25 per cent savings over two-dimensional methods. This more expensive
model is also used during the construction and operator training periods
to great advantage. Often these models find a permanent place in the
control room, where they permit operators to trace lines quickly instead of
walking and climbing over an extensive part of the plant. The advantage
of three-dimensional models can be summarized as:
1. Optimum design selection
2. Effective construction planning
3. Savings in engineering design, construction, operating, and mainte¬
nance costs
4. More rapid and safer training of personnel

Principles of Plant Layout

Some of the guiding principles for detailed plant layout will be discussed
next for the benefit of students making layout decisions for the first time.
Storage Layout. Storage facilities for raw materials and intermediate
and finished products may be located in isolated areas or in adjoining
areas. Hazardous materials become a decided menace to life and prop¬
erty when stored in large quantities and should consequently be isolated.
Storage in adjoining areas to reduce materials handling may introduce an
obstacle toward future expansion of the plant. Arranging storage of
materials so as to facilitate or simplify handling is also a point to be
considered in design. Where it is possible to pump a single material to
an ele\ ation so that subsequent handling can be accomplished by gravity
into intermediate reaction and storage units, costs may be reduced.
Liquids can be stored in small containers, barrels, horizontal or vertical
tanks and vats, either indoors or out of doors.
Equipment Layout. In making a layout, ample space should be
assigned to each piece of equipment; accessibility is an important factor
1 Materials available for this type of model are:
Equipment and structures: balsa or pine blocks, hardwood dowels and molding-
plywood, Lucite or plexiglas, polyurethane or polystyrene foam

lead* wire ^ ^ " P‘aSt‘C extruded rod> colored plastic-coated electric

°/, TT?”'"':8 equipment and piping hardware in scales of

a ’ 8-’ * 2 n. t(0 the foot ean be obtained from such suppliers as F W Harman
Associates, Halecite, N.Y.; Engineering Model Associates, Los Angeles- Industrial
Models, Inc., Wilmington, Del.; United Scale Models, Inc. Chester Pa (WjT
plant models can be custom-fabricated by these companies.’ ’ ° 6
184 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
- PLANT
- DESIGN
- [chap. 5
for maintenance (Fig. 5-2). Unless a process is well seasoned, it is not
always possible to predict just how its various units may have to be
changed in order to be in harmony with each other. This is especially
true if the process is being developed from pilot plant scale operation, as
usually carried out, with equipment not specially designed for the process.
It is well known that in chemical manufacturing, processes may be
adopted which appear to be sound after a reasonable amount of investiga¬
tion in the pilot plant stage, yet frequently require minor or even major
changes before all parts are properly operating together.
It is extremely poor economy to fit the equipment layout too closely
into a building. A slightly larger building than appears necessary will
cost little more than one that is crowded. The extra cost will indeed be
small in comparison with the penalties that will be extracted if, in order
to iron out the kinks, the building must be expanded.
The operations that constitute a process are essentially a series of unit
operations that may be carried on simultaneously. These include filtra¬
tion, evaporation, crystallization, separation, and drying. Since these
operations are repeated several times in the flow of materials, it should be
possible to arrange the necessary equipment into groups of the same kinds.
This sort of layout will make possible a division of operating labor so that
one or two operators can be detailed to tend all equipment ol a like nature.
The relative levels of the several pieces of equipment and their acces¬
sories determine their placement. Although gravity flow is usually
preferable, it is not altogether necessary because liquids can be trans¬
ported by blowing or by pumping, and solids can be moved by mechanical
means. Gravity flow may be said to cost nothing to operate, whereas the
various mechanical means of transportation involve the first cost of the
necessary equipment and the cost of operation and maintenance. But
material must be elevated to a level where gravity flow must start.
However, gravity flow usually means a multistory layout, whereas the
factors favoring a single-story plant may largely, if not entirely, com¬
pensate for the cost of mechanical transportation.
Access for initial construction and maintenance is a necessary pai t o
planning For example, overhead equipment must have space io, Ioner-
place, and heat-exchange „uipm.nt eh.uld be M ““J
Irens where trucks or hoists can be placed for pulling and replacing tube

S3 * The, -pace ..- =«£ •gf+ZS

■ r.u“.r::
ent, a, - “ “ „ g.e.tned h, led -4 —

reT’“'
renting of »
 185
CHAP. 5] PLANT LAYOUT
clear areas, and dikes for combustible-product storage tanks must be
incorporated to protect costly plant investment and ^ce insurance
rates (See Chap. 8 and Perry’s “Chemical Engineers Handbook,
3d ed, sec. 30, Safety and Fire Protection, pp. 1847-18/4.)
Plant Expansion. Expansion must always be kept in mmd.
question of multiplying the number of units or increasing t e size o e
prevailing unit or units merits more study than it can be given eie.
Suffice it to say that one must exercise engineering judgment; that as a
penalty for bad judgment, scrapping of present serviceable equipment
constitutes but one phase, for shutdown due to remodeling may involve a
greater loss of money than that due to rejected equipment. Nevertheless,
the cost of change must sometimes be borne, lor the economies ol laigei
units may, in the end, make replacement imperative.
Floor Space. Floor space may or may not be a major factor in the
design of a particular plant. The value ol land may be a considerable
item. The engineer should, however, follow the rule of practicing
economy of floor space, consistent with good housekeeping in the plant
and with proper consideration given to line flow ol materials, access to
equipment, space to permit working on parts of equipment that need
frequent servicing, and safety and comfort of the operators.
Utilities Servicing. The distribution of gas, air, water, steam, power,
and electricity is not always a major item, inasmuch as the flexibility of
distribution of these services permits designing to meet almost any
condition. But a little regard for the proper placement of each of these
services, practicing good design, aids in ease of operation, orderliness, and
reduction in costs of maintenance. No pipes should be laid on the floor or
between the floor and the 7-ft level, where the operator must pass or
work. Chaotic arrangement of piping invites chaotic operation of the
plant. The flexibility of standard pipe fittings and power-transmission
mechanisms renders this problem one of minor difficulty.
Building. After a complete study of quantitative factors, the selection
ol the building or buildings must be considered. Standard factory
buildings are to be desired, but, if none can be found satisfactory to
handle the space and process requirements of the chemical engineer, then
a competent architect should be consulted to design a building around the
process not a beautilul structure into which a process must fit. It is
fundamental in chemical engineering industries that the buildings should
be built around the) process, instead of the process being made to fit
buildings of conventional design.
In many cases only the control area requires housing, with the process
equipment erected outdoors. This is known as outdoor construction,
and such layouts should be considered for many types of plants (see
Chap. 8).
 0) CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 5

What consideration must be given to buildings depends upon condi¬

tions. If the designer must adapt his design to fit an old building or
building space already erected, his problem is cut out for him and he has
limiting conditions. However, the selection of the design of a new
building to meet the requirements of the process is more scientific. In
this case, one finds before him practically all types of standard building,
built in units, interlocking or otherwise, ready for shipment and erection
(see Chap. 8).
Throughout chemical industry, much thought must be given to the
disposal of waste liquors, fumes, dusts, and gases. Ventilation, fume
elimination, and drainage may require the installation of extra equipment.
This may involve the design of the individual pieces of operating equip¬
ment, or it may require the installation of isolated equipment. If the
latter be the case, the location of such equipment where it will not interfere
with the flow of materials in process should be practiced. The selection
of the proper piece of equipment for doing this service is also an important
point; the less attention the ventilating, fume, or waste-elimination
systems require, the better service they may render. Sometimes air
conditioning of the plant is called for and may require an elaborate setup.
But the installation of such equipment, when needed, pays in better
service from operators, less discomfort, greater production, and a better
morale than when such conditions are left to nature.
It must be recognized that there is not only one solution to the problem
of layout of the equipment. There are many rational designs. Which
plan to adopt must be decided upon after exercise of engineering judgment
and after striking a balance of the advantages and disadvantages of each
possible choice.
Materials-handling Equipment. Consideration of equipment for
materials handling is only a minor factor in most cases of arrangement,
owing to the multiplicity of available materials-handling devices. But
where this operation is paramount in a process, serious thought must be
given to it. Again it should be said that engineering judgment must be
exercised. Whenever possible, one should take advantage of the topog¬
raphy of the site location, if such will serve to advantage in the process.
Railroads and Roads. Existing or possible future railroads and high¬
ways adjacent to the plant must be known m order to plan rail sidings and
access roads within the plant. Railroad spurs and roadways of the
correct capacity and at the right location should be provided for in a
traffic study and over-all master track and road plan ol the plant area.
Some of the factors in rail-track planning are:

1. cisting and future off-site main rail facilities , ...

umissible radius of curvature for spurs—consult local rail authontie
2.
•o vision for traffic handling-arrangement of spurs and ladder track and switching
3.
187
Fig. 5-7. Benzene hexachloride plant layout.
188 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 5
4. Adequate spur facilities
a. Loading and unloading facilities for initial plant construction and subsequent
operations
b. Rack stations for liquid handling
c. Storage space for full and empty cars
d. Space for cleaning and car repairs

Major provisions in road planning for multipurpose service are:

L A means of interplant movement for road traffic, both pedestrian and vehicular
2. Heavier and wider roads for large-scale traffic
3. Routing of heavy traffic outside the operational areas
4. Roadways for access to initial construction, maintenance, and repair points
5. Roadways to isolated points, storage tanks, and safety equipment, such as fire
hydrants

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Benzene Hexachloride Plant Layout

As a preliminary step to the layout of process equipment, storage facilities, and
materials-handling equipment, scale models of the pertinent items were constructed
and manipulated until a rational arrangement appeared. It was desired to effect
efficient coordination of the units with due regard for economic distribution of water,
steam, and power, economic use of floor space, and elimination of predictable hazards.
Figure 5-7 depicts the over-all layout of the proposed plant area as finally modified.
From it the complete equipment layouts and elevations in the process building should
be sketched.
As a result of the layout, it is determined that 1.0 acre of land is sufficient area tor
containing designed facilities plus those necessary for an estimated 100 per cent future
expansion of production. The real estate and facilities requirements as developed
from the layout design may thus be taken into account in a preconstruction estimation.
 CHAPTER 6

Economic Evaluation
of the Project

For which of you, intending to build a tower, sitteth not down

first, and counteth the cost, whether he have sufficient to finish
it? Lest haply, after he hath laid the foundation, and is not able
to finish it, all that behold it begin to mock him, saying, this man
began to build, and was not able to finish. St. Luke 14:28-30
The decision by company management to commercialize a process is
based almost entirely on the economic evaluation made with the coopera¬
tive efforts of many groups within the company. These groups include
accounting and finance, marketing and sales, and engineering design and
operation.
The methods of preparing an economic evaluation are numerous
and vary from one company to the next. In some cases short-cut or
quickie evaluation procedures may be required as a basis for justifying
further expenditures on a project. Much more exacting information is
icquired when a final decision to commercialize a process is to be made,
there are all degrees of economic analysis between these two extremes.
It is beyond the scope of this text to delve into every ramification of
economic analysis. Rather it is the aim of this chapter to present
several general-purpose methods with suitable reference tables and discus¬
sion so that the student has a sound basis for making reliable estimates
and for proceeding further on his own if he does this type of work in his
industrial position.
Every method of economic evaluation requires cost analysis of the
following principal subjects. Typical items which might appear under
each subject in a detailed analysis are included for orientation purposes
189
LJU CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

I. Capital investment
.4. Fixed capital for plant facilities
1. Site
2. Building
3. Utilities plants
4. Process equipment
5. Storage facilities
6. Auxiliary utilities and emergency facilities
B. Working capital
1. Raw materials inventory
2. In-process inventory
3. Product inventory
4. Maintenance and repair inventory
5. Accounts receivables credit carry-over
G. Minimum cash reserve
II. Total product costs
A. Manufacturing costs
1. Raw material
2. Shipping containers
3. Operating costs
a. Operating labor
b. Operating supervision
c. Maintenance and repair
d. Operating supplies
e. Utilities
(1) Electricity
(2) Steam
(3) Water
(4) Fuel
/. Control laboratory
g. Miscellaneous
4. Overhead costs
a. Employee benefits
b. Medical service
c. Cafeteria
d. Purchasing
e. Shops
/. Property protection
g. General plant supervision
5. Depreciation
6. Property taxes and insurance
B. General expenses
1. Freight and delivery
2. Administration expense
3. Sales expense
4. Research expense
III. Economic analysis
A. Selling price
1. Market analysis
a. Price-volume relationship: present and anticipated
b. Application of products
c. Competition
 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
191
CHAP. 6]

2. Federal income tax

3. Net or new earnings
B. Profitability
1. Return on investment
2. Cost and profit charts
3. Other methods of economic analysis
a. Pay-out time
b. Accounting method
c. Investor’s method
d. Project present worth

The above outline serves to orient the student on the subject matter
which will be covered in more detail in the sections which follow. A
thorough background of process design based on material in the pieceding
chapters will be required to make a satisfactory economic evaluation.

CAPITAL INVESTMENT

Capital investment is divided into two parts: (1) fixed capital; (2)
working capital. A fixed capital cost estimate is useful in determining
maintenance and depreciation charges under operating costs and it is a
necessity in making economic analyses such as return on investment.
The working capital (10 to 15 per cent of fixed capital) is the less critical,
economically speaking.

Fixed Capital Cost Estimates

Fixed capital includes the capital requested for (1) all the process and
manufacturing machinery and equipment, installed and ready for opera¬
tion, and (2) nonmanufacturing machinery and equipment items which
include land and buildings; installations for generation or distribution of
utilities (steam, electricity, water, air, gas); shops, warehouses, and
transportation facilities; employee and office facilities; research and
control laboratories; and miscellaneous items such as fences, railroads,
loads, yard lighting, and telephones. If a plant is to be built in a new
location where none of these items of service is available, the non-
manufacturing capital required must be estimated in the same manner as
the items of process equipment.
The degree of accuracy in making cost estimates should be considered
hi making the study. Actual plant costs should be anticipated on the
basis that it takes 2 to 3 years to design and construct a plant. Time
and money available must be balanced against the reliability desired
rrehminary project estimates, for example, are made to within 30 per
cent. Estimates for budget requests are within 10 per cent, whereas a
final construction estimate, including all bids, should be within 5 per cent
A guide to the accuracy of cost estimation methods has been prepared by
192 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

W. T. Nichols1 and this will be used as the basis for illustrating various
capital cost estimating methods. Figure 6-1 graphs the type of estimate
versus cost of preparing the estimate, probable capitalization cost with
percentages, and per cent contingency which represents additional money

required to meet unforeseen expenses and price increases. Table 6-1 is an

explanation of information required for each estimate type A to Z. The
assignment of dollar values is covered under Methods of Estimating
(1 to 7) which follow.
Method 1 (Estimate Type A)
w, r As . . $ 00,000
1. Quoted equipment cost (delivered).;-*. n0 000
2 Estimated installation cost for each item of equipment .......
3. Material cost take-off for pipe, electrical, architectural, structural, ins ru- ^ ^

ments, etc..... no 000

4. Labor estimated from practice factors for items above. ^00^000

5. subtotal.•• • . ... 00,000

6. Engineering and contingency (% of subtotal). ^h^000

7. Total.

Method 2 (Estimate Type E, J)

1 Installed equipment cost = delivered equipment cost (quoted and esti- # ^ ^

volume from preliminary design and take-o . . ^OOTOOO

3. Subtotal.... ‘ ; V ' ..’ ‘ * ’ ’ *. 00,000

4. Engineering and contingency (% su ) ° . . $000,000

5‘ iW^.'Nichols, Chem. Eng., 68(6): 248 (1951).

 CHAP. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
193

Table 6-1. Accuracy of Cost Estimations*

Reference: Fig. 6-1

A E J M p s X Y
Estimate types.

Information available:
General design basis1. xf X X X X X X X
P4ow-sheet and material balance. X X X X X X X X
Heat and energy balance. X X X X X X X
Equipment and instrument list2. X X X X X X
Performance data sheets. X X X X X X
Survey of plant area3. X X
Availability of utilities and transportation4. . . . X X
Information developed by engineers and
designers:10
Design sketches5. X X X X X X
Layout of mfg. facilities6. X X X X X
Lavout of non-mfg. facilities7. X X X X
General plant layout and land development. . . X X X X
Tvpe of construction. X X X
Schedule of pipelines8. X X X
Piping layout9. X X X
Elec, layout and one-line diagram. X X X
Detailed piping and instrument flow sheets.. . . X X
Instrument specifications. X
Electrical control and interlocks. X
Soil-bearing values. X
Architectural and structural design (approx.).. X

* W. T. Nichols, Chem. Eng., 68(6): 248 (1951).

t x = completed.
1 (a) Product to be made, specifications, and storage provisions; (b) plant capacity;
(r) operating stream time, (d) provisions for expansion, (e) raw materials, storage, and
source.
2 Showing number of each item required and capacity and materials of construction.
3 Land values and land developments.
4 Description of laboratory and service facilities.
5 Unusual items of equipment.
6 Showing equipment in plan and elevation.
7 Utilities and service facilities, roads, sewers, etc.
8 Sizes and materials of construction.
9 Superimposed on equipment and plant layout.
in nmOSt f°* pre,parin,K estimates contemplates no alternative studies and will not result
n any construction drawings and specifications. Does not include cost of preparing
available information on subsoil investigations to determine soil-bearing values.

Method 3 (Estimate Type M).M This method, based on published equipment

rs: * rrr,*rster' ? r—
' ^ $1,000,000 estimated cost would run ^870 non
mum or $1,430,000 maximum).
"• •
$8/0,000 mim-

2w *?-TChilton> Chem■ En9; 66(6): 97 (1949).

H. J. Lang, Chem. Eng., 64(10): 118 (1947).
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

1‘ I)edvered equipment costs from references (e.g., Table 4-6) and on

current index basis.
$ 00,000
2. Installed equipment costs
a. From references and on current index basis, or
b. Item 1 X 1.43.
00,000
3. Process piping.
00,000
"I !ipe plant per ceni 0jnem 2

Solid. See also 7-10

Solid-fluid. Table 6-4, 10-30
Fluid. 30-60 p. 215
4. Instrumentation. . 00,000
Amount of automatic control Per cent of item 2
None. 3_5
Some. 5_12
Extensive. 12-20
5. Buildings and site development. 00,000
Type of plant Per cent of item 2
Outdoor. 10-30
See also
Outdoor-indoor. 20-60 Table 6-5,
Indoor. 60-100 p. 218
6. Auxiliaries (e.g., electric and steam power). 00,000
Extent Per cent of item 2
Existing... 0
Minor additions. 0-5
Major additions. 5-25
New facilities. 25-100
7. Outside lines. 00,000
Average length Per cent of item 2

Short. 0-5
Intermediate. 5-15
Long. 15-25
8. Total physical plant costs:
Sum of items 2+3+4+5+64-7 = subtotal . $000,000
9. Engineering and construction. . 00,000
Complexity Per cent of item 8

Simple. . . . 20-35(See also Table

Difficult. . . . 35-6016-6, p. 220
. 00,000
10. Contingencies.
Per cent of item 8
Type process

Firm. ... 10-20

Subject to change... ... 20-30
... 30-50
Speculative.
Average from Fig. 6-1. ... 30
. 00,000
11. Size factor.
Per cent of item 8
Size plant
Large commercial plant (>82,000,000). ... 0-5
Small commercial plant ($500,000-82,000,009). ... 5-15
... 15-35
Experimental unit (<$500,000).
12. Total plant or fixed capital costs:
$000,000
Sum of items 8+9 + 10 + 11 = total.
 „ 1 QK
CHAP 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT

(1953).

Method 4 (Estimate Type P, S)

1. Capital cost = factor X total cost of equipment determined by current quotations
on unusual items, experience factors, and established or published data.

Delivered equipment Installed equipment

Type plant cost factor cost factor

3.10 2.16
OUllUo pi ULt/Ooiu^,.

Q/^lirla flnirlQ nrncpssinfr . 3.63 2.56

T?lnirla nrnpPSSinfT' . 4.74 3.30

Examples of type of plants:

Solids processing: Coal briquetting; agricultural limestone
Solids-fluids processing: Solvent extraction plant for minerals with ore-preparation
facilities
Fluids processing: Petroleum distillation; continuous saponification of fats

Method 5 (Estimate Type X)

1. Capital cost = factor X total cost of equipment from published data X cost index
factor to up-date (Fig. 6-31). Factor is same as given in method 4, item 2.

Method 6 (Estimate Type X, Y)

1. Capital cost = annual capacity in tons X S per annual ton of capacity from pub¬
lished figures (Fig. 6-2) X cost index factor to bring up to date (Fig. 6-31).

Method 7 (Estimate Type Z)

1. Capital cost = annual capacity in tons X product sales value in .S/ton 4- ratio

0 , ,. product sales value, .$/ton

liatio = turnover ratio = - -----
current investment, $ per annual ton
The turnover ratio varies from 0.2 to 8.0, depending on the product. An average
value of 1.0 is an educated guess. Kiddoo2 lists 82 typical processes.

Plant Cost Estimating

Equipment Costs. Methods 3, 4, and 5 under fixed capital cost esti¬

mating methods require equipment cost estimates based on published
references, table 4-6 is an index of cost sources for process equipment.
In the next few pages of this chapter there are presented Figures 6-3 to
6-30, which are installed cost data derived largely from Chilton3 or Aries
and Newton.4 Arrangement is by alphabetical order of equipment titles.

1 H. J. Lang, Chem. Eng., 55(6): 112 (1948).

2 G- Kiddoo, Chem. Eng., 68(10): 145 (1951).
3 C. H. Chilton, Chem. Eng., 56(6): 97 (1949).

Graw HiirR^Vp1 R ^ewton’ “Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation,” Me

Draw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1955.
196 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

30 —i
/ Catalytic desulf. of gasoline
_/ /Contact sulfuric acid ex smelter gas
Taconite beneficiation
TCC gasoline
^ Low-purity oxygen
20 - Portland cement
Sulfur ex low-grade ores
Cat. poly, of rety. gas (liq. prod.)
37% formaldehyde ex methonol
Contact sulfuric acid ex sulfur
15 Alkylation via sulfuric acid process
Superphosphate
'' Soybean extraction {bean basis)
Ammonium nitrate
Sulfur ex hydrogen sulfide
Aluminum sulfate
Solvent dewaxing of lube oil
10- Refined NaCl ex brine
N a 0 H purification via ammonio proc.
Natural gasoline (on gos throughput)
Sodium silicate
8 -
Catalytic cracking (charge basis) 100-r
Platforming (charge basis) Cracking cotalyst
Ammonium sulfate — Blast furnace iron
Solvent extraction of lube oil — Carbon bisulfide
Tung nut extraction (nut basis) — Alumina ex bauxite
6 -
Delayed coking (charge basis ) 90- — Carbon tetrochloride ex hydrocarbons
Lime — Ammonium phosphate
— Isopropyl alcohol
Dollars per annual ton of capacity

5-
Thermal cracking (charge basis)
80-
4- Calcium carbide
Alcohol ex molasses
Hypersorption {on gas throughput)
Sulfuric acid ex anhydrite
3- 70-

Vacuum distillation of lube oil O

° 65-
Cl
Calcium cyanamide
O
Soda ash

2 -
O ■ Sodium bichromate
H2S ex not. gas {on gas throughput) c. 60
o
Methyl chloride ex methanol
Phosphoric acid via Dorr process
55 Methyl isobutyl ketone
1.5- c ^ Alkyd resins
o -Chloroform ex acetone
a>
o.
50-
< Phenolic resin
Acetaldehyde ex acetylene
1.0 Crude oil topping o
o
45- — Disodium phosphate
- Urea
0.8- - Acetic acid ex acetaldehyde

40
0.6-
Vacuum flashing of crude oil
Ethyl ether
0.5- Contact sulfuric acid ex pyrites
35-

0.4-

30
0.3-

Fig. 6-2. Capital investment per annual ton of designed plant capacity-
 197
economic evaluation of the project
CHAP. 6]

3.000-r
Synthetic methionine

2.500- Silicone resins

2,000-

1.800- Ally I alcohol

1.600-
300 f — Aniline ex nitrobenzene
- Dipbenytomine
- Furfural
1,400- Magnesium via ferrosilicon
- Ethylene glycol
280 ~t-— Toluene via hydroforming
- GR-S copolymer
- Alcohol ex wood waste

Alcohol ex sulfite liquor — Butyl rubber

260- Electrolytic chlorine •r 1.200- Neoprene
o — Smokeless powder
CL
a — Sorbitol
^ Synthetic methanol
240- Acetic acid via alcohol oxidation \- Butadiene ex butane
' Hexomethylene tetramine
1000 -
-Ethyl cellulose
o
220- Synthetic ammonia 3 Butadiene ex naphtha add gasoil
C
N Benzaldehyde via chlorination
Acetylene via calcium carbide o 900-
Dollors per annual ton of capocity

<D
CL
200 - Sulfate pulp
800-
Electrolytic magnesium
Hydrofluoric acid O
o Potassium perchlorate
Butadiene ex butylenes
Acetic anhydride ex acetic acid Methyl methacrylate resin
180- 700- Salicylic acid
Oxalic acid via oxidation

Sodium metal
— Phosphoric acid via blast furnace
Acrylonitrile ex cyanohydrin Polyvinyl chloride ex acetylene
160- Silicon carbide 600
— 37 % formoldehyde ex hydrocarbons ■ Titanium dioxide

Synthetic nitric acid

—s—- Synthetic glycerine
HCl ex salt Aluminum
Phthalic anhydride ex o-xy/ene
\ Styrene
140- Alcohol ex grain 500 _. x Synthetic butanol
Butadiene ex alcohol
' Lactic acid via fermentation
Kraft paper or newsprint ex pu!p
~~~ Aviation gasoline —Pentaerythritol
Al chloride ex metallic aluminum
-Acetylene via Schoch process
Ethylene ex refinery gas 400 -x- DDT
120
^ Chlorine via nitrosy/ chloride —Synthetic phenol
Electric furnace phosphorus
Ethylene dichloride
Alkyl amines
Diolkyl phtha/otes vN TNT
— Carbon black
Electrolytic manganese
Trichlorethylene ex acetylene
— High-purity oxygen Sodium chlorate
Beta nophtho!
Dissolving pulp
100 -1- 300 Alumina ex clay
Phthalic anhydride ex naphthalene

1950 Prices- [Courtesy of C. H. Chilton, Chem. Eng., 58(5): 164 (1051).]

198 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

Three problems must be considered in compiling an up-to-date sum¬

mary of equipment costs: (1) bringing published reference costs up to
date; (2) estimating equipment costs for equipment or plants of various
capacities when the cost data are available for only one capacity; (3)
estimating installation charges when delivered equipment prices are
listed.
Cost Estimates and Price Indices. One should note that the date
prices are quoted is a very important piece of data since basic costs
change continually. To approximate current costs, the use of cost indices

$100,000

S 10,000
c

/. ATM suspended basket, steel

2. ATM suspended bosket, stainless
J. Bird solid bowl, steel
4. Bird solid bowl, stainless
5. Sharpies Super D, stainless

1,000
]0 100 1,000
Driver hp
Fig. 6-3. Installed cost of centrifuges (ENR = 750).

is satisfactory if the elapsed time span is not too great so that error arises
from technological advances.
While various indices are available for estimating purposes, only the
four most applicable to chemical engineering cost estimating will be dis¬
cussed .
1. Engineering News-Record Construction ('ost 1 ndex (EN R). This is a
construction index based on the economics of structural steel, Portland
cement, lumber, and common labor on a 20-city average with the value
for the year 1913 set at 100. The base year of the index is sometimes
changed to 1926 and 1949 so that care should be taken to see that a
consistent base year is used throughout the cost evaluation procedure.
Appearing weekly in Engineering News-Record, the index reflects wage
rates and material price trends. Figure 6-31 (p. 220) is a plot ot L.
CHAP. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT 199
2.4
Automatic rame filter
Cloth : a r ratio =
E 2 cfm/sq ft
<->
CD

to
1.2
L_
_o

o
o

0
0 20 40
Airflow, thousands of cfm
200 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

values from 1940 to 1958 with space available up to 1970 for bringing the
chart up to date or for forecasting. This index differs from the Building
Cost Index in that the latter is based on skilled labor instead of common

40 60
Conveyor length, ft

Fig. 6-5. Installed cost of standard conveyors (ENR = 750).

„bor. Both mdk» «• » «“ ,l,,!

News-Record. 7(MS) An index with the
2. Mur— quarterly In the P~-
value for the year 1926 equa^ K fneeri as the Marshall-Stevens
Equipment
i Eng. News-Record, 143(9). 498 (
\ \m));
P • >
1B7(22): 81 (Dec. 6, 1956).
CHAP. G] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
201

process equipment index. It is based on detailed equipment cost

appraisals in eight typical process industries with a weighting based on
the total product value of each industry. Values of this index as a

°,f time.are pl0*ted in FlS- 6-31. More detailed information

on this index is given in Chemical Engineering

the3ENR °^Jefine[yIndeX* This index is a refinement of

R dex Wlth the following weighted components: materials—iron
' V', Stevens, Chem. Eng., 54(11): 124 (1947); 62(3): 178 (1955)
2 Oil Gas J64(74): 110 (Oct. 1, 1956). W-i/S (1955).
202 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

Fig. 6-7. Installed extra cost for standard thickness conveyor troughs of varying
diameter (ENR = 750).

Fig. 6-8. Installed extra cost for heavy gauge thickness conveyor troughs based on
)4-in. thickness of carbon steel (ENR - 750).
Fig. 6-9. Installed extra cost for screw conveyor flights (ENR = 750).

203
ZU4: CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

and steel, 24 per cent; building materials, 8 per cent; miscellaneous

equipment, 8 per cent; labor skilled, 30 per cent; common, 30 per cent.
Values of the index appear in the Engineering Section of the Oil and Gas
Journal the first week of each month.
4. Bureau of Labor Wages and Material Price Index. The Bureau of
Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, issues reports on a labor and
materials index in the Monthly Labor Review. The labor index is based
$1,000,000
/- Troy, atmospheric, steel 8- Rotary, hotair
2- Tray, atmospheric, stainless steel 9- Rotary, flue gas, indirect
3- Tray, vacuum, steel 10- Rotary, flue gas, direct
4- Tray, vacuum, stainless steel 11- Rotory, vacuum
5- Drum, atmospheric, single 12- Spray, 10-ft diameter
6- Drum, atmospheric, double 13- Sproy, 14-ft diameter
7- Drum, vacuum, single 14 - Sproy, 18 - ft diameter

100.000

t/>
O
o
“O
_o>

"a
4—
in

10,000

1,000
100 1,000 10,000
Tray-top surface area, sq ft (Curves 1-4)
Peripheral surface orea, sq ft (Curves 5 -11)
Evaporative capacity, lb water/hr (Curves 12-14)

Ftc, 0-11. Installed cost of dryers (ENR = 750).

on average earnings in cents per hour in the durable goods industry,

while the material index is derived from whosesale price averages in
the metal and metal-product industries. _
A comparison of these indices for the years 1951 to 1957 made by Smith
showed that all the indices followed the same trend in cost rise, with Er v
being the highest and the MS index being the lowest by about 8 per cent
at the end of the 6-year period.
i C. A. Smith, Cost Eng., 2(4): 110 (1957).
 205
CHAP. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT

The use of the index method is very simple.

Let Jk = known index value for the date k
Ix = known index value for the date x
Ck = known equipment cost for the date k
Cx = unknown equipment cost for the date x

Then c, = c„ ~
/ k
(6-1)

Most of the cost data presented in this book are based on an installed 1958

$1,000,000

100,000

in
o
o
“O
<V

<n
c

10,000

1,000
tOOO 10,000 100,000
Totol heating surface, ft2

F Hi. 0-12. Installed cost of evaporators (ENlt = 750).

EXl! value of 7.30. Other estimates can be made current by use of the
above formula and the data plotted in Fig. 6-31.
Equipment Cost Comparisons. Several methods have been proposed
or approximating costs of equipment of different size or capacity when
he cost of a given unit is known. Williams' offers the general "six-
tnhSiaif0r' If the cost of a §'ven unit is known at one capacity and
K. v\ llliams, Jr., Chem. Eng., 64(12): 124 (1947).
206 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

$100,000

10,000

</>
o
o
T3
CD

CO
c

1,000

100
100 1,000 10,000
Filtering area, sq ft

Fig. 6-13. Installed cost of filters (ENR = 750).

the cost is desired at a second capacity x times the first, multiply the
known cost by x0-6 to obtain the cost at the second capacity.
Equipment costs may be correlated by equations ot form

where y = cost ,
a = constant for type of equipment involved
x = capacity of unit
n = constant
When X\ = capacity of first unit
x2 = capacity of second unit
yi = cost of first unit

(6-3)
then

The latter equation becomes the six-tenths factor expressed in mathemati-

CHAP. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT ZU 4

cal form where n = 0.6. This is a general constant and not specific for
a given type of equipment.
This 0.6 factor also applies to total plant cost estimations, provided
the scale-up is by size of similaru nits not greater than tenfold and not by
multiplying the number of units. See Eq. (6-4) (p. 222) for possible
ranges of the exponent n.

$100,000

10,000

o
o
TD
<D

in
e

1,000

100
10 luu 1,000 10000
Heat transfer surface, sq ft ’

Fig. 6-14. Installed cost of heat exchangers (ENR = 750).

Computing Installation Costs. When delivered equipment costs are

the only data available, installation costs must be estimated. These
costs include labor, foundations, supports, platforms, site preparation
normal temperature-level insulation, and other factors directly related
to the erection of equipment. Table 0-3 (p. 214) gives installation costs
a percentage range of delivered equipment costs for various types of
uipmen .. s a general rule, costs for equipment installation are often
estimated as 43 per cent of the delivered equipment costs.'

64a0):J130a(1947tmPlified APPr°aCh ‘° 1>reliminar-V Cost Estimates, Chem. Eng.,

208 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

Fig. 6-15. Installed cost of extruders and Muller-type mixers (ENR = 750).

750).
Fig. 6-16. Installed cost of propeller mixers (ENR -

Piping Costs. The cost of piping involves pipe and fittings, supports
and labor for all service and process lines. Making this cost estima
■ . rt dc ili piping layout drawing, o, plan* mod* to dotormm.
™Ig ongh"ui.gs ate <~ Chap. 9). Piping «*. —
Zhm the Oasis .1 installed M «»'> « f«
(p. 215). A more accurate method is discussed in C hap. 9.
CHAP. 6] economic evaluation of the project
209

Insulation Costs. Where very high or very low temperatures exist for
precise conditions, insulation costs may become a significant factor,
normal temperature levels the insulation expense is included under
equipment installation costs, amounting to 6 to 10 per cent oi delivered
equipment cost with 40 per cent of the cost charged to materials, the

balance to labor. For more detailed information on insulation see

Chap. 9.

Instrumentation. Extensive automatic control of chemical plants is

required when tolerances on variables are small and savings in labor and
utilities are necessary. Unit operations such as distillation, extraction,
and heat transfer as well as most of the unit processes such as sulfonation
and nitration require expensive instrumentation. On the other hand
Installed cost

Fig. 6-18. Installed cost of spiral ribbon mixers (ENR = 750).

210
 211
CHAP. 6] economic evaluation of the project

Fig. 6-20. Installed cost of double-arm sigma mixers (ENR = 750).

Installed cost
212 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

Table 6-2. Relative Cost of Motors*

Approximate relative cost

Motor design Control Motor and

only, % control, %

100 100 100

Normal-torque squirrel-cage.
115 100 113
High-torque squirrel-cage. . .
134 100 130
High-slip (5-8%) squirrel-cage..
155 100 150
High-slip (8-13%) squirrel-cage..
130 665 190
Wound-rotor induction.
130 860 205
Synchronous (100% PF).
155 860 225
Synchronous (80% PF). 220
175 640
Shunt-wound d-c. 225
180 640
Series or compound d-c

. Performance characteristics usually determine th^rdc

be strong fenced by
 economic evaluation of the project
213
CHAP. 6]

mixing, filtiation, and size-reduction operations need few controls.

Purchased costs of instruments can be obtained from Table 9-18 with

the relative cost of the particular motors involved and their associated controls It
is impossible to establish a fixed relationship between costs of various types of motors
am controls for all ratings since the relative costs vary widely with horsepower, volt-
Z’C, 'PT en SUre' HoWCVer' Table 6-2 sh0"s ™ approximate cost compari¬
son between the yanous types of motors and controls commonly used in the process
industries. It is based on 440-volt three-phase (iO-cycle open motors having an aver
age rating of 100 hp at 1,200 rpm with full-voltage magnetic control in general-pur-
I ose type of enclosures. Cost approximations for motors are given in Fig. 6-22.
214 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

1 able 6-3. Installation Costs of Equipment

Per cent of delivered

Equipment equipment cost
Beaters. .... 25
Blowers. _ 5-10
Boilers. .... 40-50
Classifiers. 3-5
Compressors. .... 10-20
Conveyors. .... 20-25
Dryers. . 20-30
Elevators (bucket). _ 25-40
Evaporators. .... 25
Feeders. .... 5-10
Filters:
Plate and frame. 30
Pressure leaf. 30
Vacuum, continuous. . . 20
Flotation machines. 5-8
Gyratory crushers. 5- 13
Jaw crushers. 8-10
Jigs. 12-15
Mills:
Ball, rod, pebble. 4-10
Roller. 15-20
Hammer. 20
Motors (with line starter) 6 20-

Pumps:
Centrifugal. 8-15
Duplex. 3-5
Triplex. 6
Vacuum. 3- 7
Stainless-steel. . 20-30
Glass-lined. 50-100
Roaster. . 12
Rolls. 4- 12
Scales (platform). . 40
Screens. 5- 15
Stills, small:
Cast iron with agitator . 50-70
Glass-lined. . 80-100

Tanks:
Wood, large. . 40-60
Wood, small.
. 100
. 20-25
Steel.
12-15
Thickeners.
Towers:
. 25-50
Large.
. 100-150
Small.
. 40-100
Vats, circular, redwood..
 215
economic evaluation of the project
CHAP. 6]

Table 6-4. Piping Cost Estimates

Per cent of installed equipment cost

Type process
Material Labor Total

Solid. 5 4 9
Solid-fluid. 15 10 25
Fluid. 35 26 61

35 per cent added for installation. Rough estimates can be made as

follows as a percentage of installed equipment costs: minor instrumenta¬
tion, 3 to 5 per cent; moderate, 10 per cent; extensive, 20 per cent.
Electrical Installation. In most estimates this cost is absorbed in the
building and installed equipment costs. Electrical installation costs
generally amount to 10 to 15 per cent of the delivered equipment costs.
216 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6
$100,000
_ —
c
a
,3
6
-yl

/ . '2 ,
- H/1 - X/4

10,000
Installed cost

/ -Swing hammer mills

2 - Jaw crushers
1,000 2 - Rotary crushers
3 Ball mills
4 - Roll crushers
4 Micropulverizer
-

5- Gyratory crushers
-
G - Rntnrv nutters

100
1 10 100 1,000
Driver hp
Fig. 6-25. Installed cost of size-reduction equipment (ENR = 750).

$100,000

10,000
</>
o
o
TJ
o>

«/>
c

1,000

1000 10.000 1UU.UUU 1,000,000

’ Volume, gal

Fig. 6-26. Installed cost of storage tanks (ENR = '50).

 217
CHAP. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT

Site and Building Costs. These costs vary considerably, depending

onsite location and fype of construction. Table 6-5 gives precons rue ,on
cost estimating figures. Further detailed information on site develop
ment and structure costs requires plant layout diagrams as explained in
Chaps. 5 and 8, with cost figures as given at the end of Chap. 8.

Engineering, Construction, and Contractor Costs. These costs include

design, engineering, field supervision of temporary and permanent con¬
struction, and inspection. Table 6-6 shows cost estimating factors
based on physical plant costs and degree of complexity.
The cost of engineering invariably depends on the type and complexity
of the job and on the amount of overhead applied by the manufacturing
corporation, the architect-engineer, or both. Engineering cost is defined
to include the salaries of engineers, draftsmen, and supporting personnel;
space, light, and heat; engineering supplies; depreciation of engineering
equipment; travel; field liaison; and overhead. Depending on the
accounting system of a corporation, the overhead has been at least 100
218 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

Table 6-5. Site and Building Costs

Type of construction
Range of installed (as per cent of installed equipment costs)
equipment costs
Outdoor* Outdoor-indoor f IndoorJ

Less than $350,000. 30 60 100

$350,000-$ 1,500,000. 20 40 60
More than $1,500,000. 10 20 35

* Outdoor. All major equipment unhoused; prefabricated building construction

for control and administration structures.
f Outdoor-indoor. Some major equipment housed in permanent buildings; storage
facilities and remaining major equipment unhoused; all permanent buildings custom-
designed and built.
J Indoors. All major equipment housed in permanent buildings; all permanent
buildings custom-designed and built.
 Fig. 6-29. Installed cost of continuous thickeners (ENR = 750).

$100,000
ins-oiled cost per plate or per ft of height

10,000

1,000

1 10
Diometer, in.
Fig. 6-30. Installed cost of packed and bubble plate towers (ENR
219
220 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

Table 6-6. Cost of Engineering, Construction, and Contractor Fees

Per cent of physical plant cost

Physical plant cost

Average Complex engineering

40 60
Less than $1,000,000.
33 50
$1,000,000-$5,000,000.
25 3<
More than $5,000,000.

per cent on engineering personnel salaries. Engineering design costs,

exclusive of construction supervision, range from 5 per cent minimum to
fir cent of the M
co,. of the
existing chemical plant facilities were duplicated m like kind
th a
 economic evaluation of the project
221
CHAP. 6]

5 per cent design engineering cost. A pioneering chemical plant vvas

built based on incomplete process data with a 15 per cent engineering
design change. For an approximation, the manpower required, \u
about 120 per cent overhead, is $100 to $125 per man-day worked.
When the job is adequately defined, a drawing list can be prepared and
related to drafting and design engineering man-days. A rough average
figure for preparing and checking a drawing on sizable chemical plant
construction jobs is one hundred man-hours. Another approximation is
that one hundred drawings are required for each 1 million dollars of
investment on large chemical jobs. For small, or semiworks, plants, the
number of drawings per unit of plant cost may be higher. In the maj ority
of cases the mechanical engineering cost will be high, usually about 40
per cent of the engineering cost because of the large amount of piping and
pressure-vessel work, with the rest divided as follows: chemical, 25;
structural, 20; electrical, 10; and instrument, 5.

Working Capital
The working capital requirements have been itemized by Wessel:1
1. Raw materials inventory—one month’s supply at cost
2. Materials in-process inventory—one week at manufactured cost
3. Product inventory—one month at manufactured cost
4. Accounts receivable—one month at selling price
5. Available cash to meet current expenses of wages, raw materials’,
utilities, and supplies—one month at manufacturing cost
The above quantities are standard for estimation purposes. The
quantity of raw material that needs to be held in inventory will vary with
each raw material. Capital is required to cover credit (or accounts
receivable) extended to customers according to the terms of the rate,
generally 30 days. Additional cash is required to pay wages and salaries
and to purchase raw materials and pay for other operating expenses.
To simplify preconstruction cost estimation, use 15 to 20 per cent of
the fixed capital investment for working capital investment. Another
method ol estimation is based on fixed percentage of the annual sales
dollar, averaging 25 per cent lor 100 chemical process companies.

Total Capital Investment

The sum of fixed and working capital investments as determined by one

or more ol the methods outlined above constitutes the total capital
investment. Since the fixed capital costs are generally greater than 85
per cent ot the total capital costs, the errors inherent in using methods
L'° 7f" dete>™nmg fixed capital costs also apply to total capital costs
S' , TheSe derived figures are thus available for making manu-
1 H. E. Wessel, Che7n. Eng., 60(1): 171 (1953).
222 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

facturing cost estimates, setting the selling price of products, and evaluat¬
ing the over-all process economics.
As there is a direct relationship between fixed and working capital
costs, method 4 can be expanded to get a “quick” estimate of total
capital investment within an error of 20 to 40 per cent overestimated to
40 to 60 per cent underestimated. Table 6-7 summarizes this method.

Table 6-7. Quick Estimation Method for Capital Costs*

Delivered equipment Installed equipment

cost cost
Type of plant
Fixed Total Fixed Total
capital capital capital capital

Solids processing. 3.10 3.60 2.16 2.50

Solids-fluids processing. 3.63 4.20 2.56 3.00
Fluids processing. 4.74 5.50 3.30 3.80

* Reference: Fixed Capital Cost Estimation, method 4 (p. 195).

In many cases there is a requirement to estimate the fixed or total

capital investment for another plant using the same process but at a
different production capacity. The capacity factor used for separate
equipment can also be applied to the complete plant investment:1

Investment B = investment A \^prod capacity A) ( ’

where n = 0.6-0.7 for scale-up accomplished by increasing size of units

= 0.8-1.0 for scale-up accomplished by multiple units of identical
size
= 0.3-0.5 for pilot plants, high-pressure and/or high-tempera¬
ture commerical plants
These factors should not be applied for scale-up ratios greater than oO.

TOTAL PRODUCT COSTS

Manufacturing Costs
An estimate of manufacturing costs is the next step required for
making an economic evaluation of the project. Only costs entering
actual production are taken into account. Other important costs sir
as selling, research, and administrative expenses, income taxes and retur n
onSinvestment will not be considered until later in this chapter. A
1 C. H. Chilton, Chem. Eng., 67(4): 112 (1950).
 223
CHAP. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT

Table 6-8. Detailed Manufacturing Cost Estimate

i __ innl' nora
(drums, bags, tank cars, Pt.P..
etc.)I
X
1. Product___ 0,000 hr,
~units (lbTtons, gallons, etc.) per year of
2. Production Rate, 0,000.000^
000 days

3. Plant location-
4. Plant investment:
$000,000
Machinery and equipment (M and 00,000
Building...

Unit Allocated
$ per unit
5. Raw materials: Quantity cost, costs,
Unit of product
per year $ $/yr

0.00 000.000 0.0000

Lb 0,000.000
0.00 000 000 0.0000
Ton 00,000
000,000 0.0000

Credit for by-products: 0.00 - 000,000 -0.0000

Lb 000.000
0.00 - 00,000 - 0.0000
Lb 00,000
-000.000 - 0.0000
000,000 0.0000
Net raw material cost.
6. Direct conversion expense (DCE): 00.000 0.0000
Man-hr 00,000 0.00
n nann
u.uuuu
0.000
0,000 0.0000
Payroll charges (12 -20% D-R.-oup.;.
Utilities: 00.000 0.0000
M lb 00,000 0.00
0.0000 00.000 0.0000
Kwhr 0,000,000
00,000 0.0000 0,000 0.0000
Therms
Mcf
Tons
MCF
000,000 0.000 0,000 0.0000
M gal
0,000 0.0000 000 0.0000
M gal
00,000 0.0000
Repairs (.0 lo Vo oi ivi aim .
0,000 0.0000
Factory supplies (0.5—1 % of M and E) . . .
Clothing and laundry ($l/wk for ea.
000 0.0000

Laboratory (salaries and 100% over-

0,000 0.0000
Rnvalt.v (if annlicable). 0,000 0.0000
000,000 0.0000
7. Indirect conversion expense (IDCE):
nonrPPiQtinn (1 0 °/r, nf TVT ai\(i "F'A . 00,000 0.0000
0,000 0.0000
'Tnv^a (9. nf TVT finrl FI -4- hldff ^ 0.000 0.0000
Insurance (2% of M and E + bldg.). 0,000 0.0000
Controllable IDCE (40-00% of D.L. or
15-30 % of DCE) . 00,000 0.0000
Rent (if any rented buildings 8-10% of
value or land are included). 0,000 0.0000

Total IDCE. . 00,000 0.0000

8. Bulk conversion cost (items 6 + 7) . . . . 000,000 0.0000
9. Bulk manufacturing cost (items 5 + 8) 0,000,000 0.0000
10. Packaging and shipping:
Containers. 00,000 0.0000
Packing labor. 0,000 0.0000
Shipping supplies and labor. 0.000 0.0000
Freight allowances. -0,000 - 0.0000
Total. 00,000 0 0000
11. Total manufacturing cost, f.o.b. (items
9 + 101. 0,000,000 0.0000
224 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

Table 6-9. Short-cut Manufacturing Cost Estimate

1. Product X in (drums, bags, tank cars, etc.)
2. Production rate, 0.000,000_units (lb, tons, gallons, etc.) per year of 0,000 hr.
000 days
3. Plant location _
4. Plant investment:
Machinery and equipment (M and E). $000,000
Building.
00,000

5. Raw materials: Unit Allocated

Quantity $ per unit
Unit cost, costs,
per year of product
$ $/yr

Y. Lb 0,000,000 0.00 000,000 0.0000

Z. Ton 00,000 0.00 000,000 0.0000
Subtotal. 000,000 0.0000
Credit for by-products:
B. Lb 000,000 0 00 - 000,000 — 0 0000
N. Lb 00.000 0.00 - 00,000 - 0.0000

Credit subtotal. - 000,000 - 0.0000

Net raw material cost. 000,000 0.0000
6. Direct conversion expense (DCE):
a. Utilities:
Steam. M lb 00,000 0.00 00,000 0.0000
Electricity. Kwhr 0,000,000 0.0000 00,000 0.0000
Fuel. Therms 00,000 0.0000 0,000 0.0000
Oom pressed air. Mcf
Refrigeration. Tons
Inert gas. . Mcf
Water eooling. M gal 000,000 0.0000 0,000 0.0000
M gal 0,000 0.0000 000 0.0000

h T.,ahor . Man-hr 00.000 0.00 00,000 0.0000

0,000 0.0000

d. Total direct-labor charge [(06 + 6c) X

1 7Q1 . 00,000 0.0000

e. Laboratory expenses (salaries + 100%

0,000 0.0000
00,000 0.0000
/. Total DCE (items 6a + 6d + 6e).
7. Indirect conversion expense (IDCE):
a. Fixed charges and repairs—0.20 of M
00,000 0.0000
0,000 0.0000
0. DUiKling cuarges ui .
00,000 0.0000
c. 1 otal 1JJL/E (items /a r • .
000,000 0.0000
8. Bulk conversion cost (items 6/ + 7c). . . .
0.000,000 0.0000
9. Bulk manufacturing cost (items 5 + 8)..

detailed and a short-cut manufacturing cost estimate based on the work

of Dybdal1 are shown in Tables 6-8 and 6-9. Average percentage factors
based on fixed capital and labor charges are used. A discussion of the
possible variation in many of these items will follow. Table 6-10 shows
cost distribution of manufacturing costs for 14 different chemical
industries.
i E. C. Dybdal, Chevi. Eng. Progr., 46(20): 57 (1950).
 O "bl'tl
co *o^

08
8}
s(0J0lduiO0) QO O w •——f
^ lO
Suiuij9.i qiiijosb*^) 5. H" <

os bX)
CO o ©N OO O > •
00 00 2 :
9x0pn + Suiuuoj'pqj
^°° :
t"H

1.3
300
OOOH

100
3
55

13
SS0OOJCI BpOS-BITIOlUUIT?
CO »-h
‘iJSB T?pOg
1
Table 6-10. Cost Distribution as Percentage of Manufacturing Cost

00 00 • rr •O O oo d
9
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s9ui[iuy oo • •O iO i—i —1
• • f—H

9iiotj LO LO o 00 CO -COO o o *—
00 o »o d 1
-'Buoqdpis bia jouoqj CO d —'

50 + 56.4
05

2.7 (ea.)
2.0 (ea.)
18

100
05 GO
44
27

j.opsnBO
11

t-
+ ouuopjo oi^X|OJ^O0|g O
4

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2

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sossbjoui X0 joqoopy
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53

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eU0§^XO oSbuuox to
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ubtotal.

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otal.

rate, tons/day. . . .
price, <k/\b.
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225
226
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

Raw Material Costs

The costs of raw materials and the value of by-products and products
must be determined from statistics in the company office or from a study
of long-time price curves from such sources as U.S. Census of Manufac¬
tures, Chemical Engineering, Chemical and Engineering News, Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, Chemical Week, Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter,
and the daily papers.
For firm production cost estimates, the prices listed in these journals
should be verified by consulting the suppliers to make sure that they apply
to the quality and quantity of the individual chemicals required in the
projected manufacturing operations. Prices for chemicals not listed in
the journals should be obtained from the suppliers. Current market
prices of chemicals the company purchases for its manufacturing opera¬
tions as well as interdepartmental or divisional transfer prices of chemicals
produced and consumed within the company may be obtained from
company files. Such price information is not available to individuals
outside the company. Credit for by-products varies with each particular
case. Generally, by-products are credited at their sales price minus
additional selling, shipping, and purification costs, if any.

Utilities
The auxiliary process requirements are listed as utilities under item
6 in Tables 6-8 and 6-9. These may be supplied in several ways, with
charges made according to various accounting procedures:
1. Purchased service from noncompany facilities at a fixed rate, e.g., a
public utility or adjacent plant with central station facilities.
2. Utility supplied from company-owned central station facilities.
3. Service may be generated at the site and used for only the one
process. This must be included as a part of capital cost and operating
expenses accounted accordingly.
The cost of utilities will show considerable variation so that a check in
established rates at the plant location site will be necessary for accurate
cost accounting. For preconstruction cost estimating, the rates shown
in Tables 6-11 and 6-13 will suffice. A brief discussion of the most
important utilities follows with a more adequate coverage included in
Chap. 7. , . , .
Water. Process water is used in chemical reactions and in washing,
extracting, dissolving, and similar processing operations, for drinking, for
sanitary facilities, and for general cleanup and washing. Estimates
should be generous for the latter requirements; requirements are given
for 100 industries in Fig. 0-32. Fresh water, treated or untreated veil
or city water, and in some cases distilled or deionized water may be
 • Ascorbic acid
Sulfathiazole
Hydrogen ex wo ter gas
GR-S copolymer
Hydrogen ex steam-iron
Butadiene ex alcohol
Viscose rayon . ' .
Acetic acid ex wood via Su/da process
Lactose
Cellulose nitrate _
300- Acetic acid ex wood via solv. extrn.
Synthetic ammonia
Hydrofluoric acid
Acetic acid ex acetylene
200 -

85% hydrogen peroxide ex 35%

Ethylene glycol vio chlorohydrin
Phosphoric acid vio blast furnace
Ethylene oxide
Synthetic ethyl alcohol
Sodium metal
Sodium chlorate
Sulfite pulp
Ca hypochlorite (high test)

■ Kraft pulp
■ Synthetic nitric acid
40-
KCl ex sy/vinite
■ 137% formoldehyde
30- ■ Liquid oxygen - small scale
92% sulfuric acid ex 38%
Calcium carbide
20 -
Smo/reless powder
Tonnage oxygen
Beet sugar
Beer
Silica gel
Dry ice ex due gas
Solid NaOH ex 11% solution
Liquid sulfur dioxide
Ethyl olcohol ex molasses
Soda ash via So/vay process
Phosphoric acid via Dorr process
Synthetic nitric acid
Polymer gasoline
Cane sugar refining
Blast furnace iron
TCC gasoline
Natural gasoline
Alumina via Bayer process
Platformer gasoline (on feed)
Cottonseed oil
Ethyl alcohol ex grain
Ammonium sulfate
Contact sulfuric acid
Basic Mg carbonate
Rock wool
HCl ex salt
Petroleum delayed coking (on feed)
Electric furnoce phosphorus
Fluid catalytic gasoline
Chamber sulfuric acid
Ammonium nitrate
NaOH via lime-soda process (11% so/h)
Nitroglycerine
Phenolic resin
Cottonseed oil hydrogenation
Aluminum sulfate
Portland cement via wet process
Synthetic HCl
Corn starch
Dynamite
Mg hydroxide ex sea water and dolomite

Boric acid
Laundry soap
0.1

\'\G 6-32 Process water requirements for chemical industries. [Courtesy of C. H.

i hilton, Chetn. Eng., 68(4): 111 (1951).]

227
228 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

required. The cost oi process water is generally within the range of

$0.02 to $0.25 per 1,000 gal. Cost of deionizing water is comparable to
the cost of distilling, which approximately doubles the cost of normal
process water.
The total annual quantity of cooling water is summarized and this is
multiplied by a factor of 1.10 to 1.50 to allow for losses and contingencies.

Table 6-11. Estimation Rates for Utilities*

Type of utility Rate

Steam:
400 psi. $0.50-80.90/1,000 lb
100 psi. 0.25-0.70/1,000 lb
Exhaust. 0.15-0.30/1,000 lb
Electric power:
Purchased. 0.01-0.02/kwhr
Self-generated. 0.005-0.01/kwh r
Cooling water:
Well. 0.02-0.10/1,000 gal
River or salt. 0.01-0.04/1,000 gal
Tower. 0.01-0.05/1,000 gal
Process water:
City.’.. 0.07-0.25/1,000 gal
Well... 0.02-0.10/1,000 gal
Filtered and softened. 0.10-0.20/1,000 gal
Distilled. 0.60-1.00/1,000 gal
Compressed air:
Process air. 0.015-0.03/1,000 ft3
Filtered and dried for instruments 0.04-0.10/1,000 ft3
Coal. 6.00-10.00/ton
Fuel oil, No. 6. 0.04-0.08/gal
Gas:
0.30-0.80/1,000 ft3
Natural.
Manufactured. 0.60-1.30/1,000 ft3
Refrigeration:
0.55/ton-day
Steam-jet, 50°F.
0.50/ton-day
Ammonia, 34°F.
0.90/ton-day
Ammonia, 0°F.
1.20 ton-day
Ammonia, — 17°F.

* R. S. Aries and R. D. Newton, “Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New \ork, 1955.

Cooling-water costs vary greatly, depending on the geographical location,

water-treating problems, pumping costs, etc. (see Chap. 7).
Steam. Process steam requirements may constitute a majoi i cm
costs varying with the chemical process as shown in Fig. 6- .
process steam must be added the requirement for building heat; a factor
of 1 25 is used to account for the sum of process steam and bui mg •
To allow for radiation, line losses, building heat, and contingencies, t
 229
economic evaluation of the project
CHAP. 6]
~r 300

Ascorbic acid
Sulfothiozole -200
Viscose rayon
Lactose

Acetic odd ex wood via Suido process

Ethyl alcohol ex sulfite liquor

Butadiene ex alcohol
Ethyl alcohol ex wood waste

Synthetic vanillin
Benzene hexachloride
Silica gel
Ethylene glycol via chlorohydnn
Casein
Ethylene oxide
Basic Mg carbonate
35% hydrogen peroxide
Dry ice ex flue gas
Solid No OH via diaphragm cells -20
Smokeless powder
Acetic acid ex wood via solv extra.
Alumina via Bayer process
Ethyl alcohol ex molasses
Beet sugar
Sodium chlorote -10
Sodium metal
85%hydrogen peroxide ex 35%—\\\\
Solid NaOH ex 11% solution—\\y
Kraft pulp —A\\
Dissolving pulp-\\\
Glycerine ex soap lye-A\\
Sulfite pulp —\\\\
Aluminum sulfate —\\V
Liquid sulfur dioxide —\A
Ca hypochlorite [high test) —\
DDT^X
Acetic acid ex acetylene ^
Synthetic ethyl alcohol
Sodium bichromate
Acetic odd ex wood via Othmer process
Ammonium chloride
92% sulfuric acid ex 38%
Tonnage oxygen
Boric acid
37% formaldehyde ex methanol
Soda ash via Solvay process
Loundry soop CO
Cottonseed oil
Phenol via sulfonotion
Nitroglycerine
Noturat sodium sulfote
Cane sugar refining
Com starch
Synthetic coumarin
Ammonium nitrate
Rock wool
NaOH via lime-sodoprocess [H%so!n.)

KCl ex sylvinite
Natural gasoline
Phosphoric acid via Dorr process
92% sulfuric acid ex 75%
Fatty acid refining
Hydrofluoric acid
Cottonseed oil hydrogenation

Sodium silicate - 40°Be

Polymer gasoline
Mg hydroxide ex sea water and dolomite
Phenolic resin
Synthetic nitric acid
Dynamite
Ammonium sulfate
Petroleum delayed coking [on feed)
Cato lytic gasoline
Contact sulfuric acid
Trisodium phosphate
Plotformer gasoline [on feed)

Fig 6-33. Process steam requirements for chemical industries. [Courtesy of C. //.
( hilton, Chem. Eng., 68(4): 111 (1951).]
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

factor of 2.00 is applied to the process heat requirements. A cost calcu¬

lating chart is given in Table 0-12.
lor capital investment purposes, a basis of $5 to $10 per 1,000 lb each
hour is used for steam generation and distribution facilities.

Table 6-12. Cost of 1,000,000 Btu in Various Fuels

Heat content Cost of

F uel Purchase price
of fuel 1,000,000
of fuel
Btu

Fuel oil. 152,000 Btu/gal $0.023 per gal $0.15

0.030 0.20
0.038 0.25
0.046 0.30
0.061 0.40
0.001 0.60
Fuel gas. 1,000 Btu /ft3 0.15 per 1,000 ft3 0.15
0.20 0.20
0.25 0.25
0.30 0.30
0.40 0.40
0.60 0.60
Fuel gas. 600 Btu/ft3 0.25 0.15
0.33 0.20
0.42 0.25
0.50 0.30
0.67 0.40
1.00 0.60
Coal. 13,000 Btu/lb 3.90 per ton 0.15
5.20 0.20
6.50 0.25
7.80 0.30
10.40 0.40
15.60 0.60
Steam. 1,200 Btu/lb 0.18 per 1,000 lb 0.15
0.24 0.20
0.30 0.25
0.36 0.30
0.48 0.40
0.72 0.60

Electric Power. Power requirements for process equipment and

motors in specific chemical industries are summarized in Fig. 6-34. To
allow for line losses and contingencies, these data should be multiplied
by 1 11 to 1 25. The industrial power rates vary regionally and locally in
the United States. Table 6-13 is a compilation of the average costs in
individual states. In general, industrial power rates range from $0,008
 231
ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
CHAP. 6]

0.1 10 x Ozone ex air

Aluminum
DDT
0.09 9 - 95% silicon metal
Alumina ex bauxite Electrolytic magnesium
Ammonium chloride 35% hydrogen peroxide (100% basis)
Tin refining 0.08
Ethylene glycol via chlorohydrin 0.07 7-
Ethylene oxide
0.06 6 -
Beet sugar
Corn starch Electrolytic manganese
Butadiene ex alcohol 5- Sodium metal
Phosphoric acid via Dorr process '/A 0.05 Hydrogen via ammonia dissociation
Portland cement // - Silicon carbide
Lithopone '/ r
— Ascorbic odd
Soda ash ' / 0.04 4-
WClex so/t—jr — 70% ferrotungsten
No OH via lime-soda process —j Jr - 70%> ferrochromium
Nitroglycerine -y/r-
Bleaching powder -j
Tri sodium phosphote -y/r 0.03 3- Electrolytic fluorine
Beneficioted toconite J 50% ferrosilicon
Acetic acid ex wood distillation J ■o Sodium chlorate
o
Formaldehyde (37% basis) H r Rayon
Si/ica gel -' Sultathiozole
Boric acid —/ 75% ferromonganese
KCl ex sylvinite 0.02 2 - ' Chloroquine
Rock wool 3 -Phosphoric acid via electric furnace
Industrial alcohol ex molasses
O / Electrolytic zinc
Q.
Canesugor (refined) Graphite
Mg hydroxide ex seawaters dolomite <D
O.
Calcium carbide
Sulfuric acid Calcium cyanamide
Aluminum sulfate
Acetic acid ex pyroligneous liquor
Ammonium sulfate £ / Fused alumina
,Electrolytic copper
Nickel refining
Phenol-formaldehyde molding compound
Sodium silicate (40°Be) y Smokeless powder
>
Superphosphate 0.01 cr* 1.0 S/ Liquid oxygen - small scale
Soybean extraction (bean bos is) 'y <D
-/s Chlorine via CuCl2 electrolysis
Dynamite ' (-0.009 C 0.9
<D
Ammonia
-0.008 _ 0.8- Salt electrolysis (NoOH a chlorine)
O J-
o
Ammonium phosphate 0.007 ~ 0.7-
Benzene hexachloride
0.006 " 0.6 Hydrogen ex water gas

Glycerine ex soap 0.005 ° 0.5- Coumarin

c
o Carbon bisulfide
Ferric chloride
Hydrogen ex steam-iron
-0.004 E 0.4
Hydrogen ex propane
c
o
o Electric steel
-0.003 0.3 Synthetic ethyl alcohol

Alcohol ex sulfite liquor

Sulfite pulp
Co hypochlorite (high test)
Synthetic HCl
Sodium bichromate
Phosphoric acid vio blast furnace
Liquid sulfur dioxide
-0.002 o.; 95% oxygen - large scale
—y' Acetic acid ex acetylene
-N\' Nitric acid
Zinc oxide
Chlorine via chlorsulfonic odd
Lactose
Kraft pulp
Polymer gasoline Urea
Basic Mg carbonate
Hydrofluoric acid
Catalytic gasoline Dry ice
-■-o.ooi 0.1
Phenol via sulfonation

Fig. 6-34. Process power requirements for chemical industries. [Courtesy of C H

Chilton, Chem. Eng., 68(3): 115 (1951).]
232 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN
[CHAP. 6

for locations having cheap power to $0.02 per kwhr in higher areas. For
capitalization purposes $100 to $175 per kwhr used in 1 hr under average
operating conditions is the share estimated for electric power generation
and distribution facilities.

Table 6-13. Electrical Power Charges by Region and Demand for

Year 1957
A. Average power charges bij region
(Statistics for industries >50 kw demand)*
Average charge, cents
Location per kilowatt hour
United States.
New England: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, Connecticut. j 72
Middle Atlantic: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. 1.21
East North Central: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin. 1.02
West North Central: Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South
Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas. 1.31
South Atlantic: Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia,
West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida_ 1.13
East South Central: Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi. 0.51
West South Central: Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas. 0.93
Mountain: Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona,
Utah, Nevada. 0.75
Pacific: Washington, Oregon, California. 0.69
B. Average power charge by demand and monthly consumption’. United
States averagef

Demand, kw. 150 300 1,000

Consumption, kwhr. 30,000 60,000 200,000 400,000

Total charee. <i/kwhr. 2.07 1.87 1.64 1 .07

* Abstracted from Statistical Bulletin 25, 1958, Edison Electric Institute, New
York, N.Y.
f Federal Power Commission Bulletins R16 and R54, 195/, Washington, D.C .

Refrigeration. Refrigeration costs vary widely and depend on a

number of factors, chiefly power, cooling water, depreciation, and repairs.
Because of the interdependence of these factors and their variation from
one installation to another it is necessary to estimate refrigeration costs
for each installation if a reliable cost is required. I he following approxi¬
mate refrigeration costs are given for single-stage ammonia compression
systems of roughly 10 to 500 tons in size, based upon power at $0.01 per
kwhr, and 85°F cooling water at $0.02 per 1,000 gal. At evaporator term
peratures of 34, 0, and - 17°F the costs per ton-day approximate $0.47,
$0.82, and $1.07, respectively. Steam jet refrigeration is widely used to
CH\p. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
233

obtain 50°F cooling water. If steam is taken at $0.25 per 1,000 lb and 8o°P
cooling water at $0.02 per 1,000 gal, cost of steam jet refrigeration will be
approximately $0.52 a ton-day. Steam jet refrigeration is especially
advantageous with cheap low-pressure exhaust steam and cooling water
available. It is convenient to include the cost ol refrigeration units in
the manufacturing equipment and to charge the power, cooling water,
repairs, and depreciation pertaining to refrigeration units under these
items in the conversion cost, if refrigeration costs for the particular plant
location are not available.
Installed costs for refrigeration on a ton-capacity basis can be obtained
from Aries and Newton. The listed costs of equipment per ton of refriger¬
ation effect are based upon the complete plant, with low-side equipment,
ready to run, including reciprocating or centrifugal compressors, motor,
starter, receiver, water and brine coolers, conditioner, water cooling
coils, etc. If an evaporative condenser instead of a water-cooled con¬
denser is used, add $35 per ton; for cooling tower, add $60 per ton.
Cold-storage holding costs can be estimated as follows:

For cold-storage holding Dollars per cubic foot

Capacity, Temperature, Refrigeration

Building Insulation
ft3 °F equipment

>50,000 35 0.45 0.37 0.22

>25,000 0 0.45 0.50 0.38
>25,000 -20 0.45 0.67 0.53

Inert Gas. Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, and helium are examples
ol molt piocess gas. C osts ol commercially pure nitrogen delivered in
trailers to compressed cylinder storage racks are:

Cost of nitrogen,
Usage, cubic feet per month dollars per 1,000 ft3
0-80,000 8.50
80,000-150,000 8.00
150,000- 7.50

Carbon dioxide can be purchased in cylinders for $3.80 per 100 lb com¬
pared to $1.30 per 100 lb if the inert gas is provided by combustion of
natural gas.
Miscellaneous. Materials to be considered in cost estimation under
the miscellaneous category are factory supplies, including such items as
gaskets lubricants, paint, test chemicals, janitor supplies, rags etc
Lnless demands for any of these items are excessively high, a cost ailoct
234 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

tion of O.o to 1.0 per cent oi the plant machinery and equipment cost
should be adequate.

Labor Costs

The cost of operation of chemical process equipment varies widely.

Some equipment requires more skill, operators of better technical training,
and more supervision than others (see Table G-14). Engineering experi¬
ence must be relied on to furnish most of this information. Available
within each company are data on equipment operating labor costs, with
typical values of 0.2 man per unit for continuous filters, evaporators, and
columns, 0.5 man per unit for centriluges, dryers, and continuous reactors,
and 1.0 man per unit for batch reactors.

Table 6-14. Typical Job Evaluations for Chemical Operations*

Requirements

Skill Mental Physical Work

responsibility

responsibility
Job title

Application
Total
Application

conditions
Mechanical

Equipment

Monotony
Dexterity

Initiative

points

Working
Material

Hazards
ability

Reactor operation. 19 2 0 5 3 5 2 0 0 1 1
Filter-dryer operator. 6 1 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Still operator. 19 3 0 5 4 5 1 0 0 1 0
Packer operator. 6 0 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 0
Warehouseman. 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 1
13 4 1 2 1 2 2 0 0 1 0
Furnace operator.

* Job Evaluation, Chem. Inds., 60(5): 785 (1947).

There are several methods available for estimating operating labor. A

practical experience method, also called rule of thumb, is to use one
operating man for every ten process instruments in a well-instrumented
and controlled process. A more accurate estimating method was devised
by Wessel1 and graphed in Fig. G-35. The method is based on adding up
the various principal processing steps on the flow sheets. A process step
is defined as any unit operation, unit process, or combination thereof,
which takes place in one or more pieces of integrated equipment on a
repetitive cycle or continuously, e.g., reaction, distillation, evaporation
drying, filtration, and packaging. Take this total number of steps and
multiply it by the daily man-hours per step at the specified daily pla
1 H. E. Wessel, Chem. Eng., 69(7): 209 (1952).
ch\p 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT 235

rs&r.25L
zzxz sssks i »<*«.

must be determined from the final operating instructions and preliminary

time studies.
In determining labor costs, local conditions prevail, but some average
must be obtained. A request to the local chamber of commerce will
generally yield data on prevailing rates. Information from similar
plants, labor agreements, job evaluations, and pilot plant data can be
made the bases for labor estimates. Data on labor rates in each industry
1 C. H. Chilton, Chem. Eng., 58(2): 151 (1951).
236 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

and craft can be obtained from labor boards in each region of the United
States and from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, D.C.
Table 6-15 gives data on hourly earnings in some chemical plants for the
year 1955.
Approximate rates for preconstruction cost estimation purposes in
1958 are as follows:
Rates per hour
Leaders and foremen. $2.65-$4.00
Skilled labor. $2.00-$2.70
Unskilled labor. $1.40-$! .90

An estimate is made of the number of hours of supervision required in

normal manufacturing operations. The extra supervision needed during
initial runs with the equipment is generally charged to start-up expenses.
A supervisor’s salary may range from $6,000 to $8,000 per year.
Payroll charges should cover such items as social security, vacations,
pensions, and compensation insurance. They may be estimated as a
percentage of labor plus supervision; the usual range is from 12 to 20 per
cent of the sum of these items.
An estimate is made of the amount of analytical work that may be
required and the time needed to complete this work. The aveiage salaiy
of an analyst for the time required plus 100 per cent for overhead will
be a satisfactory charge in a preliminary estimate.
Indirect Labor Charges. The indirect expenses of employee service
facilities are watchmen, locker rooms, dispensary, employment office,
payroll preparation, cafeteria, yard, maintenance, general superin¬
tendence, purchasing and traffic, parking spaces, telephone service, etc.
These costs are based upon direct labor and should be charged on the
basis of labor costs. For preliminary estimation, the controllable
indirect conversion expense can be approximated by either 40 to 60
per cent of the direct labor or 15 to 30 per cent of the direct conversion
expense. Which of the two procedures will be used in a particular case
depends upon the judgment of the estimator. A charge of $1 per week
should be made for each man engaged in operating labor for clothing an
laundry.
Maintenance and Repairs
Repairs.For preliminary estimates, repairs can be taken as a. per¬
centage of the installed plant machinery and equipment cost. Mr
nance charges range from 5 to 15 per cent of the plant costs on an annua
“which corresponds to 2 to 8 per cent of the manufacturing costs
basis ™ co P ^ ^ the of equipment and operation
involved will show whether repair charges should be high, low, or average.
 CD 00 h- CO
^ © m o io o t- — 00 00
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<-i ' 04 hhhNhhh
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1
11 11 O r}4 05 40 40 Tf< 04 40
Occupationf--—__
Sov

1 0
(Average straight-time hourly earnings* of workers in selected production occupations, United States and regions)

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io I >o oo r- 04 OO 04 iO OS CO
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Number of workers and average hourly earnings in

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1955

■>* 04 04
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Earnings for Workers in Chemical Industries,

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Middle Atlantic

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•»* •>*■>* 04 04

40 05 OP CM CO t- co 00 05 CM 05 04 00 00 CD CO
00 0 O5C40t> , 00 00 0 CD 0000 | 00 , .
New England

1 ® ^ 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 0
<*§/
CM t-H r-H t-H ' ^ 04 »“H i“H f-H 04 1 ' • * CM -MH 1 ‘ CM M-i I I

IO cot- 1 05 CO 04 CO 40 CO I I 1 °0 CD I I
CO Tt< O 40 i-l | 1 10 1 1 00
1 40 CO CO CO 40 co 40 1 | 1 1 0 eooo 1 1 CM CD 1 1
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United States

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t- f2rl^t:l^l0i:^c0'^l^c,5,:^t005C0iorN.--i4O40i04 00 04-H^iot.oc4O4O4O'rt<(oi(-o
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. 1-1 ^ *'-r--H04© 05 04 04t'-'*C*©©C504C0^C5T?C5^T^-i^HrH©
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40
Table G-15.

CP
c.
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s_
CP

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u
^ o^
M >>
c P* 2 5 4m
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o
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C/3 C/2 7} s „ ^ « « •£ is
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u. t Cj Oj Oj2 *5 CW C/2 72 - £ o
a ° »- 1-. Im"^ P b U ^ ^oo£
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D C3 C3-3-Q JO O >, U
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a-2-a.o ej ©.2.2 « X 04 g O 0.-4^,"^
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S-2- 3 O
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 1C co-HCicooNoococ'i'Qoa C3 t ~ CO u. oooo to t>- MON
COCMN-HOOl—<—<-»f03C0OQC 00 40 O 1 | Tt< O 05 H 004 0—140
<N C4N(N(NCION(NCI-i-hn-h (N <M CSJ '
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G

llc/hr on third shift.)

cu

144
'tNd'iOCOOOS'fSCJOO M N O LO I I N^CCC't coo 00 O CO
CO r- c oo <n cm cu r»< 03 oo oi co f" N | 1 ^4 04 CO CG 04 CO 1 O 04 to
co 03 O ^ H ^4 r-H
CO

co co 04 CO to to t-

t Includes all drivers regardless of size and type of truck operated.

04 05 ^ r- CO
04 1^0. O CO 00 00
r' 1 1 ^ ^ 1 1 50 N M M l
04 04 * 1 04 04 ' 1 M 04 04 04 04 -i 1 ' 04 04 04
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a

103.
(Continued)

G
w
C
ca 3

source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, BLS Report

bfi

8e/hr on second shift; 10

G CO 05 1 I COCO I 00 to co CO 04 O I 1 ^ 04 O ^ 1 1 1 1 1
05 04 1 I CO *—1 !
11 CO CO t- Tf r- to ^ 1 1 co toco 04 1 1 1 II
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t-
1955

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O
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Industries,

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05
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u 04
05
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Chemical

* Excludes premium pay for overtime and for work on week ends, holidays, and late shifts.
04 to ^ 00 LO —1 X N •—1 CO o 05 05 c- ^ o tO
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Dashes indicate no data or insufficient data to warrant presentation.

Workers

o
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t Data limited to men workers except where otherwise indicated.

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for

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Earnings

04 ^05 00 rPtOO4C0COQ0-<t^^O4 CO-H ^H^C0^O4^t 04 04 ^

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6-15.
Table

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G ?3 d o o go b .2 ° 05
Note:

3 -3^^ d S rf CA t- CA L ^ - > > 03 43 £

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G G 05,0 .2 CA CA*" CA
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238
 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
239
CHAP. 6]

Repairs on buildings may be about 5 per cent of their cost For instru¬
ments, annual charges of 25 per cent of the original costs should suffice.
A large share of the maintenance required to keep a unit functioning is
due to mistakes and accidents. Vessels, piping and tubing obsolescence,
and pump maintenance are items of maintenance cost that can be approxi¬
mated; even here, extra allowance should be made if the service is severe.
Leonard concludes from Table 6-16, wherein annual maintenance costs
of specific equipment are listed, that the maintenance angle should be
considered as fully as the operating aspects. A review of the preliminary
plant design by a maintenance expert can save many dollars in the course
of the operating life of the plant.
Common Denominator for Repair Costs.1 A formula for budgeting
repair costs should include two constants: repair labor index and repair
material index; and two variables: pay with overhead per man-hour and
kilowatthours consumed.
Such a formula may be written

c x{a + by) (6-5)

where c = cost, dollars per year

x = kwhr per year 4 1,000-

y = cost in dollars per man-hour with overhead

a = repair material index, as dollars per 1,000 kwhr
b = repair labor index as man-hours per 1,000 kwhr
Roughly, actual true repairs average 25 to 65 per cent, while the remainder
is for repairs of supports, auxiliaries, etc.

Depreciation

Depreciation is the unavoidable loss in value of plant, equipment, and

materials with lapse in time, caused by:

1. Chemical action or corrosion

2. Physical action:
a. Decay
b. Decrepitude
c. Abrasion
d. Normal wear
e. Deferred maintenance or repair
3. Inadequacy
4. Obsolescence

am)1’10'06’ A C°mm0n Dcnominator for ^Pair Costs, Chcm. Eng. Progr., 44:
240 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

Table 0-10. Annual Maintenance Costs*

(Dollars per year)
Centrifugals:
Continuous horizontals
Small (24 in.). $500
Large (54 in.). 3,000
Basket, underdriven and suspended
Small (20 in.). 250
Large (00 in.). 400-500
Conveyors:
Belt, pan, and roller per 100 ft. 100
Screw per 100 ft. 200
Moving slat per 100 ft. 150
Bucket drag per 100 ft. 1,200
Crystallizer:
Batch, tank, per 2,000-gal unit. 200
Continuous, rubber-lined 20- X 1^2- X lM~ft unit. 100
Clarifiers, batch:
Continuous thickeners
Noncorrosive service, 20,000 gal. 500-800
Corrosive service, 20,000 gal. 2,000-3,000
Collectors, dust and mist
Electrical precipitators, 10,000-15,000 cfm. 5,000-8,000
Packed towers, per 1,000 cfm. 100
Baffle spray, per 1,000 cfm. 400-500
Bag filters, per 1,000 cfm. 200-250
Cyclone, per 1,000 cfm. 200-300
Distillation columns:
Bubble plate, per ft3 column space. 5-50
Sieve plate, per ft3 column space. 3-10
5-15
Packed column, per ft3 column space.
Dryers:
Continuous belt
300
Short, 8 ft wide X 30 ft long.
500
Long, 8 ft wide X 70 ft long
100-300
Continuous rotary, 6 ft dia. X 30 ft long.
Spray
150
Small.
350
Long. 3-4
Drum, per ft2.
Tray 1-2
Atmospheric, per ft2.
2-3
Vacuum, per ft2.
Evaporators: 500 G00
Multiple effect, per 1,000 ft2... 200-1,500
Batch, atmospheric and vacuum per 1,000 ft2.
800-1,000
Pan, atmospheric and vacuum per 1,000 ft2.
Filters: 2 9.00
Rotary vacuum, rubber and alloy units, per .
11.50
Wooden units, per ft2.

* J. D. Leonard, Chem. Eng., 58(9): 149 (1951).

 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
CHAP. 6]
Table 6-16. Annual Maintenance Costs (Continued)

(Dollars per year)

Pressure
1.60
Large, per ft2.
3.00
Small, per ft2.
Intermittent vacuum
2.00
Rubber and alloy, per ft2.
4.25
Wooden, per ft2.
Plate and frame
0.85
Rubber and alloy, per ft2.
1.10
Wooden, per ft2.
Furnaces and kilns:
Continuous rotary
9-ft dia. severe hot end, per 100 ft. 3,500-4,000
Plus severe cold end.
8,000-10,000
Batch rotary, 10 ft dia. X 20 ft long. 4,000-8,000
Mannheim for HC1, 10 tons per day. 3,000
Nitric acid pan, 8 X 12 ft. 800
Herreshof burner, 18 ft dia. X 20 ft high 3,000
Heat exchangers:
Calandrias, per ft2 surface. 0.50-5.00
Condensers, per ft2 surface. 0.30-2.00
Jacketed pipe exchangers, per ft2. 0.75-3.00
Falling film condenser, per ft2. 0.20-0.75
Mixers and blenders:
Continuous
Light, per 50 ft3 capacity. 100-200
Medium, per 50 ft3 capacity. 200-300
Heavy, per 50 ft3 capacity. 400-500
Batch
Light, per 50 ft3 capacity. 150-250
Medium, per 50 ft3 capacity. 300-400
Heavy, per 50 ft3 capacity. 500-600
Pumps:
Centrifugal
30 gpm 50 head ft. 75-90
30 gpm 100 head ft. 150-175
100 gpm 50 head ft. 100-125
100 gpm 100 head ft. 200-225
200 gpm 100 head ft. 225-250
Diaphragm
Up to 20 gpm.
400-425
20-40 gpm.
400-600
40-80.
500-800
Piston
Up to 20 gpm.
125-150
20-40 gpm.
150-175
40-80 gpm.
200-250
Size reduction:
Jaw and gyratory crushers
Small.
Large.
70
400
242 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

Table 0-10. Annual Maintenance Costs (Continued)

(Dollars per year)

Pan-roller mills
Small. 2,000
Large. 7,000
Jaw and gyratory crushers
On TiO-> per ton handled. 0.60-0.71
On alum cake per ton handled. 0.02
Ball-and-tube mills, per ton handled. 0.08-0.12
Micropulverizers, per ton handled. 0.04-0.07
Other impact mills, per ton handled. 0.10-0.18
Screeners, vibrating:
Dry, electrical, per ft2 of screen. 10-14
Mechanical, per ft2 of screen. 14-20
Wet, electrical, per ft2 of screen. 150-3,000
Mechanical, per ft2 of screen. 300-5,000
Mechanical sifter, per ton handled. 0.10-0.20
Tanks, weak acid up to 50°C:
Wood
Small, per 1,000 gal. 15
Large, per 1,000 gal. 10
Rubber-lined
Small, per 1,000 gal. 30
Large, per 1,000 gal. 40
Stainless steel, per 1,000 gal. 5-10
Up to boiling
Brick-lined, per 1,000 gal. 25-40
Lead-lined, per 1,000 gal. 200-250
Havcg, per 1,000 gal. 5- 10
Neutral or alkaline solutions, per 1,000 gal. 10-15
Glass-lined, with agitator, per 1,000 gal. 1,000
800
For storage, per 1,000 gal.
Special, stainless steel, concrete, aluminum, per 1,000 gal 3-6
50-60
Plastic-lined.
Piping, process, 1—6 in.:
10-50
Mild steel, per 100 ft.
6- 25
Cast iron, per 100 ft.
8-35
Brass, per 100 ft.
7- 28
Stainless steel, per 100 ft.
20-70
Rubber-lined, per 100 ft.
22-80
Glass, per 100 ft.
25-100
Porcelain, per 100 ft.
30-80
Carbon, per 100 ft.
50-90
Silver, per 100 ft. 6-36
Rubber hose, per 100 ft.
Piping, service, 1-12 in.: 4- 60
Uninsulated, mild steel, per 100 ft.
5- 42
Cast iron, per 100 ft. 6- 27
Brass, per 100 ft. 7- 11
Insulated, mild steel, per 100 ft.
CHAP. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT

economically when the savings in operating costs over the same period
of time exceeds the cost of installing new equipment. Often new equip¬
ment will produce better products at lower costs. The cost of operating
proposed facilities or procedures can be predicted accurately from suitab e
calculations and from experimental investigations. Pressure for better
products at lower costs forces continual modernization of chemical plants^
Reserves should be set aside out of current earnings to take care of
technological antiquation of machines. This is depreciation.
From the probable useful life and from due consideration of obso¬
lescence and economic life, the salvage values of the various types of
equipment are established. Depreciation rates on equipment and
machinery as fixed by the U.S. Bureau of Internal Revenue for tax
purposes are presented in Table 6-17. A company may establish its own
depreciation rates, but these must be approved by the U.S. Buieau of
Internal Revenue. For preliminary estimates a rate equal to 10 per
cent per year may be used for equipment and 3 per cent per year for
masonry buildings and 4 to 5 per cent for frame buildings.
Since depreciation is a major fixed charge in establishing total product
costs, the design engineer should become familiar with current Federal
government regulations and internal accounting procedures in this area.
Most chemical companies have recognized the advantages of increased
depreciation allowances during the early years of a new process instal¬
lation and pioneered internal company methods to accomplish this goal.
It is possible for a plant to meet competition and still use a large write-off
during the early years when prices are likely to be high and maintenance
costs low. Replacement reserves thus grow rapidly at first, giving an
early high recovery of the investment, yet profits and taxes are kept at an
even level throughout the life of the process since prices generally decline
in succeeding years. Under this system the cost of products during the
first 3 to 5 years will be higher and in the next 5 years the cost will be
lower than that computed by a straight-line method (e.g., one-tenth of
the investment recovered each year for 10 years).
Methods of Determining Depreciation. There are nine principal
methods of determining depreciation allowances which can be arbitrarily
divided into two groups based on whether or not interest on investment
is allowed. Ihese methods and useful formulas are tabulated next.
Consistent nomenclature is used throughout.
Group A (no interest on investment allowed):
1. Straight-line depreciation: Equal amounts are charged off over the
useful life of the equipment.
244 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

Table 6-17. Probable Annual Depreciation Rates for

Chemical Process Equipment

Depre¬ Depre¬
ciation ciation
rate, rate,
per cent per cent
Acids: Chemical ware. . 50

Blow cases, cast iron and cop- Water. 25

per. 33 % Pots, condensing (earthen-
Columns, fractionating. 12% ware). 14
Condensers: Pumps and blowcases:
Copper.. 10 Chemical ware lined. 33«
Duriron. . 7 Rubber-lined blowcase. . . . 20
Lead. 16% Storage tanks (wooden, rub-
Motors.. 7 ber lined). 7
Pipes: Tanks, sulfuric acid storage
Aluminum. • 33% (steel). 5
Glass. . 20 Tourills (silica). 10
Glacial: Towers, absorbing. 10
Copper. . 10 Nitric:
Rubber. • 12% Blowers (stoneware). 20
Aqueous. . 10 Blow cases (earthenware). . 50
Pots. . 6 Condensers (duriron). 8%
Pumps, vacuum. . 14 Condensers, S-bend (stone-
Receivers, acid (stoneware). . 7 ware). -10
Scrubbers (stoneware). 7 Elevators and conveyors
Receivers, acid, for product (screw). 10
(stoneware). Flues, gas (duriron). 12%
Pans, niter cake (steel). 7
Stills:
8 Pipes and fittings (earthen¬
Cast iron.
Refining, copper. 7 ware, duriron, lead). 50
33 % Pumps, sulfuric (iron), centri¬
Refining, heating coil
fugal . 20
Tanks, storage:
8 Receivers (stoneware). 20
Steel.
4 Retorts, 24-hr service. 40
Wood.
Tanks (steel). 10
Muriatic:
10 Towers, condensing. H
Air lifts (hard rubber).
10 Sulfuric (chamber):
Cars, tanks.
10 Air lifts, acid. 1°
Coolers.
10 Blowers, gas (lead). 6
Elevators, bucket.
12% Blowcases. 10
Exhausters (rubber lined).
10 Chambers. 0
Flues (earthenware). . .
12% Coolers, acid (lead coil), for
Furnaces, Mannheim
10 salt water. 10
Furnaces, pot and muffle.
12 % Fans (cast iron). 10
Furnaces, retort.
Pipes (lead). 10
Grinders and coolers, salt
5
cake. m Pots, niter.
Pumps, acid. 20
Motors. 7
Tanks (steel), acid storage, av¬
Pipes: erage weak and strong acid
Acid (hard rubber). 14
 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
245
CHAP. 6]
Table 6-17. Probable Annual Depreciation Rates for
Chemical Process Equipment (Continued)

Depre¬
Depre¬
ciation
ciation
rate,
rate,
per cent
per cent

Tanks, tower, acid distribut¬ Storage (steel). G

ing. 12 M Tank cars (steel). 8

Towers, Gay-Lussac. 5 Towers:
Towers, Glover. 5 Absorbing. H
Sulfuric (contact): Cooler, cold scrub. 8^
Airlifts. 7 Dry. 10
Blowcases (cast iron and steel) 20 Oleum. 10
Blowers: Scrub. 10
Connersville. 14 Transferrers. 11
Sturtevant. 6
Pulp and Paper and Paper Board
Burners:
Brimstone. 10 Absorbing system, milk of lime. . 10
Glens Falls. 10 Barkers, drum. 10
Herreshoff. 6?^ Hand. 6^
Wedge, salt-water cooled. . 6% Beaters. 5
Wylde. 7 Bins, storage, chip.
Coke boxes. 6 Bleachers. 6%
Combustion chambers, brim¬ Burners, sulfur, acid plant. 8^
stone. 10 Calenders.
Compressors, air. 6?^ Chippers. 5
Contact mass, including Conveyors, inside. 6%
plates and supports. G Outside.
Converters. 7 Cookers. 5
Conveyors and elevators.... 10 Coolers. 10
Coolers: Cutters. 5
Drying acid. 10 Cylinder machines, for paper and
Gas. 7 paper board. 5
Gas, tower. 10 Deckers. 5
Product. 16?$ Diffusers. 4
Dust chambers (brick). . 7 Digester linings. 14
Filters, preliminary. . 9 Digesters:
Flues (iron). 7M Indirect.... 414
Gauges, meters, pyrometers. 7 Rotary.... 5
Heaters, preliminary. 7 Vertical, stationary. 4
Melters, brimstone. . 10 Drainers. . . 814
°/3
Motors. 6 Evaporators:
Pipes, acid. 10 Disk. g
Platinum, in catalyst. 2 Multiple effect. 4
Pumps, acid (iron). 14
Fourdrinier machines. 5
Pumps, acid (lead). 12^ Furnaces, rotary. g
Separators. 7
Grinders. 5
Sublimers, brimstone. 10 Jordans. 51/
Tanks:
Knotters. 52^
Roasted ore storage (steel) 5
Kollergangs. 5
Storage (lead). 5
Linings for blow pits. 1214
6
246 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

Iable 6-17. Probable Annual Depreciation Rates for

Chemical Process Equipment (Continued)

Depre¬ Depre¬
ciation ciation
rate, rate,
per cent per cent
Melters, sulfur. 12}72 Devulcanizers, reclaimed rubber.. 62^
Pans: Dipping machines. 10
Causticizing. z
6^3 Disintegrators. 6%
Wash. 4 Drums. 8}i

Pits, blow: Dryers. 7

Concrete. Dusting machines, including
Steel tank. 5 chalking. 6?^
Platers. 7^ Furnaces. 6%
Pumps: Grinders, pigment. 62<*
Acid. 20 Mills, mixing or warming:
Centrifugal. 6% Heavy duty. 6
Plunger, duplex or triplex. 5}^ Light duty. 6%
Pressure. 6% Mixers:
Vacuum. 6% Large. 6
Reels. 6% Small.
Rifflers: Ovens. 6%
Concrete. 3^ Presses, cold. 5
Wood. 5 Pulverizers. 623
Save-alls. 5 Reeling machines. 6H

Screens: Refiners, roll type. 7

Silver. 8 Rolling machines. G2i
Rotary. Sealing machines. 7
Shredders. 8/^ Separators. 7
Slashers. 7 Sheeters.
Smelters, sulfate process. 14 Sifters. 7
Stackers, pulpwood. 7 Strainers. 8^3
Varnishing machines. 62i
Tanks:
Causticizing. 5 Vulcanizers. 62i

Leaching. Washers.
Mixing (wood). 8t£ Winding machines. 62i

Mixing (wood) for clay 5 Wrapping machines. 8

Storage, acid. 81 3 Cement, Ceramics, Glass, Gypsum,
Storage or washing (concrete). 3} i and Lime and Limestone
Storage or washing (wood).... 6%
Agitators.
Thickeners. ^
Augers. 7
Towers, absorbing system.
Washers, bleach or paper stock 5 Baggers. ® 3
Beaters, tub. 62^
Wet machines. 6/2
Blowers.
Q1 /
Rubber Goods Blungers. 0 3
Bottle machines. ^
Autoclaves.
Brickmaking machines. 8
Boards, stock (wood). 25
Burners.
Calenders. °'2
a 24 Calciners, continuous. 6/3
Conveyors.
Cars:
Covering machines. 7/2
Batch. ®
Crackers, rubber.
 FOR
6-17. Probable Annual Depreciation Rates
Table
Process Equipment (Continued)
Chemical
Depre¬
Depre¬
ciation
ciation
rate,
rate,
per cent
per cent
. 62^3
6%
Pans, dry.
Dryer or kiln. 10
Plungers.
Mine:
Polishers.
8
Steel.
10
5
Presses.
Wood. 20 621j
Pulverizers.
Transfer. 10
Pumps. 6%
Casting and rolling tables. 8 I A
Pumps, clay. AU
Charging machines. 10
Controllers, temperature, auto¬ Reels. ^
10 Riddles, gyratory. 1°
matic .
Scales:
Conveyors.
7H Platform. 5
Coolers. rt r
Portable.
Crushers.
Screens. 10
Cutoff machines. 7
Separators:
Cutting machines. 7
Cutting machines, rock lath. 5 Air. 10
Magnetic. 7
Disintegrators.
Shovels, electric or steam. 6%
Drag lines:
Heavy. 5 Sieves. 12^
Light. 10 Sifters, revolving. 10
Medium. 0% Tables, drawing, grinding, or pol¬

Dryers. 0 ishing. 8
Dryers, rotary. 6%
Tanks. 5
Duster machines, bag. 6%
Oil and Gas Refining
Dust collectors. 5
Elevators: Agitators. 6^
Bucket. 6% Carbon black plants. 8
Screw. 5H Condensers. 6 2£
Feeders. 8 Exchangers, heat. 6^
Filter presses. 623 Filtering plants. 5
Furnaces. 62^ Gasoline plants, natural gas. 8
Furnaces, pot. 8 Pipes, interunit lines, small diam¬
Grinders. 6% eter. 62^
Hydrators. 6% Pumps. 6%
Jigs. 10 Stills:
Kettles. 6% Cracking. 12]^
Kilns. 6% Fire. 6^
Lehrs. 6% Steam. 6^
Loading machines. 10 Tube or pipe. 8^
Mills. 6% Vacuum. 6^j
Mixers. 7 Tanks:
Molds. 20 Compounding. 5
Molds, hydraulic. 81^ Storage. 5
Mud machines. 8 Treating.
Ovens, flattening. 8 Towers, scrubbing. 6%
Packers. 10 Traps, gas and water.
Pallets and trays. Wax plants. 5

source: U.S. Bureau of Internal Revenue.

247
248 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

where d annual per cent depreciation based on original investment

^ 0 oiiginal investment value of installed equipment
1 s = final salvage value of equipment
n = allowable service life
2. Multiple straight-line depreciation: The straight-line method is
applied over several periods, being short at first and then increasing
as the life of the equipment is extended beyond the original estimate.

V
y o — V
y s V
v o — V
V s
X 100 X 100, etc. (6-7)
/i i T o n2V0
where d\ — annual per cent depreciation during first period of years,
Ui

d2 = annual per cent depreciation during second period of years, n2

n2 > 7ii
3. Declining balance or fixed percentage method: The annual depreciation
is a fixed percentage of the current property value or remaining book
value. Since the value is highest at the beginning, the depreciation is
also highest.

(V \i/n
da= 1 - UA (6-8)

Vx = Vo(l - d*)* (6-9)

where dd = annual per cent depreciation based on remaining property

value
Vx = property value after x years
4. Double declining balance method: This method is used to accom¬
modate Federal laws of 1954 which permitted depreciation rates not
more than twice the straight-line depreciation.

dd = 2d (6-10)

Apply this in Eq. (6-9).

5. Sum-of-the-years’-digits method: This is an arbitrary method which
gives the same type of depreciation trends as the declining balance
method.
1 + 2 + • • • n = 2 (6-H)

where - = di = annual per cent depreciation on original investment for

first year
— = dn-i = annual per cent depreciation on original investment
&
for (n - l)st year
I = dn = annual depreciation on original investment for nth year
 940
CH vp 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT

allows faster early-life write offs.

7. Unit of production method: This
apportions depreciation over bar¬
rels of oil or tons of oil pro¬
duced; it is limited to extractive
industries.
Group B (interest on investment
allowed):
1. Sinking fund method
2. Present worth method
Methods in this group are poor
from the point of view of quick re¬
turn of capital. T. hey are only used
by a few public utility concerns for
depreciating any property that has Fig.6-36. A comparison of depreciation
methods for capital recovery.
long service life with little risk of
obsolescence.
isoiescence.
Figure 6-36 shows a composite plot of several capital recovery methods,
illustrating the advantage of the rapid write-off techniques.

Other Fixed Charges

In addition to depreciation, other indirect manufacturing costs are
local taxes, insurance on equipment and buildings, and general plant
overhead. Local taxes are often 2 per cent of the investment annually,
and insurance on the equipment and building is estimated at 1 per cent.
In another method these two can be rated at about 6 per cent of the total
manufacturing costs. Social security taxes and general plant overhead
against individual products vary with the location. Estimates of 50 to
75 per cent of the operating and maintenance labor plus supervision
have been used. The trend toward more fringe benefits may bring this
up to 100 per cent in some cases.

Management and Marketing Expenses

General administration, selling, and research expenses are frequently

based on average annual sales. In that order, based upon sales, esti¬
mates are made at 2 per cent, 2 to 10 per cent, and 2 to 5 per cent,
respectively, depending upon the company. Research expenses cover
the salaries and overhead for all technical personnel engaged in research
and development work. Administrative expenses apply to the salaries
and expenses of the officers of the company and to general expenses
connected with company administration such as legal and auditing fees.
250 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

Summary of Total Product Costs

All the important items which make up the cost of a product have now
been discussed, these can now be summarized by groups as shown in
Table (5-18.

Table 6-18. Summary of Total Product Costs

1. I roduct X in (drums,, bags, tank cars, etc.)
2. Production rate 0,000,000 units (lb, tons, gal, etc.) per yr

S/yr S/unit
3. Manufacturing costs
a. Raw materials 000,000 0.0000
b. Direct conversion 000,000 0.0000
c. Indirect conversion 00,000 0.0000
d. Packaging and shipping 00,000 0.0000
0,000,000 0.0000
4. Management and marketing (6-15% of sales) 000,000 0.0000
5. Total product costs 0,000,000 0.0000

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

Economic analysis in a broad sense is the determination of the relation¬

ship of income and expenses to the material welfare of the company. In
previous sections the development of cost or expense data has been demon¬
strated. In its simplest form, the problem is now to establish what the
income from sales will be, subtract the total product cost, and obtain a
gross income. By subtracting income taxes, new earnings are obtained
which must be linked to total capital investment to determine the attrac¬
tiveness of the venture. These conclusions must be conveyed to manage¬
ment in one or more ways so that a sound decision can be rendered. One
must recognize the fact that the project will have to compete with others
for the investment money available and, in the final analysis, profitability
will carry the most weight in the decision.
There are a wide variety of problems which will come up for economic
analysis. Several typical ones would be:
Problem 1. Sales price already established by competition and plant
capacity set by the marketing and sales group. Determine
the profitability.
Problem 2. Sales price already established by competition. Determine
profitability as a function of plant capacity.
Problem 3. A new venture—sales price to be established in terms of
profitability.
Problem 1 is by far the simplest case and will be discussed more exten-
sively than the other problems in terms of economic analysis for the
benefit of the student.
CHAP. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT 2ol

Each company and each economist has one or more ways of determining
profitability by economic analysis. It is not the purpose of this book to
elaborate on these. Excellent books on chemical engineering economy
are listed in the Additional Selected References. However, three of the
more popular methods will be discussed: (1) return on investment, (2)
pay-out time, (3) project present worth. To proceed with the economic
analysis, net or new earnings must first be determined from selling price
less costs.

New or Net Earnings

An examination of Table 6-19 will show quantitatively what is involved.
Product costs have been established by methods outlined in Tables 6-8,
6-9, and 6-18. The other items in determining new earnings require
further explanation.
Income from Salable Products. This covers the sale of the by-products
as well as the principal product(s), which is primarily monitored by the
market and sales group. The interrelationships among selling price,
market demand and supply, production capacity, and investment return
require careful economic analysis. In many cases, particularly new
ventures, this can only be determined by a profitability analysis, e.g.,

Table 6-19. Cost and Profit Summary for a Proposed Plant

Type of plant: Lindane (99% y isomer of benzene hexachloride)

Source of data: Table 6-24
Production: 240,000 lb/yr
Fixed capital investment: $1,220,000
Total capital investment: $1,430,000

Item %/year
1. Total product cost. 424,270
2. Product value. 745,000
3. Gross profit or earnings (item 2 — item 1). . . 320,730
4. Income taxes (52% level). 166,700
5. Net profit or new earnings (item 3 — item 4) 154,030
Profitability analysis
Annual per cent return on fixed capital
Before taxes.
26.1
After taxes.
12.6
investment
Pay-out time = n,, =-—
gross profit
$1,220,000
320,730
= 3.8 yr

acceptable return on the investment money. The selling price must be

set sufficiently high to justify a reasonable investment return and yet
not be priced out of line. One relatively simple procedure is to determine
252 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

investment returns for various selling prices, plot the data, and pick the
selling price to match the company’s requirement for investment return
(Fig. 6-37). A modification of this is to establish the plant capacity and
investment based on an anticipated sales price and required return on
investment (Fig. 6-38).

Fig. 6-37. Annual per cent return on Fig. 6-38. Annual per cent return on in¬
investment versus selling price. vestment versus plant capacity.

Type plant—Lindane (99% 7-BHC) Type plant—Lindane (99% 7-BHC)

Annual capacity—240,000 lb Selling price of product—S3.10/lb
Reference: Table 6-24 Reference: Table 6-24

Income Tax Expenses. This represents a considerable expense to a

profitable company. Table 6-20 shows that the average income tax for
chemical companies is 52 per cent of gross earnings. The tax on earn¬
ings of the extractive, mining, and petroleum companies is somewhat
less than this because of depletion allowances on their natural resource
reserves.
Table 6-20. Income Tax Rates*
Per cent tax on
Type of company gross earnings

... 51.6
Chemical process.
Pulp and paper, rubber, and synthetic fiber ... 50.5
... 47.5
Drugs.
... 40.0
Extraction and mining.
... 28.5
Petroleum.

* Abstracted from Chem. Eng. News, 34: 5647-5657 (1956).

Interest on Investment. Interest on the investment, usually at 6 pel

cent is sometimes considered an element of operating cost. However, it
cannot be so charged for income tax purposes, nor is it generally con¬
sidered as operating expense by accountants. Although the question is
debatable, it appears that the best opinion permits the use of interest
CHAP 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT 2.).i

investment as a cost only when comparing the returns from two different
investments, as, for example, two different processes for making the sa

°r AppU^ilnTl^rest Charges to Project. Bulling^ holds that interest

cost should be calculated on initial investment. His reasoning is that
decline in plant value is always accompanied by the recovery of an equiv¬
alent amount of capital through depreciation, thus maintaining the
original investment intact. . ,
Grant,1 2 on the other hand, maintains that interest charges should be
computed on the average investment over the life of the project roughly
half the initial investment on the basis that investment shrinks steadily
as the plant depreciates. %
Profit. Gross profit, usually on a yearly basis, is the difference be tv een
gross sales and product costs, which may include interest on investment.
New earnings are obtained by subtracting income taxes from gross
profits. They represent the sum of money that has been earned by the
over-all investment of capital and labor to make the pioduct a\ ailable to
customers.

Profitability Analysis
This analysis is the final judgment as to whether the project should
be further financed. In its simplest form it examines net earnings in
relation to capital investment. Several methods of analysis will be
discussed.
Per Cent Return on Investment. This is the most widely used method
since it very simply gives the annual rate at which earnings will return
the investment. Formulas applicable to this method are:

P x 100
(6-12)
7
E X 100
(6-13)

where rb = annual per cent return on investment before taxes

ra = annual per cent return on investment after taxes
P = annual gross profit before taxes
E = annual new earnings = Px, where x = [1 — fraction for
income tax 0.52)]
I = investment, fixed or total, with r specified accordingly

1 C. E. Bullinger, “Engineering Economic Analysis,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., New York, 1958.
2 E. L. (irant, “Principles of Engineering Economy,” 3d ed., The Ronald Press
Company, New York, 1950.
254 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 6

Aii accepted rate of anticipated return will vary with the degree of risk
fiom obsolescence or competition. Typical criteria for acceptable
returns in several industries are listed in Table 6-21.

i able 6-21. Minimum Acceptable Return on Investment for

Several Industries

Per cent return

Industry n, before taxes ra, after taxes

Low Average High-risk Low Average High-risk

Chemical process. 15 30 45 7 15 21
Drugs. 25 43 56 13 23 30
Petroleum. 18 29 40 12 20 28
Metals. 10 17 25 5 9 13

Low-risk figures should apply only to those processes which have been
well established commercially with firm sales markets. The high-risk
values are applicable to pioneering ventures where scale-up and market
conditions are uncertain.
Pay-out Time Method.1 In making economic studies involving the
purchase of new plants or equipment, it is frequently found desirable to
estimate the so-called “ pay-out period,” i.e., the number of years n that
will elapse before the investment has been completely recovered through
savings or added earnings.
Pay-out time before taxes, nh, is most commonly expressed, using a
fixed investment If, as follows:

A comparison with Eq. (6-12) shows that nb is 100/r&. Acceptable values

of nb can thus be calculated using the information in Table 6-21.
The effect of both taxes and interest can be included in a pay-out
calculation by means of a stepwise calculation, which will determine, for
each year, the net amount of capital recovered. This computation must
be continued by years, until the entire investment is shown as recovered.
Such a method is apt to be both laborious and time-consuming. The
following formula, which achieves the same purpose, was developed to
eliminate the use of the lengthy stepwise method.
log Z — log (Z — Uf) (6-15)
n% log X — log Y
i W. H. Buell, Calculating Payout Time for Equipment Investment, Chew. Eng.,

64(10): 97 (1947).
 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
255
CHAP. 6]

where X = 1 + i/2
Y = 1 - i/2
Z = P{\ - t) + tD = E + tD
i — effective fractional rate of interest
t = fractional tax rate applicable to earnings
D = depreciation allowed for tax purposes
If the equipment to be installed replaces existing equipment, P is the
annual profit made possible by the new equipment. If the plant under
consideration is entirely new, P represents the annual profit of the
plant before taxes and interest. The term i represents the effective
rate of interest, i.e., the actual out-of-pocket interest cost after allowing
for the effect on taxes. Since interest is chargeable against income and
this reduces the taxes paid, the true interest cost will be less than the
apparent interest. The term t represents the tax rate applicable to
earnings and is the sum of the Federal and state tax rates.
Depreciation is not normally included with expenses in calculating a
pay-out. However, depreciation is an allowable deduction in computing
taxes. To cover the effect on taxes alone, a factor for depreciation must
be included in the formula. Depreciation allowed for tax purposes may
be different from depreciation charged on the books of the company or
depreciation based on estimated years of life. This item, therefore,
should properly be estimated by the tax department of the company.
Both P and t are assumed to remain constant for the entire pay-out
period. If this period is expected to be long and if considerable changes
in the values of these two items are in prospect, there is no alternative
but to carry out a stepwise year-by-year calculation.
Formula (6-15) is usable only when i is greater than zero. If it is
desired to neglect interest, the following simple formula should be used:

na (6-16)

Project Present Worth Method. This method recognizes the time

value of money and is more widely used by economists and accountants
in presenting profitability reports to management, particularly when two
processes require close comparison. Engineers should have an under-
standing ol this method.
he time value ot money depends on the earning rate at which money is
reinvested. Reinvestment at high earning rates requires recovery of the
initial investment as soon as possible. The method assumes that there

earnin''1 rate £PP°*"nit,M. "lvest at a company average investment

inve ted tli reC6lP * ,f/°m the P1'0ject under consideration are
n ested at this earning rate R, and the project evaluation involves a
mpaiison of over-all company profit by investing money in the given
256 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

project with the profit which would result were the money invested
in projects yielding R per cent interest. Further details of this method
can be obtained by studying suitable references.1,2

Profitability, Plant Capacity, and Sales

In order to provide management with a graphic representation of
profitability analysis, working charts are extremely useful. Figures
6-37 and 6-38 are types which can be used. These were developed
primarily to show the minimum size plant which should be built to assure

Fig. 6-39. Break-even chart illustrating the effect of plant capacity on earnings.
Type plant—Lindane (99% 7-BHC)
Annual capacity—240,000 lb
Reference: Table 6-24.

a reasonable return on the investment. Another concept is the effect

upon costs and profits if a certain size plant is operated at less than fu
capacity This effect can be illustrated by use of a type of grap
in economic parlance as a break-even ehart. It is a plot of costs, sales, and

,j c Martin, “Economic Analysis,” from J. J. Hur (ed.), “Chemical Process

Depreciation,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New 'i ork, 1956.

chap. 6] economic evaluation of the project

profits as a function of the production level of operation of a plant (see

Fig 6-39). For a minimum size Lindane plant giving an allow a ) e
minimum return on the investment as established by company manage¬
ment, this graph shows that operation below 39% of full capacity will be
done at a loss. The economic studies with this type of chart can be
considerably expanded. The reader is referred to Aries and Newton.

REPORT ON ENGINEERING AND ECONOMIC EVALUATIONS

At this point a report should be written, presenting pertinent facts and

conclusions reached, and distributed to all those who are likely to have
any connection with the project. Since the evaluation is undoubtedly
based on certain assumptions which may reflect the personal judgment
and bias of the chemical engineer preparing the report, all assumptions
and supporting experimental data should be clearly stated. Standard
nomenclature should be used throughout the report. (See Appendix B.)
The report must be well presented as the decision on the advisability of
continuing the project may depend on how well the written presentation
is made. A typical outline of a design report would be:
1. Letter of transmittal
2. Title page
3. Table of contents
4. Summary—points out results, conclusions, and recommendations for management
to follow
5. Introduction
6. Survey of previous work
7. Proposed process description
a. Laboratory data
b. Assumptions
c. Flow diagrams
8. Process design
a. Flow diagrams
b. Tabulation of equipment and specifications
c. Process economics
(T) Capital requirements
(2) Profitability analysis
(a) Product costs
{b) Selling prices -as these affect investment return
(c) Plant capacity
9. Recommendations

a. Further research and development work, giving time and cost

t urther process design, giving time and cost
c. Further plant design, giving time and cost
d. Possible management decisions with alternatives
10. Acknowledgments
11. Summary of nomenclature used (optional)
12. Summary of references used
258 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

'Fable 6-22. Preconstruction Cost Estimations for Crude Benzene

Hexachloride Pesticide Plant—Process Equipment Costs
and Capital Investment (1958)

Unit Total
Item of equipment No.
installed installed
required
cost cost

A-l. Benzol transfer pump. 2 $ 520 $ 1,040

A-2. Benzol storage tank. 2 4,000 8,000
A-3. Benzol feed pump. 2 280 560
A-4. Water demineralizer. 1 750 750
A-5. Chlorine vaporizer. 1 900 900
B-l. Chlorinator. 2 19,500 39,000
B-2. Reflux condenser. 2 6,000 12,000
B-3. Vent gas separator. 2 1,100 2,200
C. Decanter. 1 1,400 1,400
D-l. Dilute acid receiver. 1 1,900 1,900
D-2. Acid still feed pump. 2 500 1,000
D-3. Acid stripping still. 1 1,800 1,800
D-4. Acid still condenser. 1 1,000 1,000
D-5. Cone. HC1 receiver. 1 1,300 1,300
D-6. Cone. HC1 pump. 1 400 400
D-7. Cone. HC1 storage. 1 9,500 9,500
D-8. Acid recycle pump. 2 500 1,000
E. Crude product pump. 2 300 600
F-l. Caustic make-up tank. 1 2,200 2,200
F-la. Caustic make-up tank agitator. 1 500 500
F-2. Caustic make-up pump.'. 1 270 270
F-3. Caustic storage tank. 1 3,000 3,000
F-4. Caustic feeder. 2 500 1,000
F-5. Neutralizer. 1 1,400 1,400
F-6. Spent caustic separator. 1 700 700
G-l Flash still feed pump. 1 280 280
G-2. Flash still. 1 11,800 11,800
G-3. Flash still condenser. 1 2,900 2,900
G-4. Solvent receiver. 1 6,500 6,500
H-l. Crystallizer feed pump. 1 300 300
1 35,000 35,000
H-2. Crystallizer.
1-1. Continuous centrifuge. 1 8,600 8,600
1 2,600 2,600
1-2. Recycle liquor receiver.
1 3,800 3,800
1-3. Wet crystal hopper.
J-l. Rotary vacuum dryer.. 1 20,000 20,000
1 2,500 2,500
J-2. Vacuum condenser and receiver.
1 1,200 1,200
J-3. Vacuum pump.
1 280 280
J-4. Recovered solvent pump.
2 3,800 7,600
K-l. Dry BHC hopper. 1,000
1 1,000
K-2. BHC packaging. 600
2 300
L-l. Solvent still feed pump. 9,000
1 9,000
L-2. Solvent still. 2,500
1 2,500
L-3. Solvent still condenser. 310
1 310
L-3a. Condensate cooler. 500
1 500
L-4. Wet benzol receiver. 300
1 300
L-5. Wet benzol pump. 300 300
1
M-l. Monochlor pump. 280 280
1
M-la. Monochlor cooler. 5,000 5,000
M-2. Monochlor storage. 1
$216,570
Total installed cost.■ • • • • • • ■ 130,000
Building and land costs—60% of total. . .

Capital cost calculations Table 6-7 on p . 222)

Fixed capital = 216,
Total capital =216, X 34)0 = $650^000
 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
259
CHAP. 6]

13. Appendix
a. Calculations—all or sample calculations
b. Detailed tables of data
c. Pertinent research and development tests and data

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Economics of Benzene Hexachloride Production

As stated in Chap. 3, the ultimate goal of the process design was to
present to management the comparative facts on crude BHC and Lindane
production so that a decision could be made to commercialize one or the
other process or abandon both. This section will present the important
facts necessary to render a decision.

Crude BHC Process

Equipment specifications were prepared and illustrated in ("hap. 4.
Table 6-22 could thus be worked out, using individual equipment cost
estimates from this book and others. The installed cost on a 1958 basis
for the process equipment alone was $216,570. Table 6-24 was next
prepared from figures available from the process flow sheet and other
reasonable economic facts as discussed in here. Note that short-cut
methods were employed where possible since only comparative economics
were desired for this type of profitability analysis. Results show that a
crude BHC plant at the production level recommended is unprofitable
and definitely should not be considered further.

Lindane (99 Per Cent 7 Isomer of BHC) Process

As explained in Chap. 3, the process design for this type of plant was
not shown. It is to be left as Project 6-1. Equipment costs were
developed foi the process at two different capacities and the economic
analysis is presented in Tables 6-24 and 6-27 and Figs. 6-37 to 6-39.
The conclusions are that it is unprofitable to operate a Lindane plant at

Table 6-23. Preconstruction Cost Estimations for Crude

Benzene Hexachloride Plant—Operating Labor
and Supervision Requirements

Employee No. Annual salary Total cost

Hourly rate
per employee per year

Shift supervisors. 3 $3.00 $6,240

Operators. $18,720
6 2.25 4,743
Shipping clerk. . 28,458
1 1 .80 3,742 3,742
io~
$50,920
 So
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Table 6-24. Preconstruction Cost Estimation and Profitability Analysis for Crude Benzene Hexachloride

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L o o
(12% 7 Isomer) and Lindane (99% y Isomer) Plants

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260
 Table 6-24. Preconstruction Cost Estimation and Profitability Analysis for Crude Benzene Hexachloride
(12% 7 Isomer) and Lindane (99% 7 Isomer) Plants (Continued)

261
CM
©

*
X 820,000. See also Table 6-25 for a more accurate estimate.

CM
O
ZU^ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6

less than 235,000 lb/year production at current market prices. An even

larger production with a continued research and development program
should be recommended to avoid low investment returns in the face of
competition and price drops. Final decision will have to be reconciled
with a more detailed market analysis.

Table 6-25. Fixed Capital Estimates for a 240,000-pound per

\ ear Lindane Plant Using More Accurate Method 3

Note: Equipment costs developed for this process are not shown. Students may be
assigned this as a process design project. (See Project 6-1.)
Basis: Plant built adjacent to existing facilities.

Cost estimate by method 3

1. Delivered equipment costs. $336 000

2. Installed equipment cost: 336,000 X 1.43. 478,000
3. Process piping: 478,000 X 0.20. 95,000
4. Instrumentation: 478,000 X 0.05. 23,900
5. Building and site development: 478,000 X 0.50. 239,000
6. Auxiliaries: 478,000 X 0.05. 23,900
7. Outside lines: 478,000 X 0.10. 47,800
8. Total physical plant cost (2 through 7). $907,600
9. Engineering and construction: 907.600 X 0.30. 272,000
10. Contingencies: 907,600 X 0.10. 90,760
11. Size factor: 907,600 X 0.05. 45,380
12. Total fixed capital cost (8 + 9 + 10 + 11). $1,315,740

PROCESS DESIGN PROJECTS

6-1. Lindane Plant

Design a 250,000 lb/yr Lindane (99 per cent y isomer of benzene hexachloride)
plant based on process information given in the current literature [e.g., see Chem. Eng.
Progr., 62:281 (1956); Chem. Week, 78:54 (1956); Ind. Eng. Chem., 48(10):41A
(1956)]. Develop the process flow sheets, equipment specifications, and plant layout.
Examine the economics of producing Lindane including (1) fixed and capital cost
estimates by one or more of the methods outlined in Chap. 6, (2) profitability analysis
showing return on investment and pay-out time, (3) break-even point analysis of the
project, (4) economic estimates for a plant producing 500,000 lb/yr and 750,000 lb/yr.

6-2. Ferrous Sulfate Recovery Plant

Design a plant for the recovery of ferrous sulfate from the waste pickle resulting
from the pickling of steel in a galvanizing plant.
A galvanizing plant uses 100 tons or 50°Be sulfuric acid every 24 hr in the pickling
of steel; before it is used this acid is diluted in 18°Be. When exhausted in so far as
pickling is concerned, the waste pickle liquor leaves the vats as a 25 per cent solution
of ferrous sulfate containing 2 per cent sulfuric acid, and at a temperature of l/o K
This liquor is drained from the pickling vats through a header into a waste-liquor
storage reservoir built underground.
From the pickle-liquor storage reservoir the liquor is to be pumped into neutralizer
tanks containing scrap iron for neutralization of the acid; 48 ^ at 17° F.s considered
sufficient to complete neutralization. The neutralized liquor is then to be pump
CHAP. 6] ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PROJECT
263

through filters to remove insoluble sludge before concentration in special evaporators.

Crystallization to monohydrate is to be effected in the evaporators and the crystals
are to be permitted to fall into a sump where temperature is maintained above Id K
The wet crystals are to be removed by means of a pump or mechanical rake, cen¬
trifuged, and then cooled. The mother liquor from the centrifuge is to be returned to
the sump. The dry crystals are to be conveyed to storage bins, preparatory to
bagging, barreling, and transfer to freight cars.
The pumps, conveyors, agitators, and other motivating equipment are to be
operated from a lineshaft, except that vacuum pump on the evaporator is to be steam-
driven, the exhaust steam from this pump to be used in the first effect evaporator. If
approved plant layout does not permit economical use of shafting for acid liquor
pumping, a separate motor drive may be used for such purpose.

6-3. Deodorized Soybean Oil Plant

Design a plant for the deodorization of raw soybean oil obtained from an expressing
plant handling 50 tons of raw beans, according to general practice; the deodorized oil
is to be used for oleomargarine.
The deodorizing plant is to consist of a closed tank or deodorizer in which the oil is
to be processed; equipment for heating the oil within the deodorizer while steam is
blown through the oil; means for maintaining a high vacuum within the deodorizer;
and equipment to cool and filter the oil after deodorizing.
The oil to be deodorized is to be heated by circulating it through a heater at 125°C;
steam is to be injected into the oil; the deodorizing cycle is to be 8 hr. Cooling is to be
accomplished by dropping the deodorized oil into a vacuum cooling tank equipped
with cold-water coils.

6-4. Sodium Chlorate Plant

Design a chemical plant for the production of 4,000 lb of sodium chlorate per 24 hr
by the Liebig method.
Salt from Louisiana will be shipped in, put into solution in wooden tanks, purified
by sodium carbonate treatment to separate out the calcium and magnesium, neu¬
tralized with hydrochloric acid, and then electrolyzed using Nelson cells. The
chlorine gas is to be piped to a mixing chamber, where it is to be mixed with the brine-
caustic solution to form sodium hypochlorite; this solution is heated to 90°C to trans¬
form the hypochlorite to chlorate. The sodium chlorate-sodium chloride solution is
then evaporated in triple-effect evaporators and the sodium chloride is removed.
When evaporated to a concentration of 74.1 per cent sodium chlorate and a residual
salt content of 0.41 per cent, the solution has a gravity of 1.65; then the solution
is transferred to crystallizers and cooled. The crystallized sodium chlorate is cen¬
trifuged from the mother liquor and dried in a steam-heated rotary dryer before placing
ln sttorage- The separated sodium chloride is washed free from sodium chlorate bv
washing with sodium hydroxide solution and returned to the system for electrolyzing
The average current efficiency of the Nelson cell is to be considered as 86 per~ cent'

chloride isTo'be ^ ^ 8° P" A" but 2 per cent of thp sodium

chloride is to be considered as recoverable. The Nelson cell is to operate under
ptimum conditions on a 26.4 per cent sodium chloride solution at 55°C, producing a
solution of specific gravity 1.23 and containing 9.67 per cent sodium hydroxide and
14.52 per cent residual sodium chloride. e ana

6-6. Butane Oxidation Plant

butane^" a P‘ant ^ ^ pr°duCtion of solvcnte by the method of partial oxidation of

264 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 6
A natural gasoline plant has available, as a by-product from the natural gasoline
refinery 60,000 ft3 of butane per day, based on standard gas conditions. This
by-product is to be utilized by oxidizing in the vapor phase the butane under controlled
conditions to produce partial-oxidation products, totaling 159 lb/1 000 ft3 of butane
the product consisting of aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, and acids, according to the
following analysis:

Per cent
Acids, calculated as acetic. 4 0
Esters as ethyl acetate. 0 6
Aldehydes:
Acetaldehyde. 18.5
Formaldehyde. 15.0
Higher aldehydes. 4.2
Alcohols, calculated as methanol. 22.2
Ketones, calculated as acetone. 9.5
Water. 26.0

The conditions of the partial-oxidation process are the injection of a mixture of air
and butane vapor, in a ratio of 10:1, into a stream of inert gas resulting from the
elimination of the condensable vapors at 350 lb pressure. In order to carry the air-
butane mixture through the system, a recirculation of inert gas is maintained at a
ratio of 140:1, inert gas to butane. The temperature of the furnace must be main¬
tained, so that the reaction coils heat the gas up to 720°F at the exit from the furnace.
The reaction furnace is to be heated with butane; steam is to be generated by using
butane fuel. Compressors are to be operated with internal-combustion engines using
butane as the fuel. Water supplied for cooling is to be available at a range of 75 to
90°F.
The product obtained by oxidation of butane is to be subjected to fractionation,
separating into three main fractions: (1) pure acetaldehyde, (2) a crude methanol
fraction, and (3) a residue to be wasted. The second fraction is redistilled after
treatment with caustic to polymerize the aldehydes, and the vapors are further treated
by washing countercurrently in a 33 per cent caustic solution.
 CHAPTER 7

Locating the Chemical Plant

In the previous chapter we have seen how an economic appraisal of a

chemical process has been made. This was termed a preconstruction
economic analysis at the process development level. The cost and profit
figures were presented to management with fairly reliable costs on equip¬
ment and building requirements. An estimate on site development costs
was included with no specific reference to the exact geographical location
of the chemical plant.
Assume now that the sequential development of the plant design has
reached the stage where management has surveyed the process develop¬
ment economics and given the approval to proceed with final plans for
constructing and operating the plant. The final plans require detailed
specification work and cost estimations on equipment and auxiliaries,
building design, and site development. These topics will be discussed
in Chaps. 8 and 9.
One of the most important parts of this final planning is the site
location. If the plant is not located in the most economically favorable
position, the competitive advantages of the process, so carefully engi¬
neered during research and development phases, can be wiped out.
ithout careful thought on all the factors which must be considered for
optimum plant location, the plant may even be inoperable. A prize
example of poor planning was the case of a plant site chosen without due
consideration for all the water requirements. The project had proceeded
to the point where materials of construction had been shipped to the
site before the lack of water was apparent. Eventually a new site was
c osen which best fitted all the requirements and the mistake was rectified
hut not without pain, strain, and additional expenditure of funds.
265
266 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7

SUMMARY OF FACTORS IN PLANT LOCATION

Factors which generally apply to the economic and operability aspects

of plant site location are classified into two major groups. The 'primary
factors listed apply to choice of a region, whereas the specific factors are
looked at in choosing an exact site location within the region. All
factors are important in making a site location selection.

Primary Factors

1. Raw-materials supply:
a. Availability from existing or future suppliers
b. Use of substitute materials
c. Distance
2. Markets:
a. Demand versus distance
b. Growth or decline
c. Inventory storage requirements
d. Competition—present and future
3. Power and fuel supply:
a. Availability of electricity and various types of fuel
b. Future reserves
c. Costs
4. Water supply:
a. Quality—temperature, mineral content, bacteriological content
b. Quantity
c. Dependability—may involve reservoir construction
d. Costs
5. Climate:
a. Investment required for construction
b. Humidity and temperature conditions
c. Hurricane, tornado, and earthquake history

Specific Factors

6. Transportation:
a Availability of various services and projected rates
(1) Rail—dependable for light and heavy shipping over all distances
(2) Highway—regularly used for short distance and generally small quantities
(3) Water—cheaper, but may be slow and irregular
(4) Pipeline—for gases and liquids, particularly for petroleum produc s
(5) Air—for business transportation of personnel
7. Waste disposal:
a. Regulation laws
b. Stream carry-olf possibilities
c. Air-pollution possibilities
8. Labor:
a. Availability of skills
b. Labor relations—history and stability in area
c. Stability of labor rates
 locating the chemical plant
267
CHAP. 7]

9. Regulatory laws:
a. Building codes
b. Zoning ordinances
c. Highway restrictions
d. Waste-disposal codes
10. Taxes:
a. State and local taxes
(1) Income
(2) Unemployment insurance
(3) Franchise
(4) Use
(5) Property
b. Low assessment or limited term exemptions to attract industry
11. Site characteristics:
a. Contour of site
b. Soil structure
c. Access to rail, highway, and water
d. Room for expansion
e. Costs of site
/. Site and facilities available by expansion on present company-owned property
12. Community factors:
a. Rural or urban
b. Housing costs
c. Cultural aspects—churches, libraries, theaters
d. School system
e. Recreation facilities
/. Medical facilities—hospitals, doctors
13. Vulnerability to wartime attack:
а. Distance from important facilities
б. General industry concentration
14. Flood and fire control:
a. Fire hazards in surrounding area
b. Flood history and control

Figure 2-2 shows another method of tabulating factors for an industrial

plant location. No matter what method is outlined, a quantitative
appioach is usually required to establish the economic optimum site
location.
One site location which should never be overlooked is that of present
company-owned sites where new facilities can be added to present facilities
at possibly lower costs. This type of site is subject to the same site
location analysis as new sites; it is almost always included in the final
economic comparison submitted to management (see Table 7-3)
A recommended procedure which will be illustrated by an example in
t is c apter, involves a relative evaluation of the primary factors of raw
materials and markets. This will serve to eliminate certain regions from
the plant location analysis. For example, if neither the raw materials nor
markets are located in the Rocky Mountain region, it would be foolish
set up a large tonnage operation in this region. The next step is to
268 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7

choose sites in one or more geographical regions of the United States, or

possibly other parts of the world. Examples of regions are Southeastern,
Gulf, Ohio Valley, Great Lakes, Northeastern, and West Coast of the
United States; Latin American countries; etc. Then make a quantitative
point evaluation or weighted scoring of all the primary factors and specific
factors. An example of a quantitative relative point system of evaluation
is shown in Table 7-2. This is presented at the end of this chapter in
working out a sample problem on locating a site for the benzene hexachlo-
ride plant discussed previously in Chaps. 3 to 6.

ECONOMICS OF PLANT LOCATION

The final choice of the plant site usually involves a presentation of the
economic factors for several equally attractive sites (see Table 7-3).
The exact type of economic study of plant locations will vary with each
company making a study. As explained in Chap. 6, it should include the
following:

Investment Annual earnings

Plant Operative
New money Net, after taxes
Existing facilities Net annual return
Working capital On total investment
Annual sales On new plant investment only
Cost
Manufacturing
Distributing
Selling, research

The limitations of preliminary plant location cost studies should be

recognized and pointed out to management. No matter how carefully a
survey is prepared, future trends such as population and maiket shifts,
development of competitive processes, and the advent of nev indust lies,
services, and transportation facilities cannot be reliably predicted.

PLANT LOCATION FACTORS

The above presentation shows that a great deal of experience and

knowledge is required to make a realistic plant location study. The next
sections of this chapter present a more detailed discussion of the primary
and specific plant location factors so that the student can gain some
knowledge in this area. An actual plant location problem is then worked
out at the end of the chapter. It is impossible to include a very complete
compilation of specific information for a plant location study in this
type of textbook. A listing of useful sources of information is piesented

in Table 7-1.
 LOCATING THE CHEMICAL PLANT
269
CHAP. 7]

Table 7-1. Sources of Information for Plant Location Studies

A. U.S. Government Agencies:* . . . ,

1. U.S. Department of Labor—cost of living, wage and hour statistics, price da a
2. U.S. Department of Commerce—manufacturing, distribution, population an
business data . , .
3. U.S. Department of Interior—natural resources, seismological, and topographi¬
cal maps
4. Federal Trade Commission—trade laws
5. Federal Power Commission—power policies
6. Interstate Commerce Commission—shipping policies
7. Federal Security Agency—employment statistics
8. U.S. Public Roads Administration—transportation statistics
9. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey—water transportation statistics
10. U.S. Geological Survey—geological site information
B. State and Regional Agencies:
Write to state office at capital of individual state requesting the information
desired. This request will be forwarded to the correct agency. Information is
generally available on possible industrial sites, resources, labor supply, unemploy¬
ment, wage scales, state and local government taxes, and legal codes.
C. Private Information:
1. Railroad companies—freight rates, shipping schedules, sites available on rail¬
road routes
2. Power companies—rates and economics for power demands
3. Local chambers of commerce—for specific information on local area problems
4. National Industrial Conference Board, 4G0 Park Ave., New York
5. National Association of Manufacturers, 2 E. 48th St., New York
6. Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, 1625 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C.
7. Moody’s Investor Service, New York, industrial securities and manuals of
security rating
8. Standard and Poor’s Corporation, New York, industrial surveys
9. World Almanac and Book of Facts, New York World Telegram and Sun,
New York (yearly)

H. S. Hirshberg and C. H. Melinat, “Subject Guide to U.S. Government Publi¬

cations,’’ American Library Association, Chicago, Ill., 1947.

Raw Materials Supply

I robably the location of the raw materials of an industry contributes

more toward the choice of a plant site than any other factor. This is
especially noticeable in those industries in which the raw material is
inexpensive and bulky and is made more compact and obtains a high bulk
value during the process of manufacture. The supply of the basic raw
materials should be controlled directly by the user; tonnage items like
coal, salt, limestone, etc., should be available on company-owned property
on the plant site or reached by not too distant pipeline, rail, or water
transportation. Surveys should be made to chart definitely the quantity
an qua lty of the basic raw materials; a minimum supply of 30 to 50
years is usually considered mandatory. The steel mills are located near
the iron mines or at some intermediate point between the iron and the
270 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7
coal mines. The Hour mills in the Middle West are near the wheat
fields, and the cotton mills are in the heart of the cotton-growing section.
The meat-packing industry in the United States is close to the great
western fields upon which the herds are raised, and at the head of a
transportation system feeding an extensive market.
The salt, gypsum, sodium sulfate, soda ash, carbonates, borax, natural
nitrate, and many other industries that take their raw materials from
saline residues are all, by necessity, located directly at the source of
supply. The location in West Virginia of a company for the manufacture
of synthetic ammonia was for the purpose of being near the coal fields that
supply the necessary raw materials.
Physical distance is not the only controlling factor in the source of raw
materials, for purchase price and buying expense, base point pricing,
reserve stock, and reliability of supply are also determinants.

Markets and Transportation

The existence of transportation facilities lias given rise to many of the
greatest trade centers of the world. The character oi a business will,
however, determine the type of transportation used. The relation of
railway to market is so close that no pains should be spared in making a
careful investigation of freight rates before definitely deciding upon a
plant location. A location should be chosen, if possible, which has severa
competing railroads and waterways in order that the competition will
help to maintain low rates and give better service. 1'he widespread
use of motor trucking facilities, following the comparatively recent
development of good interconnecting roadways, has supplemented and in
some cases even supplanted the railroads. The formation of organiza¬
tions that will pick up and deliver odd lots oi freight has been a git. P
Jo isolated factories in the smaller towns. Transportation by airplane
nko calls for proximity to commercial airfields.
Industries that are national in scope find an advantage in locations
, ,• c inw TVT'ipprl bulky raw material is feasible,
where the transportation of a low-priced, du )
rather than where a high-priced material of small bulk must be tians
port I "The*location of the large »«» Mm *'« th*
5° Mod by the fact that th, rate, untehi.ed -agar . reeved by boat.
from the sugar-producing countries. s of chemical
The freight rate ^hTraw material is obtained from
plants t an m any o in some cases very much isolated, and
certain sectionof the ^ ^ transportation to consumers,
price is regulated laigc y y vears has been a strong
' The rapid rise in freight rates ^>>8 X plants, located in
contributing factor in causing n ‘ J location is selected outside
cities, to seek new locations. Oftentimes, a
 CHAP. 7] LOCATING THE CHEMICAL PLANT 271

the city limits in order to have a railroad siding available and thus
eliminate trucking costs to freight yards from the excessive cost of
transportation. There will be more long-distance water transportation
used in the future to reduce the cost of freight, with the spread between
production cost and sales cost constantly narrowing.
Markets for Finished Product. The question of markets probably
assumes greater importance for the intermediate and smaller industries,
since such groups generally wish to deal directly with the market and dis¬
pense with the services of a middleman in disposing of the product. The
concentration of industries in the larger cities is evidence of this fact.
The location of warehouses is largely a question of market. Large
tonnages of steel are shipped by barge or lake boat to warehouses at the
end of the water route, for final distribution of the material by rail.
Grain is loaded direct from elevators at the head of the Great Lakes and
shipped to Buffalo, where it is unloaded from boats to elevators for
redistribution. Water shipments are economical where rail handling at
the loading and delivery points can be kept down to a minimum and where
the water haul is long enough to accumulate a saving as compared with
all-rail freight.
I he large oil refineries are located along the seacoast or near large
cities where a market exists for the finished products. Crude oil is
easily pumped by pipelines or shipped from the oil wells in the interior;
cheap rates are thus secured for a crude, low-priced commodity, consumed
in large quantities, while the finished products are made in the center
of the market in order to lower the distribution cost.

Power and Fuel Supply

Fuel. The best plan is to locate near large coal fields if coal is the
primary fuel or to tie up by long contracts sufficient gas and/or oil to
ensure the continuity of operations over a long term. The Gulf Coast
area has been built up in the past 15 years largely because of plentiful
ant c leap gas. When gas is the basic raw material, as in ammonia
synthesis synthetic gasoline, it is the controlling economic factor as it
supplies the raw materials, heat, and power.

C<f °f T1 at the mines is constantly rising because of increased

and other factors and this coupled with higher freight rates makes
for an expensive fuel. The quality is slowly getting worse as t e Jears go

,bi“ ' *» Lie. .1 f„u“rT

272
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7

developed as a by-product in most chemical plants, if the needs are great

enough, since the process requirements generally call for low-pressure
steam. The turbines or engines used to generate electricity can be
operated noncondensing and supply exhaust steam for processing
purposes.
Steam is generated from whatever fuel is cheapest, usually at pressure
of 450 psig or more, expanded through turbines or other prime movers
to generate the necessary plant power, and the exhaust steam is used in
the process as heat.
Steam Power. 1 he quantity of steam used in a process depends upon
the thermal requirements, plus that to meet the mechanical power needs,
if such power is generated at the plant. Steam-power-plant prime movers
are well standardized and include (1) simple engines using saturated
steam, (2) simple engines using superheat steam, (3) compound engines,
(4) triple- and quadruple-expansion engines, (5) impulse turbines, and
(6) reaction turbines. Other prime movers include water wheels,
hydraulic turbines, and internal-combustion engines (gas, gasoline, and
oil). Water wheels and hydraulic turbines require operation by specialists
in these lines.
The chemical engineer may come into contact with such prime movers,
but more often his plant equipment will be electrically driven, with
electricity generated in the plant’s own powerhouse or purchased from a
public utility.
Process Steam Requirements. The data in Fig. 6-33 cover estimated
process steam requirements for a number of various chemicals; these data
for steam exclude that used primarily for mechanical drives and power
generation. Data were selected and averaged.
Electric Power. The cost of electricity is the most important consider¬
ation in electrolytic and electrometallurgical processes, in many cases
determining plant location over all other factors. An example of this is
the location of the largest aluminum plant in the world, the 1,000 ton/day
plant of the Aluminum Company of Canada at Arvida, Quebec; here
1,200,000 kw is available. In spite of the fact that the basic raw material,
the bauxite ore, must be shipped from British Guiana, some 4,000 miles
away, the Canadian plant produces probably the cheapest aluminum
which can be shipped competitively to Europe and the l mted States.
The favorable factors of plentiful, low-cost power and deep-water trans¬
portation overweigh all other considerations, including that of extremely
severe winter weather making for difficult operating conditions. Simi¬
larly, the Buffalo-Niagara Falls region owes its growth since the turn o
the century primarily to the ample supply and the low cost of hydraulic
power generated at Niagara Falls. However, proximity to deep-water
transportation and raw materials, plus a location on the Great Lakes
CHAP 7] locating the chemical plant
273

in the heart of the East, is a combination not usually found and hard

In pulp and paper, portland cement, and glass and clay products, the
source of fuel and power is of importance. Some of the largest generating
and distributing companies in the country, however, have recently been
developed in the South and offer power rates that compare favorably with
the northern locations. Kanawha River Valley, West \ irginia, and the
region under the Tennessee Valley Authority are growing rapidly as
industrial centers owing to proximity to the coal mines in the one case
and cheap hydroelectric power in the other (see Table 6-13).
Over 70 per cent of the total electric power used in the chemical process
industries is consumed by motor-driven machinery. It is particularly
desirable for the process engineer to have a clear picture of the applica¬
tion of electric motors and controls because their characteristics have a
very definite effect on the proper functioning of the associated process
equipment.
The chemical engineering industries are the largest users of electric-
power equipment among the industries today because the modern demand
is for extreme flexibility that sometimes errs on the side of too many
individual drives. Practically all modern chemical equipment, such as
pumps, high- and low-pressure mixing vessels, dryers, high-speed pul¬
verizers, attrition mills, compressors, and conveyors must be driven.
All such equipment can be propelled either by individual electric motors
or by systems of belting, shafting, and gearing.

Water Supply

Sources. Water for industrial purposes can be obtained from one of

two general sources: the plant’s own source or a municipal supply. If
the demands for water are large, it is more economical for the industry to
supply its own water. Such a supply may be obtained from drilled wells,
rivers, lakes, dammed streams, or other impounded supplies. Before a
company enters upon any project, it must ensure itself of a sufficient
supply of water for all industrial, sanitary, and fire demands, both present
and future. Data on temperature of water and on maximum, minimum,
and average rainfall can be obtained from governmental agencies if
surface water is to be impounded, or the data on stream flow of rivers can
be acquired likewise. If wells are to be relied on, geologists and practical
veil drillers should be consulted.
The United States has abundant supplies of ground water and surface
' 61 ^.ased uP°n anmlal rainfa11 and provided adequate methods of
preventing rapid runoff are installed. The 200 billion gpd water con-

precipitation. iess States

All areas of the United than that
are avaiiawe fr°m
not equally fortunate
274
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 7

in the matter of rainfall or in the matter of annual runoff, as shown in

tig. 7-1. two man-made problems, ground-water depletion and stream
pollution, further aggravate the situation in congested industrial areas.
Ground water accounts for 20 per cent of all water used—agricultural,
industrial, and municipal. The distribution per capita has risen rapidly
during the past quarter century because of the enormous quantities of
irrigation water used; this amounts to a daily consumption of 10 billion
gal, with prospects of rising rapidly with the practice of movable pipe
irrigation now becoming widespread on Eastern, Southern, and Middle
Western small farms. Recirculation, reuse, industry treatment of its
own dilute industrial wastes, and the treatment of municipal sewage for

Fig. 7-1. Normal annual runoff. Stream flow and ground-water studies furnish data
necessary for utilization and regulation for both industry and agriculture. [Staff
Report, Chem. Eikj., 55(1): 137 (1948).]

industrial water supply are methods adopted in specific areas to augment

dwindling supplies or increasing demands.
Chemical Industries’ Water Requirements. Water of sufficient quan¬
tity at the right temperature and quality, from either underground or
surface sources, is the desire of a chemical engineer. Making chemicals
consumes tremendous volumes of water. In most chemical indust l ies,
the quantity of water required is the greatest single item that goes into
the plant. . ., ,
In relation of water supply to chemical plant location, 1 owell and
Von Lossberg1 list the major items requiring consideration.
i S. T. Powell and L. C. Von Lossberg, Relation of Water Supply to Chemical Plant
Location, Chem. Eng. Progr., 45: 289 (1949).
CHAP 7] locating the chemical plant
275

l Availability of surface and underground water, and seasonal

fluctuation in quality, quantity, and temperature
2. Data to show, statistically, the influence of prevailing meteorological
conditions on the availability of the water supply under consideration
3. Chemical composition and physical characteristics of the water
supply, including sufficient data to show the average, maximum, and
minimum conditions
4. Quality of supply as revealed by microscopic and bacteriological
analyses
5. Existing or predicted influence of industrial or domestic waste
contamination
G. Estimated requirements for various needs of the proposed plant,
such as water for processing, cooling, steam generation, sanitary uses, and
fire protection
7. Evaluation of future requirements for the various services so as to
provide for expansion
8. Availability and cost of using a municipal water supply compared
with the development of a private supply
9. Design of heat-exchange equipment, recycling of cooling water, and
provision of a cooling tower to provide for the conservation of the total
volume of water required
10. Influence of the present rate of water consumption and the pre¬
dicted results of industrial expansion in the area upon the continued
availability of the supply and effect upon quality and temperature
11. Effect of industrial contamination on surface and underground
waters, resulting from industrial activity in the area
The process requirements of water for specific chemicals vary con-
sideiably. Figure 6-32 lists /2 chemical industries and shows estimates
of water requirements, based upon 1 lb of each chemical. It is under¬
stood in this estimate that any of the water going directly into the
products must be treated to meet the specific requirements of the product
being manufactured.
Quality. Water is a raw material; its natural quality is as diverse as
the sites and regions from which it is obtained; for specific purposes it
must be conditioned and treated; the variety of chemical industries con¬
suming water is so great, and the specific physical, chemical, and bacterial
requirements so diverse, that it is impossible to come up with standard
specifications for water quality. Water-quality requirements in the
ame chemical plant change as processes are refined and new ones

waterTo the cbSreaT 7"°™° imp0rtance in determining the value of

uater to the chemical industries are temperature and chemical charac-

tiuice1 of each of 777 ^ contam‘*ants; the relative impor-

each of these depends upon the service for which the water is
276 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 7

wanted. Boiler feed water must meet the most exacting of water-quality
requirements. The very-high-pressure boilers demand water from which
almost all organic and inorganic salts (even traces of silica) have been
eliminated. Ground water contains less suspended matter and is more
apt to be free from contamination by sanitary and industrial wastes than
surface water; but it often contains higher concentrations of soluble salts.
Characteristics of surface waters vary widely. Lakes, especially the
Great Lakes, are not influenced seriously by drought conditions. But
rivers fluctuate considerably during wet and dry seasons; rivers have
shown wide variations in hardness and salinity during high and low stages.
Moreover, salt water penetrates upstream in tidal streams during
droughts, increasing the salinity; on the James River sea water penetra¬
tion upstream at these times has reached up to near Hopewell, Virginia.
Plants on tidewater will always get water more or less salty; fresh water is
always to be preferred over brackish water, because of the easier corrosion
problem. Sea water, always available in volume, exhibits limited fluctua¬
tions in chemical quality compared with fresh-water surface sources.
Along with the salt water there is ever present the problem of marine
growth, such as barnacles, slimes, etc.
Temperature. There is probably no single water-supply factor of
greater economic importance than the temperature of the water available.
It governs design of equipment and the heat balances of many chemical
processes. In most places, the temperature of the surface water tends to
follow the atmospheric temperature throughout the year. Water from
deep wells, therefore, is better than surface water for heat exhangers
because of its more uniform temperature.
Cooling-water requirements of the chemical industries are enormous;
for cooling the volume available and the temperature far outweigh con-
siderations of quality. An abundant supply of low-temperature cooling
water can be evaluated as equivalent refrigeration tonnage. Sea water is
fairly satisfactory for cooling; always available in volume, it exhibi s
limited fluctuation in temperature.
Ground waters, in specific areas, are an excellent source o urn or
temperature if sufficiently available. The approximate temperature
zones in isothermal bands throughout the United States are shou n in

' 'plant Measures for Conservation of Water. Use of water can be cut
by means of cooling towers, recirculation, and other water-sav >Ȥ

5*r=£ «§&
possible. Water of different grades and temperatures can
 277
locating the chemical plant
CHAP. 7]
different purposes. One big industrial plant in Ohio circulates cooling
water progressively through heat exchangers requiring 54 F water and
finally through units in which 85°F water is satisfactory. Process water
may thus be utilized at increasing temperature levels. Separation ol
cooling water from waste water makes stream pollution control easiei.
Recirculation of cooling water over cooling towers brings enormous reduc¬
tions in the volume of water required. With 160,000-gpm cooling towers,
only G to 8 per cent make-up is required at the Texas City plant of
Carbide & Carbon. Celanese, at its Bishop, Texas, plant, actually
recirculates cooling water as many as fifty times before discharging it

Fig. 7-2. Temperature of water from nonthermal wells at depths from 30 to 60 ft.
It usually exceeds mean air temperatures by 3 to 6°F. [Staff Report, Chem. Ena
55(1): 137 (1948).]

because of low quality. By recirculation of process water, Celanese cuts

its requirements from 230 mgd to 4 mgd. A large West Coast steel plant
recirculates cooling water and reuses effluent water from its sanitary and
industrial waste treatment works. In starch manufacture the steep
water is now recycled completely. Where water is used for extraction,
it is advantageous to recycle it. Paper mills now recycle their white
water; a board mill with efficient purification and recirculation of water
can get by with 1,000 gal of fresh water per ton of product, while a pulp
mill making bleached pulp and reusing little of the mill water requires
as much as 50,000 gal/ton. A Texas refinery reclaims its water 1,;
treating its waste waters to avert stream pollution and thereby greatly
conserves its limited fresh-water supply. y
278 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7

W ater for industrial use is reclaimed from sewage plant effluent by the
Sparrows Point plant ot the Bethlehem Steel Company; with an option to
take 100 mgd it now buys 40 mgd of sewage effluent from the city of
Baltimore. It treats this sewage at a cost, exclusive of fixed charges,
ot $0,017/1,000 gal. As a result Baltimore has cut back its pumpage of
ground water from 15,000 to 3,500 gpm. From a dangerous low of
150 tt in 1940, the ground-water level is back to a comfortable 80 ft.
Artificial Recharging of Ground Water. Artificial recharge of the
ground-water supply has been made from the Ohio River at Parkersburg,
West Virginia; Louisville, Kentucky; and Charlestown, Indiana. Water
put back into the ground must be sanitarily uncontaminated and free
from silt and minerals that might clog the aquifer and impair the effi¬
ciency of recharge wells. Putting too much warm cooling water back into
the ground raises the temperature of the ground water. Before an artifi¬
cial recharge program is undertaken, it must be ascertained whether the
water returned to the ground at the plant will be confined in the immediate
area or flow away to be withdrawn by other users. A thorough know¬
ledge of geologic subsurface features is essential. Two wartime ordnance
works, one on the Wabash River at Clinton, Indiana, and the other on the
Ohio River at Charlestown, Indiana, used horizontal Ranney collectors to
induce river water to flow into the aquifer next to the river, replenishing
the underground supply. The aquifer also acts as a natural slow sand
filter. Six Ranney wTells at the Clinton plant yielded 72 mgd during
peak operations; seven at Charlestown averaged 40 mgd. National
Carbide at Louisville, Kentucky, has a single infiltration collector. In
West Virginia, Connecticut, and elsewhere, other plants also employ
river infiltration.
Lake Sources. To get water for its W hiting plant, Carbide & Carbon
ran an intake pipe 700 ft out into Lake Michigan and put in an automatic
pumping station. At Painesville, Ohio, Diamond Alkali takes 100 mgd
and Industrial Rayon 30 mgd from Lake Erie. At Ashtabula, Ohio,
Union Carbide’s Electromet Division gets 7 mgd from Lake Erie, and
National Distillers is pumping 5 mgd for various uses in its sodium plant.
Sea Water. To conserve fresh water, coastal chemical plants use sea
water for cooling. That means higher fixed costs for corrosion-resistant
equipment, but operating economies often compensate lor this,
lated fresh water can be bottled up in a closed system and cooled with
sea water Conversion of sea water, either by ion exchange oi disti a
tion, is too costly for industrial use, approximating $0.80 to $1.30 per

'’Government Dams and Reservoirs. Long-distance transfer of water

use of storage lakes, and the building of dams and reservoirs are bei g
undertaken by the municipalities, states, and Federal governments. Los
CHAp 7] locating the chemical plant 279

Angeles, for example, spent 220 million dollars to bring Colorado River
water more than 300 miles from Parker Dam. Ohio, with some 400
reservoirs already, plans more. Texas has more than 40 major surface
storage facilities with a total capacity of over 13 million acre-ft. The
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation now proposes its 3 billion dollar basin
development plan for California’s Central Valley; applying the multiple-
purpose philosophy to the entire basin, the bureau envisions 38 reservoirs,
plus dams, power plants, transmission lines, pumping stations, and
hundreds of miles of transfer canals. This plan would conserve the water
resources of the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers and of the Central
Valley Basin as a whole.
Municipal Water Supplies. A city water supply is an easy, if not an
economical, solution to a water-supply problem. The quality of the
water is easy to ascertain, as well as the size and condition of the supply
mains, the normal and reserve supply, zonal distributive flow, the log of
temperatures, and the pressure conditions.
Water Costs. (See Table 6-11.) The value of an abundance of good
water is reflected in the selling prices of plant sites that have such supplies.
Elaborate engineering techniques now required to procure, conserve, and
treat water are significantly increasing costs. The rising cost of indus¬
trial-water procurement is also related to the substitution of surface water
for inadequate ground-water supplies. Moreover, when surface water is
substituted for ground water, treatment of process water becomes more
expensive. Increased costs of water processing, which include that of
treating the wastes discharged to the watercourse by municipalities and
industries upstream, have made maximum use of the processed water
essential; also, the high costs of constructing and operating a waste
treatment plant have led to concentration of industrial wastes in the
smallest amount of water, except where treatment processes require
dilution.
Legal Restriction. State water laws, first passed in the West and
Southwest, are now being enacted in the Middle West and East. Laws
governing prior rights to water, withdrawal of ground water, and pollution
of streams are already on the books. Pollution of ground-water reservoirs
is serious too, because ground water moves so slowly that pollution, once
introduced into a reservoir, may persist indefinitely. Many streams
especially in the East and Middle West, are so badly polluted that they
are unusable Several states have pollution control programs; the
Federal pollution abatement law is in force. Arizona recently enacted a

statu^"WaNr Vi*101 Tl tllU* becoming the eighth state to have such a

wp! tn VT ?T° S law °alls for drillinS Permits and plugging of
ue Is that leak. A New York law requires that for every well sunk to get
water for air conditioning in the four Long Island counties, which include
280 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7

Brooklyn, another must be used to return the water to the ground. New
Jersey now allocates underground water to industries by granting or
withholding drilling permits, with Pennsylvania having similar legislation.
Virginia’s new Water Control Act, permitting no new pollution and
requiring reduction of present pollution levels, is creating great difficulty
for industries already there and is halting the influx of new industries.
In Indiana, a single user taking more than 200 gpm from the ground for
cooling or air conditioning without a special permit must either circulate
the water through cooling towers or other devices and use it over or
return it to the ground through recharge wells.
Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Public Law 845 covers all
interstate rivers and their tributaries; it authorizes the Federal govern¬
ment to study, advise, and help finance pollution control programs. And
with the consent of the state concerned, it can eventually force industry
to take whatever steps the courts decide. While the bill authorizes the
Federal government to help defray the cost of municipal pollution control
projects, it makes no such provision in the case of industry. However,
1 million dollars a year is authorized for grants to states for conducting
research, surveys, and studies of the prevention and control of water
pollution from industrial wastes. Under the Division of Water Pollution
Control are to be 14 river basin offices covering the major drainage basins
in the United States. Their job will be to conduct over-all studies,
determine extent and sources of pollution, advise on corrective measures,
and coordinate state and industrial piogiams.

Climate
Chemical plants as a general rule are rather difficult to insulate or to
provide with artificial heat or conditioned air, except in the individua
process units where air conditioning is essential. Excessive cold, deep
snows torrid heat, and excessive humidity reduce the productivity on the
part of the workmen. Milder climates make for cheaper mstal atioi s.
In the South and West, many plants are buUt nutdo^nt > eor^no

waTer,' as on the Gulf, one must he

costs. Corrosion, paiticulai y increases maintenance costs.

ESStOTSX 5- — - *
designed into the process and piocess equipmen
 locating the chemical plant
281
CHAP. 7]

Labor
Before locating an industry in any particular locality, a careful study
of the supply of available labor must be made. Factors to be considere
in labor studies are supply, kind, diversity, intelligence, wage scales,
regulations, efficiency, and costs. ,.
Large corporations are decentralizing their production and building
unit plants in localities throughout the country where labor supply is
abundant.
The success of many an organization is dependent upon the means by
which its laborers get to and from their work. A cheap site may have
been chosen but no attention given to the housing facilities. Laborers
sometimes live a great distance from the work, the workmen arrive
tired at the start of a day’s work and again must travel a great distance at
its close. Thus what may have appeared to be a cheap location develops
into a very expensive one because of inefficiency and high turnover.
Industrial housing, safety-first movements, welfare institutions, better
sanitation, lunchrooms, etc., have all contributed to the solution of labor
problems.
Labor surveys reveal the discrepancy in wage rates throughout the
country and the industries is getting smaller because of the activities of
the labor organizations and the “shortening” of distances between areas
by modern methods of rapid transportation. The U.S. Employment
Service obtains local and regional monthly data on the number of
employables, currently employed and unemployed, listing of industrial
shops and their active employment, and shifts and trends in employment.
These data are supplemented in surveys by chambers of commerce and
other civic organizations interested in sustaining or increasing industrial
activities in definite areas. These data are also collected in general surveys
by the U.S. Department of Labor, available to both labor and management.
t igure 6-35 gives an approximation of process labor requirements in
terms of man-hours per process step per ton of chemical product. For
fiimei estimates it will be necessary to synthesize labor requirements
on the basis of job analysis.

Community and Site Characteristics

In the selection of a definite plant site in a designated area there are

many minor factors to which some attention should be given. The actual
cost of the necessary land for the chemical industry is usually of minor
importance, as is the item of taxes. Of great importance is the nature of
the subsoil; the need of piling or other expensive foundations can mate¬
rially affect construction costs (see Chap. 8). It takes real vision when
locating a new plant to provide adequately for future expansion. No one
282 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 7
can envision what the plant growth may be over a period of twenty-five
to fifty years but one should err on the safe side and provide what appears
to be more than sufficient space at the start. Land is relatively cheap
compared with over-all plant costs and if provision is made for too much,
it can be sold usually at a profit later on. When considering industrial
plant locations in the light of possible future atomic bomb attacks, the
National Security Resources Board states that most locations near cities
of 50,000 population or less can be considered safe, that is, unless the
industrial target should be a large important one such as a steel mill or a
chemical plant making strategic war materials or the like.
The following site information is essential in the selection of a plot:
(1) location with reference to adjacent areas, and restrictions imposed
thereon; (2) codes (building, safety, and other—state and local); (3)
labor regulations and conditions; (4) accessibility to Ireight and passenger
transportation; (5) type of soil (rock, gravel, sand, silt, clay); (6) elevation
above sea level, grade, and relation between grade and foundation tops
and depths; (7) ground-water level; (8) drainage conditions, need for
waterproofing of underground conduits; (9) atmospheric tempeiatuies,
wind velocities, rainfall; (10) special conditions such as earthquakes,
cyclones, exceptionally severe or prolonged cold, heat, oi humidity.
The ideal plant site is one which is at the crossroads of at least three or
more railroads, has good hard-surfaced highways leading in all directions,
and preferably has barge canal and deep-water transporation; also
proximity to one or more commercial airports is a definite asset.
Chemical plants are not usually looked upon as desirable neighbors.
They may be regarded as a source of danger from possible explosion or,
because of fumes, as a detriment to the health of the community and to
its vegetation. The result of propaganda against the industry has been
that many communities have passed ordinances against chemica manu¬
facturing or certain classes of it. It is advisable to ascertain whether t e
attitude of the community is particularly unfriendly to chemical manu¬
facturing- if this is the case, it is good policy to go elsewhere even though
no resTneling ordinances are in effect at the time. Such information can
usually be obtained from the local chamber of commerce or board oi trade,
or by making inquiries at other plants m the locality. _
Most large cities and many of the smaller towns are ^oned^ e d-ded
into residential business, and unrestricted districts. A distinction
often made between so-called light manufacturing and heavy manufactu -
tag Chemical plants generally must be located in heavy or unrest^
zones. Zoning regulations must therefore, Jj^tag
Where such regulations ^ ^ are subject to small changes at

frequent intervals, care must be taken to ascertain that the zoning map
 o QQ
CHAP 7] locating the chemical plant

has been corrected to date. An unrestricted zone may even be slowly

changing in character on account of the encroachment of residences,
narks, or other civic developments.
If the industry for which a location is to be chosen is in any way haz¬
ardous or likely to be a nuisance owing to the possible escape of fumes or
objectionable odors, a site should be selected at a considerable distance
from houses and public institutions. This is a precaution that is re-
quently overlooked, which if not heeded may cause endless trouble and
expense. . ,
If there are other plants in the immediate neighborhood ot a site under
consideration, it is advisable to find out what products these plants aie
manufacturing and by what methods. For example, an adjoining plant
manufacturing a highly flammable product would affect the insurance
rate if its buildings were sufficiently close. I he neighboring plant
may also give out dust or fumes which may affect the product to be
manufactured.
The introduction of public improvements, such as park and boulevard
extensions and the conversion of swamps and unsightly public dumps,
etc., into industrial areas, should be attended by a proper attitude of
mind on the part of public officials, so that unnecessary and destructive
limitations will not be placed upon such areas, nor the tax burden become
prohibitive. Such improvements, on the other hand, add considerably
to the upbuilding of the morale and welfare of the employees. Good
health, good schools, good communities, and availability of adequate
housing, with ease of purchase or rental, are all basic to good morale.
The availability of local public utilities is almost always an asset to any
plant. Even when gas or electricity is made in the plant, an outside
source is of considerable value for emergency purposes.
Fire apparatus provided in the average American city is for the most
part adequate. So far as the location of the chemical plant is concerned,
the important desideratum is that the fire apparatus be but a few minutes
distant. If deep snow, congested traffic, bridge washouts, or stalled
freight trains can prevent firemen from reaching a factory quickly, then a
site subject to such conditions should be avoided. Often it is necessary
to establish and maintain a company fire station and man it with volun¬
teers or with full-time firemen.
In cities without a definite industrial district, the plant may become
engulfed in a residential or a business area. A relatively permanent
obstruction such as a railroad yard, a swamp, or a river will divert future
community growth.
Industrializing of small cities is growing. Local chambers of commerce
no longer cite cheaper labor. A recent survey made by the Chamber of
Commerce of the United States in several Southern counties indicates
284 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7

that each 100 new factory workers in a rural community will result in the
following additions:

296 more people

112 more households
51 more school children
174 more workers
4 more retail establishments
107 more passenger cars registered
$590,000 more personal income per year
$360,000 more retail sales per year
$270,000 more bank deposits

These all make for greater local wealth in small communities.

Economic Relation to Other Industries. As a rule, a chemical plant
will have a better chance of success if located near others of like nature.
A group of plants can obtain favorable rail rates, better service from
utilities, and plentiful supply of labor. Better banking and technical
services are thus available, since familiarity with the needs of the industry
results in segregation of knowledge and the establishment of sound credit
relationships. Utilization of wastes from related plants or similarity of
disposal offers unusual opportunities for economies.

Waste Disposal
Disposal of waste liquors and waste products is frequently a problem
for the chemical plant and, therefore, must be given serious consideration
in choosing a site. If there is a sewer in the street adjoining the property,
the quantity of liquor to be disposed of should be estimated and the size
of street sewer checked to determine whether it can take care of the liquor.
If the waste liquor is acid or alkaline, contains solids, or has other objec¬
tionable features, it is advisable to learn from the local authorities whether
the disposal of such liquor in the sewerage is permissible.
Plant Wastes and Waste Disposal. The proper disposition of hqui
and solid plant wastes is a science in itself, particularly when a plant
makes a wide variety of chemicals. The states are becoming more and
more strict in this regard and an adequate waste-disposal system is an
absolute necessity. Often plant wastes can be impounded and releasee
to the river or ocean under controlled conditions in time of high water.
Gaseous wastes and odors are also becoming of increasing concern to man.e
plant operators, particularly those located in or near C1 les g
Many localities have passed laws to control at a times such thmg a
fly ash, smoke from boilers, and the like, together with all kinds
noxious fumes and odors.
 locating the chemical plant
285
CHAP. 7]

A policy toward waste disposal by any plant should include a statement

to the effect that the company will abate all pollution which causes
nuisance or results in conditions failing to conform to established stan
ards or criteria of water quality. To control stream pollution effectively,
an industry should avoid new sources of pollution through the construc¬
tion and operation of new plants or additional units at existing locations,
and accomplish necessary improvement in waste practices at existing
locations. When a new product is being developed through research,
methods for controlling the quantity of waste should be developed at the
same time that the new process is being worked out. Designs covering
new plants and expansion must include the necessary facilities for the
proper disposal of waste. This applies particularly when considering the
location for a new plant, since the degree of treatment will be influenced
greatly by local conditions. Design of the waste-collection system will be
influenced by the kind and amount of treatment required. Careful
consideration of waste disposal is necessary throughout the design phase.
The design engineer, therefore, should work in close cooperation with the
company specialist in industrial waste disposal. Consideration should be
given to the possibility of collecting the sanitary sewage and a part or all
of the industrial waste for discharge into a municipal system. Where
this can be done without causing damage to the sewerage system and with¬
out upsetting the municipal treatment plant, it may prove to be the most
economical course. Before a final decision can be reached on this point,
very accurate information on the quality and quantity of industrial
waste will be required. Where satisfactory arrangements can be made
with a municipality, pretreatment will often be necessary to prevent
damage to the municipal system. Cost of doing this will have to be com¬
pared with the cost of improving waste quality sufficiently to discharge it
directly into the receiving stream.
Another method of waste disposal is by seepage through the ground.
If such a method is to be used, soil tests should be made to determine
whether the soil is porous enough to permit the disposal of considerable
quantities of liquor without accumulation. It is also advisable to check
the topography of the area to determine where the liquor will seep in order
to avoid trouble from neighboring plants or local authorities. Towns
lower down the valley may draw their water supply from the drainage
shed upon which the plant is situated.
Radioactive Wastes. With the exception that radioactive wastes can¬
not be destroyed chemically, the problem of radioactive waste disposal is
similar in nature to the problem of chemical or sanitary waste disposal,
hus, discharged radioactive wastes can contaminate air or drinking
H1 Zh^’ -f• abs0rli'ed by an organism, can cause biological damage
Health physicists and biologists have established the maximum concentra-
286 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7
tions of the various radioisotopes to be tolerated in air or water, and the
problem of the engineer is to design the waste-disposal system so that
these tolerance values are not exceeded. (See Chap. 10 for further
information on this subject.)

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Site Location for a Benzene Hexachloride Plant1

Plant Design. A plant has been designed for an annual production of 240,000 lb
of Lindane (99 per cent y isomer of benzene hexachloride). It is estimated that
ground area requirements are 1.75 acres minimum at an existing site, but at least
5 acres should be anticipated for landscaping, expansion, parking, and recreation
facilities at a new site.
Raw Materials. The principal raw materials are crude benzene (99.5 per cent
C6H6, 0.5 per cent or less C6H5CH3) and chlorine. Only a minor amount of sodium
hydroxide is required.
Markets. A market survey has shown that the principal use of Lindane is for an
agricultural insecticide to control boll weevil and spider mites on cotton, and for the
control of house flies, mosquitoes, and chiggers.2
Location of Possible Regions (Use of Raw Material-Market Proximity Method).
One of the first principles to be applied here is to search for areas near raw materials
and markets. A data source was located on cotton production by states and the
information was recorded on a map of the United States (Fig. 7-3). Ihis would con¬
stitute the most probable market area as a first approximation. A literature search
for benzene production by states or regions failed to uncover any specific information.
It was then necessary to look at the raw materials and processes used for benzene pro¬
duction, namely, coke-oven by-product tar distillation or petroleum refining operation
side streams. The assumption is made that the major portion of benzene is produced
at plants producing or processing these raw materials. The geographical production
data on coke-oven by-products and crude petroleum processing were easily located
and plotted on the same map of the United States on which market data were Plac*
fFiir 7-3) Fortuitously, the location of coal-consuming coke-oven p ants and
roleum olants is also indicative of available fuel and power. Statistics by regions
for chlorine, ‘the other principal raw material, were directly available and also plotted

m Rv^the raw materials-market proximity principle, a study of Fig. 7-3 would indi-

Cat° ShUes S) "'weTn

~ Sr California as the best .catiom ^ £

several acceptable areas ' dent roblem on plant location, the raw matenals-
be done next. (Note.^ For a t d ^ followed by a site location on a river or
market proximity method - . , . • i retri0n having adequate power and
other reliable source of water near a anottcd in most courses on plant design.)
fuel supplies, should be sufficient for _ illustrate one method of how a final
management decision. It is obvious that a great

1 See Chap. 6, PP- 259-262. T tj ” Reinhold Publishing Corpora-

2 E. R. DeOng, “Chemistry and Uses of Insecticide,

tion, New York, 1948.

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287
288 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7
Table 7-2. Evaluation of Site Areas for a Lindane Plant by
Weighted-score Method

Plant location

Factor Weight- Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4

ing item S. Cali- Gulf Mississippi Parkersburg,
group fornia Coast River W.Va.

Raw materials supply:

Availability. 50 30 40 35 40
Use of substitute materials. 20 0 0 0 0
Distance. 30 20 25 20 25
100 50 65 55 65
Markets:
• Demand vs. distance. 40 20 30 40 10
Growth or decline. 30 15 20 30 25
Inventory storage requirements. 10 10 10 10 5
Competition—present and future. 20 20 10 10 20
100 65 70 90 60
Power and fuel supply:
Availability of electricity and various
types of fuel. 60 40 50 50 55
Future reserves. 20 20 20 20 20
Costs.. 40 20 25 30 30
120 80 95 100 105
Water supply:
Quality. 10 10 5 5 10
Quantity. 40 5 5 20 30
Dependability. 40 5 5 20 30
Costs. 30 5 10 20 25
120 25 25 65 95
Climate:
Investment required for construction. . 20 20 20 20 10
Humidity and temperature conditions. . 20 15 10 10 10
Hurricanes, tornados, and earthquakes. 20 5 10 5 15
60 40 40 35 35
Transportation, availability and rates:
Rail. 30 20 25 25 25
Highway. 30 25 25 20 20
Water. 20 10 15 15 15
Pipeline. 5 5 5 5 0
Air. 5 5 5 5 5
90 65 75 70 65
Waste disposal:
Regulation laws.. 30 10 15 20 15
Stream carry-off possibilities. 20 5 5 20 20
Air-pollution possibilities. . . 20 5 10 15 15
70 20 30 55 50
Labor: 20 15
40 20 25
Availability of skills. 20
30 25 25 25
Labor relations. 20
30 10 15 25
Stability of rates.
100 55 65 70 55
Regulatory laws: 10 5
10 5 10
Building codes. 10 10 5
Zoning ordinances. 10 5
20 10 15 20 15
Highway restrictions. 10 5
10 5 5
Waste-disposal codes.
50 25 40 50 30

Taxes: 5 5 10 5
State and local taxes. 10
30 10 15 25 20
Industry exemptions.
40 15 20 35 25

40 40 40 60
Site characteristics—existing or new. 60
30 25 20 25
30
Community factors...
Vulnerability to wartime attack: 5 10 10
15 5
Distance from important facilities. 10 10 5
15 5
General industrial concentration. . 15
- 30 10 15 20

Flood and fire control: 10 5 10 10

Fire hazards in surrounding area. . 15 5
15 15 15 5
Flood history and control. 15 15
30 25 20

625 720 700

1,000 545
Total point score.
 locating the chemical plant
289
CHAP. 7]
deal of study by the engineering team approach is required to collect the detailed
information and process it for economic evaluation. . .
Location of Possible Sites (Use of Weighted-score Method). Ihe next step is to
pick possible site areas within the geographical regions which look plausible and make
a weighted-score analysis of the various primary and specific plant location factors ou -
lined in the first part of this chapter. To illustrate the method, four site areas were

studied (Fig. 7-3).

Designation Reason for choice

Area

SI Southern California In established petroleum, industrial, and market area

S2 Gulf Coast In established petroleum, industrial, and market area

S3 Mississippi River In established petroleum, industrial, and market area

S4 Parkersburg, W. Va. Company has existing facilities and available land at

this site

A table of weighting factors for these areas was presented next (Table 7-2). The
valuations indicated for each factor for each area are not the result of careful study and are
intended principally for illustration of the weighted-score method.
The weighted-score analysis shows that a plant site along the lower Mississippi or
the existing one at Parkersburg, West Virginia, should be further explored and an
economic comparison made. The question of the remoteness of the Parkersburg site
from the market with added transportation and distributing costs will have to be
balanced against lower investment for site development and presently installed

Table 7-3. Summary of an Economic Analysis of Two Site Locations

for a Lindane Plant

Existing site at New site at

Economic factors
Parkersburg, W.Va. Natchez, Miss.

Investment:
Plant
New money. . . $1,020,000 $1,400,000
Existing facilities. 200,000
Working capital. . 183,000 210,000
Total investment required 1,403,000 1,610,000
Annual sales.. .
745,000 745,000
Costs:
Manufacturing. qcn nnn
OOU,uuu 365,000
Distributing. 9i 9 ouu
Ann
21,000
Selling, research.... on nnn
“Ujuuu 25,000
Total costs.... AOa anA
, OUU 411,000
Annual earnings:
Operative. . . oon inn
oZU, ‘tUU 334,000
Net (after 52% Federal tax)
154,000 160,500
Net return:
< )n total investment
11.0% 9.95%
()n new plant investment only
15.1% 11.5%
290 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 7

facilities. Intangible items such as diversification and geographical expansion, future

unfavorable legal and tax regulations, etc., can only be decided at the management
level.
Assume that further detailed work has located a new plant site at Natchez, Missis¬
sippi. Then a detailed economic comparison with the existing plant site at Parkers¬
burg is made. The summary of results without itemized detail figures under invest¬
ments and costs is listed in Table 7-3. These results are presented in report form to
company management for a final decision. From an investment standpoint, the
plant shoidd be located at the existing site at Parkersburg, West Virginia.
 CHAPTER 8

Site Preparation and Structures

One of the key phases in commercializing a process is the preparation of

the site and erection of plant equipment and buildings. A typical prob¬
lem in the final design stage may be to supply accurate specifications on
land and building requirements for construction cost estimating in more
detail than given in Chap. 6. A great deal of this work is handled by a
structural design group consisting largely of architects and civil engineers.
Consulting firms with personnel of similar background may also be
brought into the picture. However, chemical engineers must have a basic
understanding of this type of work and appreciate the effect of chemical
plant layout as discussed in Chap. 5 on site preparation and structure
designs. This chapter will present a general discussion of this area of
plant design so that the chemical engineer will obtain a preliminary
knowledge as a basis for further study where necessary.

SITE PREPARATION

Once the plant location area and plot plans have been chosen, as
explained in Chaps. 5 and 7, the specific site must be selected and
developed for installation of structures. Preliminary exploration of the
subsurface conditions should be done prior to purchase of a piece of land,
since foundation construction may be abnormally high if the bearing load
of the underground strata is poor, even though the surface conditions
appear satisfactory. Topographical maps of the site to establish plant
grades and excavation, together with transportation facility locations,
frost-line, and water-table information, are other important site data
required. Some detailed aspects of these factors will be presented next.
291
292 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

Subsurface Evaluations

Since the support of every item in the plant ultimately depends on the
soil within the region of the plant site, a thorough investigation of sub¬
surface conditions is required for foundation design, as discussed later.
In the final analysis the structural stability of a plant rests largely on the
thoroughness with which the subsurface investigations were carried out
and applied to foundation design. This type of work can best be done
by firms specializing in subsurface exploration and analysis.
Soil Testing. The prime purpose of soil testing is to determine the
load-bearing characteristics of subsurface soil. Representative test bor¬
ings at different locations in the plant site and at varying strata are made
to obtain information on many of the following soil and subsurface
properties covered by ASTM standard tests:
1. Capillarity—measures rate of rise and height of water rise against
gravitational forces
2. Compressibility—measures volume reduction under load
3. Density—measures natural consolidation of soil
4. Elasticity—measures shape recovery after release ol applied load
5. Particle size and shape—gravel, sand, silt, clay, and colloids in
order of decreasing particle size
6. Permeability—measures rate of gravitational water flow
7. Plasticity—measures ability of soil to change shape markedly under
applied load
8. Shearing strength—ability to resist lateral flow
9. Water content and elevation of ground water water close to the
surface requires reinforcement of floors and underground equipment from
water buoyancy forces and possible enhanced corrosion
Many of the properties can be grouped together in exploratory boring ^y
means of a spoon-sampling penetration test. A standard 2-in. sampling
spoon is lowered into the boring hole at any depth and soil compactness
and load-bearing properties measured by the number of blows of uniform
impact required to drive the sampler a given distance usually m.
is customary to carry preliminary borings to the refusal point at w hie
sampling spoon will not penetrate further or to a depth exceeding practma
Umits for foundation construction. Borings are often carried o to 10 ft
bevond the refusal point to determine the type of rock present.
Preliminary boring analysis suffices for estimating foundation costs and
mav reveal (1) the undesirability of a plant location at the site or (2)
the nonuniformity of strata throughout the areas, requiring further bon g

WX tt site‘location0^ definitely chosen, additional deep ***. are

 293
SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES
CHAP. 8]

made at points where heavy loadings will be placed or where dynamic

loadings from reciprocating machinery will occur. Shallow-type borings
are made under each major footing, using hand-driven equipment as a
final check. . . . . A
Bearing Load of Soil. The results of soil testing can be incorporated
into quantitative unit loading values with suitable factors of safety, as
evidenced by Table 8-1. Igneous rocks are best for foundations and will
sustain the greatest weights; swamp loam and quicksands have the lowest
values. In such cases it is necessary to add something to sustain the
weight placed on the ground. Piles can be driven into the ground until
the driving weight per unit distance is indicative of the load bearing
characteristic of the piles from frictional and end-bearing foices.

Table 8-1. Safe Bearing Values of Different Foundation Soils

Tons per
Material square foot

Granite rock formation. 30

Limestone, compact beds. 25
Sandstone, compact beds. 20
Shale formation or soft friable rock. 8-10
Gravel and sand, compact. 6-10
Gravel, dry and coarse, packed and confined. 6
Gravel and sand, mixed with dry clay. 4-6
Clay, very dry and in thick beds. 4
Clay, moderately dry and in thick beds. 3
Clay, soft. 1-1^
Sand, compact, well cemented and confined. 4
Sand, clean and dry, in natural beds and confined. 2
Earth, solid, dry, and in natural beds. 4
Quicksand, alluvial soils, etc. 1

Note: The foundations for a building housing heavy, vibrating machinery, such as
steam hammers, shears, and grinding equipment, should receive some allowance for
possible compression and rearrangements of soil owing to the vibrations transmitted
through it.

Frost Line. The lowest depth to which frost penetrates the ground is
important for foundation design. If a foundation is laid above the
fiost line, ground upheaval due to volume changes in freezing and thawing
below the foundation will create an instability in structure foundations
which must be avoided. Figure 8-1 gives the mean frost penetration lines
m inches throughout the United States, and foundations should terminate
below these distances. Practical embedment to prevent frost heaving
an subsidence is generally 3 to o ft, depending on the climate. Founda-
10nsunderneath buildings are not endangered by frost action except
where artificially refrigerated conditions exist.
294
Fig. 8-1. Average depth of frost penetration in inches. (After U.S. Weather Bureau.)
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES
295
CHAP. 8]

Topography Problems
The local topography of the site should be mapped so that grading and
drainage costs can be computed. The adequacy of slopes for gravity flow
of materials and the layout of transportation facilities can also be deter-
mined from the information.
Reference Markers. Plant layout on the site requires a starting
or reference point after the exact location of the property has been
determined by permanent property markers already established 01 by
independent survey of a local surveying firm. Markers are usually large-
diameter capped steel pipe set in concrete, located outside the construc¬
tion area, so that directional and elevation data can be taken ielati\e to
these permanent posts. One marker is called the “zero corner” point
and all measurements start from there. “Plant north” and its relation
to true north are next set up so that master plot plans can be oriented to
the plant site and surveying stakes located in the working area.
Absolute elevation planes at the plant site are referred to sea level via
bench marks erected by the U.S. Geodetic Survey or state surveys.
Within the plant area, a reference datum level, generally at the lowest
point on the site, is more useful in specifying plant elevations.
Grading and Excavations. A coordinated study of the topography
maps, plant elevation requirements, and foundation designs determine
the amount of grading, excavation, and filling required on the site.
Machine operations encountered include bulldozers for leveling, com¬
pacting, and backfilling, trench diggers for underground piping and
conduit layouts, and drag-line cranes for heavy construction excavations.
Construction on fresh fills should be carefully planned since fills do not
generally settle to a relatively permanent datum plane until after the
third year. Machine tamping, water consolidation of the fill soil, and
use of heavy gravel or weak concrete materially aid the permanent
settling characteristics of the fill. In other cases buildings are designed to
settle uniformly on the fill, but irregular settling can occur with the
attendant problems of equipment misalignment, unsightly building
cracks, etc.

r U U IN DATIONS

The purpose of foundations is to distribute the loading from structures

and equipment so that perpetual settlement of the load-bearing soil will
not cause excessive maintenance or impair the usefulness of the plant.
ie selection of a suitable type of foundation or soil loading support
ZT ? A u °u ^ l0adS t0 be transferred to the foundation, on the
material on which the foundation rests, and on the method of placing the
foundation as dictated by the subsoil conditions.
296 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

In designing foundations the following items should be taken into

consideration:

1. Grade level and elevation of foundation

2. Effects of frost on the foundation
3. Bearing load of the soil
4. Gravitational load to be supported by the foundation
5. Intermittent loading from overturning moment produced by winds
6. Dynamic loading from reciprocating or rotating machinery, or infrequently from
earthquakes
7. Shape and distribution of load
8. Type and shape of foundation
9. Type of equipment support and anchorage
10. Materials of construction
a. Plain concrete
b. Reinforced concrete
c. Steel
d. Wood
e. Combinations of the above materials

The first three points have already been discussed under subsurface
evaluations. Some of the important points in connection with the other
items in the list will be given next.

Type and Shape of Foundations

The type of foundation chosen will depend on the load to be supported
and the bearing capacity of the soil, i.e., the unit loading or pressuie.
The intensity of pressure on the soil should ideally be uniform over the
entire foundation. This is possible to achieve on hard rock, gravel, or
good sand, and foundations of the footing or mat type are specified. In
the case of compressible soils, such as mud, silt, or clay, differential
settling occurs and piling must be used.
Footings. This is the oldest and least expensive type of foundation,
which is designed in several ways, depending on the physical and economic
conditions. Figure 8-2 pictures five variations of footings
The foundation for a light building may be a downward continuation
of the concrete wall, resting on hard pan or rock. It is termed plan.
nonspread footing and its use is only possible where a suitable bearing
stratum is near the surface or near the line of basement excavation (1 ig.

8’With soils of lower bearing capacity it is necessary to increase the

bearing area under the support wall or column by means of
in order to reduce pressure and avoid undue settlement Plain .1 •
footings (Fig. 8-2a and b) of either square or octagonal shape aie . os
general y u ed because of the low-cost forming and reinforcingRequired.
K'pi-c.. 1 —d !
unless transverse steel reinforcement .
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES
297
CHAP. 8]

projection is required and reinforcing is not used, some saving in concrete

costs can be made by using stepped or trapezoidal spread footings
(Fig. 8-2c and d).
Mats. In designing foundations for some structures in low-load-bear¬
ing soils the combined area of spread footings approaches that of the
supported structure. It is then more practical to use one large reinforced
concrete slab or mat under the entire structure. In Fig. 8-3a typical mat
construction for support of walls, columns, and flat-bottomed storage
tanks is illustrated. A ventilated concrete mat and vertical support
foundation for high-temperature supported structures is shown in
Fig. 8-3fr.
-n*r Reinforcing
rods 7/7/777? ’777/7/7
77777777,
11 7777/777 7777777,' 7777777
I I Reinforced
Pedestal
I I Ploin or step
id I I concrete concrete I
T 7 'jsSteet
d .^LLl j. | dowels

(d) id) (c)

7777777/ 1 1 77777777 ■ Concrete

wot!
1 1
7777777/ ’7777777
I I
Soft day

Rock
(d) («?)
Fm. 8-2. Typical foundation footings, (a) Plain spread footing; (6) plain reinforced
spread footing; (c) stepped spread footing; (d) trapezoidal spread footing; (e) plain
nonspread footing. *

A “floating” foundation can sometimes be designed on compressible

soil. This is a boxlike, hollow foundation which displaces as much weight
of soil as the applied dead load. For example, in the basement excffvation
0 lg' 8’3“ the welsht of soil displaced had a pressure on the supporting
stratum of 1 200 psf, or 1.2 kips/ff. The resulting foundation loading
s also1.2 kips/ft-; hence there was no increase in applied load to the
“ ,U"d he foundatlor‘ floats with no reason to settle. It is obvious that
.°eS S,01..'Ve'g * due to water flooding or changes in mat loading will
create instability in floating mat construction.

creatTa problem^ ^ ^ adjacent to water-transportation facilities

. Problem of supporting structures on soft clay, silt and mud of

*"?S2.<S“"a — -S-i««
298 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 8

io)

Fig. 8-3. Types of mat foundations, (a) Floating mat; (6) mat for supporting high-
temperature equipment.

-,=--•*-Reinforced concrete mot

■*-Fill

Soft si ft

Load -bearing
gravel or rock

t t
u?)
. Typical load-bearing action of pita, (a) Frictjon pH.ng; (6) end^bcaring
Fig. 8-4
Combinations of friction and end-bearing loading I
piling.
occur.
CHAP. 8] SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 299

There are basically two types of load reaction of piling construction

which can be advantageously used. A friction pile transfers its support
load to the surrounding soil by means of skin friction along its surface
(Fig. 8-4a). Design values for skin friction will vary with soil conditions
and depth, ranging from 50 to 150 psf in soft silt to 300 to 000 psf in stiff
clay or fine wet sand. End or point bearing piles are sunk deep enough to
rest on hard stratum (Fig. 8-45). They behave as equally distributed
loaded columns in calculating total safe loads.

Reinforced Concrete Steel pipe

^ shell woll
* *• »■ /

/
.•. .
Corrugoted x> . *

- Concrete steel shell -Concrete

ft /

■ • • ▼
ft. • , ,

• • v • •* .
/

(a) U>) (<?)

i
f nT
■ Peeled\ treated
t with preservative

Interlock
i | joint
i
id) (<?) if)
I ig 8-5. Commonly used piles, (o) Precast concrete; (6) Raymond cast-in-place
pi e (may have spread footing by ramming concrete); (c) steel pipe pile (may have
spread footmg by ramming concrete); (d) steel W'-beam pile; (e) wood; (/) steel sheet

Some of the types of piling available are shown in Fig. 8-5. Comments
which will aid in selection of piling are desirable:
'■Precast concrete (Fig. 8-5a). Difficult to'handle and transport-
shatters when driven into hard strata unless water jets are used; strong as
™'ZnS ^l ett Tng supports since they are steel-reinforced and/or

SSLr ere m‘PlaCe CaStln§ 18 dlffiCUlt Ullder oor-

2. Cast-in-place concrete (Fig. 8-56 and c). Easy to transDort and
rive; tapering or corrugation useful for friction loading; adjustable to
ny eng ,; piling may be damaged by adjacent driving if’concrete setup
300 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

time is not allowed; can be rammed while casting to produce an end¬

bearing spread footing; heavy-wall pipe piling useful for deep-driven end¬
bearing piling.
o. Steel W" beam (Fig. 8-5d). Adaptable for long piling in dense soil;
corrosion a problem in underground flowing-water conditions.
4. Wood (Fig. 8-5e). Light and easily handled; can be floated to many
jobs; lowest first cost; increasingly difficult to obtain in lengths over 40 ft;
difficult to drive in dense soil; suitable only for friction piling since they
are weak in compression; subject to decay unless placed under the water
table.
5. Sheet 'pilings (Fig. 8-5/). Useful mainly as a retaining wall, not as
a structural vertical load-bearing member.
6. Composite piling. For economy a combination of wood and con¬
crete piling is used for deep bed work. The wood section is driven below
the elevation of the lowest ground-water elevation to avoid decay, and
then the upper section is poured concrete in a metal shell.

Machinery and Equipment Foundations

When erecting equipment foundations one must consider the use to

which the equipment will be subjected and the possible effects of vibration
and shock (dynamic loading) on the foundations, equipment, and sup¬
porting soil.
Foundations for Dynamic Loading. Machinery with moving parts,
such as compressors, centrifuges, and turbines, when placed on poorly
designed foundations, may produce vibrations sufficient to render the
building and foundations subject to early deterioration. Also, outside
interests may desire to be free of annoying vibrations. Allowable unit
soil loading for a dynamic load is one-third to one-half that of a static load.
The natural frequency of the soil and foundation must be at least 1V2
times the frequency of exciting forces created by the moving parts of the
equipment to prevent resonance. Sufficient mass is provided in founda
tions to absorb the energy and limit the amplitude of vibration to
0.0025 in. or less. This gives rise to the massive mat construction pic¬
tured in Fig. 8-6. Where more than one machine is to be installed, it is
generally desirable to place all of the machines on a common mat.
Shallow foundations well spread out are preferred to a deep foundation of
the same mass. Sometimes it is better to remove subgrade soil and
replace it with compacted material of more favorable load-bearing anc
natural-frequency characteristics. ,
An alternative solution for lighter equipment, such as blowers anc
motors is to dampen the vibration by use of supported elastomers,
heavy springing, compressed cork mats, or wooden timbers in tying the
equipment to the floor.
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 301
CHAP. 8]

Anchoring Equipment. A secure fastening of equipment to the

foundation is provided by anchor bolts, such as diagrammed in Fig. 8-6.
The removable anchor type is preferable for replacement reasons, since
raised bolting can be sheared off during the installation ol heavy equip¬
ment or during the tightening of the bolting.
Since cement contractors cannot finish foundations to exact le\ els, it is
customary to provide a rough finished machine foundation 1 to 2 in.
below the required level. The equipment is temporarily wedged and
then positioned by adjusting nuts. The frame is then “grouted” in
place by use of a mortar fill which adheres to the rough concrete surface
(Fig. 8-6c).
Steel-tank Supports. The design of the foundation for a steel tank
depends upon the type and design of the tank, which in turn depends

Top nut ond

Threaded Machine lock washer
foundation Threaded frome ^6rout
studs =r L-bott \ [m or tor)
Pipe sleeve -Heavy steel 'Adjusting nut
77777777, Washer sleeve
Typical
anchor
Equipment block bolt
io) id) (c)

Reinforced - concrete base mot

1 ig. 8-6. Massive mat construction for heavy vibration-producing equipment showing
three types of anchors: (a) removable anchor; (b) fixed anchor; (c) grouting.

entirely upon service. There exist tanks with flat and dished, concave
and convex heads; tanks that are horizontal or vertical; tanks for pressure,
atmospheric, and vacuum service. In the design of the necessary
foundations and supports for a steel tank to store tar, fuel oil, or benzol,
the tank to be placed outdoors, one must first consider the over-all
dimensions and the shape of the ends, whether flat, dished, or concave
the conventional radius r generally employed for the ends is taken equal
to the diameter of cylinder or tank. If r - diameter of cylinder the
head reaches maximum strength for a minimum quantity of steel ’

suDDoertnseXtTCh0nS1Cleratl0ni ^ ‘,he 'UgS 011 Which the tank rests upon the
uppo.ts. these lugs or brackets (Fig. 8-7) are either welded or riveted

minimize ecientlity.61 ^ Md Sh°Uld be desiSlled to

f JthUne°Ua^T ^ “ Wide aS the tank- built below the

■ t Ime, and of a size dependent on the load. The load is a dead load.
302 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

Fig. 8-7. Riveted support lugs.

and the foundations must be built to carry the maximum expected

weight—that of the filled tank. The piers likewise should be built to
carry a uniform load. Precautions in construction must be taken to pro-
vide for creep and expansion, which will
vary considerably with temperature.
Solid Piers. Styles of foundation
vary considerably. One type is the
solid concrete or bricked-up pier, shown
in Fig. 8-8. This type must be prop¬
erly insulated from the tank to pre¬
vent the development of corrosion areas
on the tank at points of contact with
the pier. Wood, rubber, or asphalt
can be used for this purpose.
Cribbing Piers. Timbers can be
cribbed, or if the storage tank is small,
timbers can be bolted together, the
unk „ting in the cradle the. provided <~ Fig. 8-9). Such .npport.
provide for movement and shock a sorp support, shown in
Supporting I Beams Besting "VSeldSment without
Fig. 8-10, permits variation oi to P ■ „ „ehored at one
rupture of the piers by creeping. Usually
 V2 boiler plate

303
Fig. 8-10. Horizontal tank foundation and support.
304 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

point, while the other supports or lugs on the tank are free to move on the
I beam. The I beam is firmly anchored to the supports and the supports
to the concrete foundations. The supports can be either standard piping
or H columns.
Vertical Tank Supports. In order to provide for variations in length
or movement of the tank owing to change in temperature, or if storage
floor area is limited, vertical tanks may be used with supporting lugs
located in the mid-section area, permitting expansion to take place both

up and down. A support, of this type appears in Fig. 8-11.Such

installation is often used in extraction batteries ;
manner in supporting steel tanks, especially on concrete floors, is new

™
are oftentimes placed upon single huge bloc _
jsrs
gtrain on the

XT* Theentire vreight'of^die^tank contwits, therefore, rests upon the

 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 305
CHAP. 8]

bottom. Where several vertical tanks of similar size and shape aie to be
erected side by side, the monolithic block foundation is built sufficiently
large to support the entire assembly. Oftentimes the concrete founda¬
tion is extended above the ground several feet more than drainage
requirements call for, for the additional concrete costs less than a short
section of structural steel. One practice for flat-bottom tanks, 20 ft in
diameter by 45 ft deep, is to use a circular pier of 1:2:3 concrete around
the outer edge, filling the central well with sand, then grouting between
the tank bottom and the pier where needed when the tank is filled.
Wooden Tank Foundations. Poor
foundations are a common cause for
leakage of wooden tanks. In the
design of good ones, there are three
cardinal principles to be observed:
1. The weight must be supported
on the bottom only. The staves of
wooden tanks must not carry any of
the load, and where the tank is to
rest on a level surface, it is best to
use dunnage strips or subjoists that
will support the bottom and raise the
ends of the staves (chime) from the
Fig. 8-12. Wooden tank foundation.
foundation.
2. ihe supporting pieces under the bottom must not be spaced over
18 in. apait (preferably less), and the bottom boards of wooden tanks
must run across the dunnage strips or joists supporting them.
3. Concrete foundations, both monolithic and separate piers, must
extend below the frost line when on the ground.
Figure 8-12 shows a standard foundation for tanks on the ground. It
consists of concrete walls with wood joists placed across them.

Concrete—Plain and Reinforced

Concrete is important in both foundations and buildings as a material

of construction. It has fair compressive strength (1,000 to 4,000 psi) but
i e tensile or shear strength unless reinforced with steel. Design and
cons iuc ion prinmples and codes have been developed largely through
the efforts of the following organizations:

DetrirMich' (’°nCrete Institute (ACI)> 22400 W. Seven Mile Rd„

PhilatTpeht“paS0Ciety f°r TeSting MaterialS (ASTM)’ 1916 St.,

Chicago',’TlT Reinf°rCing St6el InStitUte (CRSI>’ 38 S' Dearborn St.,

306 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

4. Portland Cement Association (PCA), 33 W. Grand St., Chicago, Ill.

Numerous publications on concrete can be obtained from these organiza¬
tions. A few of the important concepts on plain and reinforced concrete
will be discussed next with further information given in a subsequent
section on reinforced concrete building structures.
Definition. Concrete is a mixture of cement (portland, natural, or
special cement), fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel), and
water. Concrete mixtures are defined by a volume ratio, i.e., 1:2:4
concrete contains 1 part of cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts ol gravel.
Additive materials, such as lime and calcium chloride, are used to prevent
freezing, improve workability, and accelerate the setting time.
Strength. The strength of plain concrete depends on several factors:
proportioning of ingredients, particularly water-cement ratio, time,
temperature, and method of curing. A rich mixture (1: IK:3 or 1:1:2)
develops a compressive strength of approximately 4,000 psi foi use in
thin and heavily reinforced concrete structural beams and columns.
Floor slabs and structural members requiring 2,000 to 3,000 psi concrete
are made from a 1:2:3^ mixture, while a lean mixture of 1:3:6 is used
for massive concrete abutments or fills. on f
Water-Cement Ratio. This is defined in the trade as U.S. gallons of
water per 94-lb or 1 cu ft bag of cement (x). This ratio varies from 5 to 8.
For average jobs, the compressive strength (Sc in psi) can be given as

Sc = A(B — Cx) (S'1)

where A, B, and C depend on the type of dry concrete mix Thus, g

water-content cements are weaker but have increased fluidity for pouring.
‘Curing Concrete hardens because of a very slow hydration reaction
which takes place between cement and water to produce a bond among
aggregate particles. Its strength, under favorable curing cond=
will increase rapidly during the first 7 days, taper off o2(days and then
very slowly increase during the ensuing years. It is important that c
crete should be protected against premature drying or iecz „
91 Hnvs the period being longer at lower temperatures.
, i r rp i- A STM tests for various concrete masonry uni
Methods of Testing. AbIM tests 101 yd sometimes per
•i i m These consist of compressive strength and sometimes pc
are available, these consist f . 2r dav period. Compres-
cent moisture and rupture modulus tests at a 28 d y P . k

r,r„ri,r “ts s&s=-—

to 28-day tests as follows.
O _ _1_ 90 A/.St

estimated compressive strength at 28 days

where Sc28
tested compressive strength at 7 days
CH VP 8] SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES

Reinforced Concrete. This is more commonly used in structural

work than plain concrete to improve the strength. Square and round
bars of steel (20,000 psi allowable design tensile strength) with protrusions
or indentations for increasing adhesion are spaced in high-strength con¬
crete according to coded specifications for structural beams and columns.
Expanded metal or wire is used for reinforcing floor slabs, walls, and
other thin sections.
Typical Placement Specifications for Reinforcement. The minimum
clear distance between parallel bars should be 2 times the side dimensions
for square bars and times the diameter for round bars. Reinforce¬
ment of footings and columns should be sealed with at least 3 in. of plain
concrete on the ground contact surface. Surfaces exposed to weathering
should have at least a 2-in. protective layer of plain concrete. Structures
subject to fire hazards should have a fire-resistant coating of concrete
1 in. thick for slabs and 2 to 4 in. thick for structural members.

Design Principles. The design strength of concrete members must be

worked out from structure calculations which are beyond the scope of
this book. Study references include:

1. “Building Construction Handbook,” sec. 4-5, McGraw-Hill Book Company,

Inc., New York, 1958.
2. L. C. Urquhart, C. E. O’Rourke, and G. Winter, “Design of Concrete Struc¬
tures,’’ 6th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. New York, 1958.
3. Publications of ACI, CRSI, and PCA.

STRUCTURES—ENCLOSED AND UNENCLOSED

Industrial operations are commonly conducted inside of buildings in

order to afford shelter to workmen, the manufacturing equipment, the
control instruments, and the processing materials. Many large chemical
manufacturing operations, however, have little need for buildings for the
following reasons:
1. The number of workmen per unit of factory space is generally small.
2. The equipment is of such a nature that it can be protected more
economically without a building and can be operated via automatic
control instrumentation from a small central control building.
3. Materials needing protection are not exposed except at one or
several points where specifically designed structures can be erected thus
giving the most economical total plant.
Buildings are required for enclosing chemical manufacturing opera-
““ ?0t ^adlly adaptable to outside weather conditions, particularly
sohds-handhng processes. Auxiliary facilities, such as administration
laboratories maintenance shops, storage warehouses, and personnel
. commodations such as cafeterias, change houses, and medical first aid
centers, will require housing irrespective of climate conditions
308 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

It is seen, therefore, that the chemical engineer in plant design work

will be faced with all types of unenclosed and enclosed structures, and
should have a basic familiarity with the design problems in this area.

Outdoor Plants
The outdoor plant, as represented by Fig. 8-13, consists mainly of
unhoused or unenclosed equipment structures, and has an economic
advantage in initial investment cost as well as operating and maintenance
costs. This fact is pointed out in Tables 6-5 and 8-7. In temperate

Engineering Design Features. t | l are weU insuiated and

^r^Sas^r^nated wood, etc.) are significant

factors.
 SITE PREPARATION" AND STRUCTURES
309
CHAP. 8]

Plant layout studies are made by template and model methods, as

explained in Chap. 5. Ample space is provided for access by crane or
fork truck to heavy equipment requiring repair or replacement and or
snow- and ice-removal equipment. Shelters of some kind must be
provided for equipment requiring protection from rainfall and snow
and/or frequent maintenance and operating attention. Examples of
equipment of this nature are centrifuges, compressors, and pumps. A
relatively cheap shelter of structural steel, designed for overhead crane
and monorail support, with corrugated sheet-metal roof and partially
open sides suffices. An example of an indoor-outdoor plant with equip-
ment shelters is shown in Fig. 5-6.
Modern instrumentation design is one of the principal keys to the
success of the outdoor plant. As explained in Chap. 9, the error-detecting
and final control elements can be located on outdoor equipment and
signals transmitted by electronic wiring or pneumatic tubing to a process
control center which generally consists of a small air-conditioned building.
The transmitting equipment must be protected Irom ice, snow, and wind
loading, but this is a relatively simple problem. In very cold climates the
pneumatic air must be kept sufficiently dry so that its frost point is below
the lowest ambient temperature.
Heating and ventilation problems are largely eliminated. From a
safety standpoint, outdoor plants are superior since combustible fumes
are quickly dispersed and rarely accumulate to explosive limits. Twelve-
to twenty-four-inch-high fire walls of concrete or impacted dirt are placed
around all storage equipment containing flammable materials, unless
separate emergency drain and sewage systems are provided. The reader
is advised to check Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed.,
sec. 30, pp. 1848-1879, for a complete discussion of safety and fire-
protection measures.
Wind loading on outdoor structures, particularly tall stacks, towers,
and pipeline suspensions, require special attention. The upsetting wind
moment on vertical structures must be allowed for in foundation design.
Oscillations due to von Karman vortices at low, steady wind velocities
can be removed by designing the equipment with a natural frequency out
of phase with the frequency of the von Karman vortices that is likely to
occur owing to the prevailing steady winds of that locality.

Enclosed Structures

The need for housing certain functions of plant operation has been
pointed out. The design engineer will usually have the assistance of
architects to provide an over-all plan for buildings, open structures, and
landscaping. Plot plans and models of process equipment areas are
developed and then architectural designs are submitted for the final
310 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

Fig. 8-14. Example of an indoor-type plant—Central Soya Inc. and McMillen Feed
Mills Plant, Chattanooga, Tenn. (Courtesy of Factory Management and Maintenance.)

selection based on functionality, pleasing appearance, and economy.

Figure 8-14 is an example of a typical indoor-type plant with a predomi¬
nance of enclosed structures. Several types of building construction
which can be selected will be discussed next.
Selection of Building Types. The chemical plant has relatively simple
building requirements which can be classified as follows:

1. Process buildings
2. Process auxiliary buildings
a. Powerhouse
b. Shops
c. Warehouses
3. Plant laboratories
a. Control
b. Research
c. Development or pilot plant
4. Administration and personnel
a. Offices
b. Cafeteria
c. Recreation
d. Medical and first-aid center
e. Change facilities containing locker and shower rooms
/. Guardhouses

There are many building types which can be specified by the architect-
design group to meet the above requirements, but these fall arbitrarily
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 311
CHAP. 8]

into three categories based on functionality and in the order of increasing

cost: (1) prefabricated; (2) custom-designed factory type, principally for
' housing equipment; (3) custom-designed buildings for laboratory,
administration, and personnel requirements. It should be pointed out
that there can be some overlapping of functionality in these three classi¬
fications, e.g., a prefabricated building can be used for housing control
laboratory requirements. Some of the features of these three types ol
buildings will be pointed out.
Prefabricated Buildings. In a large chemical plant there are usually a
number of buildings that have no special design requirements and it is
possible to effect considerable savings by use of prefabricated buildings.
These buildings are available from suppliers in a wide range of sizes and
types of construction, and are field-assembled in accordance with the
manufacturer’s standard instructions. An example of this type of con¬
struction in a rigid-frame design is shown in Fig. 8-15, and representative
costs are given in Table 8-6. Buildings of this type have walls and roofs
of light gauge metals, such as corrugated steel or aluminum, and/or
corrugated asbestos cement. This construction will not provide the
length of service that a custom-designed heavy construction building
would. To improve the appearance, a brick veneer is sometimes placed
on the side most frequently visible to visitors.
Prefabricated buildings are most suitable for storage, maintenance,
shops, boiler rooms, equipment shelters, and temporary construction,
particularly in warmer climates.
C ustom-designed Factory Type. Buildings of this type are designed
functionally along conservative lines, using inexpensive materials to
handle nearly all process requirements. Typically, these buildings have
concrete foundations and floors; the side walls are of masonry or light
insulated panel construction, and the framing is of structural steel with
roofs of varying type and material design. The buildings which house
equipment must be designed for crane, monorail, elevator, or other
services peculiar to a particular process.
lypieal equipment and industries requiring this type of enclosure are
( ) solids-handling, weighing, and packaging machinery; (2) solids-
separating equipment, such as filters and centrifuges; (3) pharmaceutical
and food processing; (4) instrumentation and control; (5) any facilities
requiring a high degree of operating attention by plant personnel
is possible to incorporate within these buildings a number of the
rr;.:;r'mreme/s’. t • as iocker’toiiet’and first-
“»<- However, modern JuLmXZgS
usually specify more expensive facilities as discussed next
RealZZnTs9" fT/W Lf°m0ry’ Admi™»ation, and Personnel
Requirements. 1 hese buildings of more substantial and costly construe-
312 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

Sill
angle
Comer
Sill angle post
Corner
Side well and roof

Cross section of ID ECO deep rib sheet

framing. (iCourtesy
Fig. 8-15. Example of prefabricated construction showing rigid
of Dresser-Ideco Co., Columbus, Ohio.)
CHAp 8] SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 313

tion are provided for the optimum efficiency of the plant staff from*
physical and psychological standpoint. Employees w
morale if they are provided with surroundings of pleasing appearance.
These buildings are often located at the plant entrance and the impression
that many people get of the plant is created by the exterior appearance.
Visitors entering the buildings are also impressed by well-designed
interiors. Thus, the additional cost for improvements to appearance
and work efficiency is money well invested.
Buildings of this type vary markedly in design. Architects take
advantage of modern materials to create pleasing yet useful designs.
Liberal use is made of glass sheet and block, aluminum, and stainless-steel
paneling in addition to the more conventional finishes of stone and brick.
The many details which must be included in any set ol building designs
will be discussed under building design principles.

BUILDING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Engineers engaged in designing chemical plants must take into con¬

sideration location, climatic conditions, and the nature of the chemical
industry which the plant is to house in deciding on the type or types of
building construction to adopt. The process and the materials handled
will indicate the general design requirements. Careful attention must
be given to the type of floor, structural frame, walls, roof, fume handling,
drainage, ventilation, heating, and foundations of both building and
equipment. Although experienced engineers can determine the proper
building practices, information regarding relative merits and costs of
different forms of structure is valuable for preliminary survey purposes for
the chemical engineer.

Types of Building Designs

Height Classification. Usual industrial buildings are of two types:
(1) multistory (Fig. 8-16) and (2) single-story (Fig. 8-18). In certain of
the chemical engineering industries the multistoried building (or, at least,
a tall single-story building) is required where gravity flow from point to
point in the process is absolutely necessary. In such a case, equipment
must be supported at different levels, either on different floors of a
multistoried building or on working platforms independent of the building
wall and reached by open stairways.
^ here plant construction must be made in congested areas, space for
single-story construction may not be available except at prohibitive cost.
The general tendency of industry in recent years, to move from congested
central districts to outlying communities, has been attended by a great
increase in the number of single-story buildings, built where land is cheap
314 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 8

and taxes low. However, modern industry is coming to find out that the
single-story type is preferable, almost without regard to taxes and land
Values. For many industries, the single-story building is the most
efficient and economical, whether land cost is $200 or $2,000 an acre.
That multistory buildings are less expensive per square foot than single¬
story buildings is a common misconception, based on the fact that the
structural floor of a multistory building serves also as a ceiling for the
story directly beneath it (Fig. 8-21). In contrast to this, the single-story
building naturally must have a floor and roof for every square foot of
floor space. However, there are factors that more than offset this. For
example, practically all multistory buildings have basements that must

he excavated. Basement walls are heavier than other walls in all

buildings, and considerable expense for waterproofing of the basement
walls and floor is entailed. The cost of stairs, elevators, approaches,
outside and interior walls, and wall columns runs high in the multistory
building. Cost of elevators and their commonly required enclosing was
is a large item, and most multistory buildings of fair size require eit er
two freight elevators and one passenger elevator or one of each type.
Building codes usually call for at least one stairway at each end of a
multistory building, and these must be enclosed in fire w^s a added
expense. The frequent heavy live-load requirements put on multistory
building floors often increase the cost of multistory construction.

M**.
than the multistory type in original cost, maintenance Z
“T””' cost ‘~d“S
and1 oper g
cost. The increasing intensity of industrial competition, making
CH^P 8] SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 815

nomical and efficient straight-line production virtually a matter of self-

preservation for the manufacturer, requires the use of the single-story
plant in the great majority of cases. In the single-story building le
load the floor will carry usually is limited only by the bearing value ol t
soil on which the floor rests. Most soils have a bearing value ol many
thousands of pounds per square loot. ,.
Flexibility is another important advantage of the single-story building.
If a manufacturer finds it necessary to effect radical changes in product or
method, he may find a multistory building unsuited to the new production
scheme, whereas a single-story building lends itself to almost any kind
of arrangement, because of the absence of large columns and the uniformly
high floor-loading capacity.
Roof Classification. Industrial buildings can often be classified into
a few simple designs according to roof structure (Fig. 8-22):
1. Flat-roof buildings may be either single- or multistory and are often
used where it is advisable to house a number of tanks or other \ essels 01
equipment on or above the roof. Although there are a good many flat-
roof buildings in use in the chemical industry as well as in many other
manufacturing uses, it is usually advisable to eliminate traffic of any sort
over roof surfaces in order to avoid possible mechanical damage or punc¬
tures that will result in leaks. Many plant operators feel, too, that it is
advisable to get water and snow off the roofs as soon as possible and,
therefore, frequently insist upon pitched roofs with fairly steep angles.
2. Pitched-roof buildings may be of single- or multistory design. In
either case this type of roof is often combined with a monitor that may be
designed to give additional interior daylighting in the building or to be
equipped with louvers for ventilation. In many cases ventilated types
of sash provide both ventilation and interior illumination.
3. Saw-tooth buildings are usually best located with the glass in the
saw teeth facing directly north. Although somewhat expensive, there
are distinct advantages in lighting and visibility in a building having the
saw-tooth type of construction. For certain kinds of plants, notably
those in which macroscopic examination of processed materials is impor¬
tant, as in dyeing, it is recommended. Direct sunlight is excluded,
and the time of use ot artificial lighting during the day is considerably
reduced. There is a uniform diffusion of light to all parts of the space,
which makes all space working space. The disadvantages lie in the roof
construction, and special care must be exercised in design. Leaks,
excessive loss of heat, excessive condensation on the underside of the roof,
and poorly controlled ventilation are commonly encountered in saw-tooth
construction. The cost of construction is greater owing to the cost of
windows, glazing, special flashing, condensation conductors for skylights
and higher cost of heating.
316 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

Fire Code Classification. Industrial buildings are usually insured

against fire loss, so that the building code recommended by the National
Board of Fire Underwriters, 85 John St., New York, should be consulted.
It is based on the fire resistance or degree of fire stability as measured by
the time in hours that the various materials of construction will stand a
specified amount of heat under fire exposure as determined by a recognized
test (Standard Method of Fire Tests for Building Construction and
Material, ASTM El 19-50). Based on this test, a time duration scale
ranging from 1 to 4 hr serves to classify materials of construction used in
buildings. A summary of the fire code classification for building struc¬
tures in terms of increasing order of fire resistance of the various com¬
ponents of the structure is:
1. Poor Fire-resistant Construction {Frame Construction). The exterior
walls or portions thereof of wood; also a building with wooden framework
veneered with brick, stone, terra cotta, or concrete, or covered with
stucco or sheet metal.
2. Moderate Fire-resistant Construction. Buildings having masonry
walls with heavy timber or unprotected metal support structures.
3. Good Fire-resistant Construction. Buildings with masonry, pro¬
tected steel, or reinforced-concrete construction.
Materials of Construction on Classification. A last and most impor¬
tant classification of industrial buildings is arbitrarily divided into two
areas: (1) structural-steel and (2) reinforced-concrete. Other materials,
such as wood and aluminum, have been adapted by structural designers,
but building construction is based largely on structural steel and rein¬
forced concrete or combinations thereof. Hence, further discussion o
these two types is required.

Structural-steel Building Design

Steel is well suited for use in large plants having long W heavy
loads and large clearance heights; it can also be equa y w ‘p
use in small structures. This is a valuable asset because of t he variety o
shapes and sizes, as well as flexibility, needed to house chemical plants.
K accounts for the success of prefabricated building construction for

IU S^ceHs^ioncombustible, but it is not classified as highly fire-resistant

in structural design because of its reduction in ultimate strong

^g nssztsa^sriirr^is
2ve 900 to HOOT created by inside
increase in fire resistance can be accomplished by use ot a

C0Scttrrerdesign is based on the specifications of the American

 917
CHAp g] SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES

Institute of Steel Construction (AISC).« The steel framework is planned

with use of commercially available sizes and shapes (Fig. 8-1/ . btruc
™ joined together i„ .hop f.bri».k» by nvet.ng. or
welding. Final connections of large shop-assembled sections are made in
the field, using high-tensile bolting tightened by calibrated torque
wrenches to produce a tension equal to 90 per cent of the minimum test
loading of the bolt. This prevents slipping by the high frictional coe -
cient developed in the joined members. Field welding is economical
when a large number of bolts are required to develop the proper connec¬
tion in the framework. Beam seats and temporary bolting are required
for positioning the members to be welded.

w
h I Weight - W lb/ft

iL
[a) id)
Designation: L hxdxt Designation: h [ W

rt
h I Weight - W ib/ft

lJL
id)
Designation: d Wr W Designation hi W
Fig. 8-17. Commercially available structural-steel shapes: (a) angle; (b) channel
beam; (c) wide flange beam; (d) I beam.

The variety of shapes, sizes, and details of industrial structures framed

with steel are numerous, depending on individual building needs.
Mill Building. A mill building denotes a single-story structure having
one or more relatively wide aisles of considerable length and large
clearance. They require long-roof rigid frames or trusses to span the
aisles, and substantial cross and knee bracing to withstand wind loads
on sloped roofs and walls. Figure 8-18 shows examples of mill-building
framing, while Fig. 8-19 gives a composite view of a typical mill-building
structure. Both these figures show truss framing in the top of the build¬
ing to allow lighter top chord steel beams over long spans, but this design
reduces working headroom. Rigid frame design, as shown in Fig. 8-15,

m! oGe! C'onstruction Handbook, 5th ed., American Institute of Steel Construction

101 Park Ave., New York.
318 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

Monitor
Top Fink truss Purlin. _ Web members
chord Top chord,
Purlin Web members

Eave—^x
strut

■ Crane girder-
on brackets
Building
''column
-///'//■> *7TT. '/?/////
(a) (b)

Purlin jMonitor
Ventilator Pratt truss with
bent lower chord

<\_Pcnd -Subdivided Warren truss

length Crane girder
Crane girder on brackets
^Building column
s Combined crane and
building column
//;/////'
(c) (d)

MILL-BUILDING FRAMES
Fir- 8 IS Examples of single-story mill building frames. (C. W. Dunham, by per-
missLfrol"P^nZg of Industrial Structures," McGrau,-HiU Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1948.)
solves this problem, but span lengths are reduced and foundations must
be designed to take shear loading at the frame-foundation joint
Multistory Steel Building. Industrial structures of more than one

story in height built with “j ^"rot

concrete construction is . strong conn* ,to^ Co
for floor support must be provided in multistoried dui g
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 319
CHAP. 8]

Ridge Monitor Purlins

Rofter-
'Eove strut
A* [usuot/y o
compression
member)
Truss ■
-Jamb
■ Ventilator
■Knee brace to stop side sway

120 ft max - Mu IIion

Column Muntin

■Sill
Curb —
<7 •!
w
■ . *.••••« . : : • «v:•
JO "min from grode
Spreod footer \, • • t f< to bottom of footer
. • *. m
• .* \ ■ \
V

* 1

Fig. 8-19. Composite view of mill building construction showing frame, wall, and
window nomenclature. (Courtesy of R. W. Parkinson, Engineering Drawing Depart¬
ment, The Ohio State University.)

in comparison with single-storied structural-steel design. Other facilities

w hich must be provided include elevator shafts, stairways, chimneys,
chutes, duct systems, and bays.

Reinforced-concrete Building Design

Reinforced concrete is an excellent building material if properly used.

It should be specified where fire-resistant buildings of rigid construction
are required. In order for reinforced-concrete construction to be competi¬
tive with structural steel, the building should have:
1. Limited rigid span lengths (less than 100 ft)
2. Repeated module or form size requirements
3. A minimum of large concentrated loads in multistoried structures
4. weight requirements limited to ten stories but more than one story
I hese requirements will rule out reinforced-concrete framing for most
chemical process buildings.
Some of the important properties and considerations in using rein
forced concrete were listed in a previous section on foundation design

Beams and Slabs T™' 00 umns’ and flo°rlnS systems.

320 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 8

plain concrete has no strength. Rectangular beams are used for girders,
while T beams are cast monolithically with floor and roof slabs to take
advantage of the length of the slab. Precast beams are competitive with
poured form beams since they eliminate forming and pouring except at
junctions. Prestressed beams can be purchased for improved strength-
weight ratio characteristics. Here wires or rods pulled under high tension
are cast into the beam. After solidification, the end forces on the steel
are released and the tension is transferred in part as a compressive
build-up in the surrounding cast concrete.
Columns. Two types of columns generally used are (1) square and
rectangular columns with longitudinal reinforced bars stayed laterally
with tie rods; (2) round and octagonal columns with circumferential
longitudinal bars tied by a continuous spiral of wire to % in. in diam¬
eter wound on the outside of the bars. Columns can be monolithically
joined to concrete beams or flat slabs either by direct pouring into col¬
umn and girder forms or by poured junction connection to precast con¬
crete columns with their possible economic advantage.
Formwork. Forms must possess adequate strength to maintain the
true shape of concrete and should be well braced and tight. They
should be designed for reuse several times on the same job, as forms are an
expensive part of reinforced-concrete construction. Use standard lumber
and plywood sizes to avoid cutting; use heavy-fiber cylindrical tubes made
specifically for concrete column work.
Concrete Flooring Systems. Floors should be designed for the live
loading tolerance specified by the building code governing the construc¬
tion site. Typical live loads in pounds per square foot for chemical
plants as distinguished from the dead weight of floor and surfacing, are.
process areas, 150 to 200 psf; warehouses, 500 psf or greater; offices and
laboratories, 100 psf on first floor, 75 psf on upper floors. To accom¬
modate these loads, four different types of reinforced-concrete flooring
may be used: (1) beam-girder; (2) flat-slab; (3) ribbed floors, with ceiam
or steel-tile fillers; (4) steel- or precast-concrete-joist floors.
Beam-girder Floors. Parallel beams transmit the reinforced-concrete
slab load to girders run at right angles supported on columns. Su
titntion of beams for girders gives a two-way slab construction wit
approximately square spans not exceeding 18 ft. Whe^^Udbeams
only in one direction are used, this one-way construction is suited
rectangular panels with a width not exceeding 12 It.
Z A flat-slab floor is a treinforced-™.,;.£ *b t—
monolithically and »-f 3! rd fl“«V
of imam, and yodcra li.o load, of
slab construction. It 1 f ^ flooring must be
100 psf and square panel spans of 18 to 30 ft, but the tloo. g
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES
321
CHAP. 8]

more heavily reinforced. In the two-way system the reinforcing bars are
placed parallel to lines of columns in both directions with a maximum
allowable spacing not greater than 1^ times the thickness of the slab, o
about 12 in. The four-waxy system consists of parallel and diagonal
reinforcing bar braces. . ,
Ribbed Floors. For light loads over long spans, such as the loads
occurring on office or laboratory floors, 4- to 12-in. ceramic or steel square
tiles are located on supporting beam-girder frames and spaced as fllleis
to create an adjacent series of monolithically cast concrete 4 beams.
When terra-cotta or gypsum tiles are used, the tile blocks are left in
place, giving a flat ceiling for plastering. Steel cores can be either
permanently placed or removable for reuse. Metal lath, welded to
reinforcing rods projecting from the bottom of floor beams, supports the
ceiling plaster for the lower floor. Ribbed construction is also adaptable
to roofs.
Steel- or Precast-concrete-joist Floors. This is another light-load type of
floor. The floor joists are spaced 12 to 30 in. on center and support a
steel mesh on which a 2- or 3-in. concrete slab is poured. The joists span
4 to 32 ft and are supported by concrete or steel beams or girders.
Concrete Mill Buildings. Rigid framing of single-storied buildings
with reinforced concrete is not competitive with structural-steel buildings
except where favorable costs on precast beams can be obtained. Even
then, buildings are limited to clear bays of 100 ft or less and moderate
vertical clearances of less than 35 ft.

Flooring

Over 90 per cent of recently constructed plants have concrete floors.

The types of finishes for this concrete base flooring are listed in Table
8-2, making possible a selection of one or a combination of materials for
chemical plant flooring requirements. In many cases where new chemi¬
cals are being handled, laboratory tests will have to be run to select suit¬
able flooring finishes.

Walls

Steel or wood framework of buildings can be filled in with a number of

combinations. (oncrete block is probably the best material to use for
walls in a building of permanent construction, although brick is nearly
ideal vhere the size of the project warrants the investment. Relative
fire resistances of walls and partitions for brick, concrete, hollow tile,
and plaster are given in Perry’s “ Chemical Engineers’ Handbook ” 3d ed
table 6, p. 1852.
Sheet-metal construction of any kind has the advantage of cheap and
quick erection. It will not be found desirable in the colder climates as
322 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 8

Table 8-2. Characteristics of Floor Finishes*

Wood block

laminated

Magnesite
Linoleum
Cement
Characteristic

Rubber
Mastic

Mastic

Mastic
Plastic

block
Wood,

Brick

Cork
tile

tile
Cost index. 3° 7b C
7d 8* 6 5 1 2 1 3 4
Ease of repair. 3 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
Fast installation—days... 5/ 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2-5
Compressive strength. . . . 2 4» 5 6 1 8 3* 8 4 3 7 2
Tensile strength. 2 4 8 5 8 1 1 7 3 8 6 1
Toughness. 2 3> 1 3 7* 5 1 6 3 2 4 3
Resistance to denting. . . . 2 4 4 5 1 2 3» 5 4 3 5 2
Abrasion resistance 0.025 0.007- V 0.002 Q 0.006 0.002 0.002 0.007 0.007- 0.011 0.006
i m 0.032 n
(wear), in. 0.032
Sparkproof*. N* N* Y Yr N Y Y Y Y N* Y Y
Self-healing. N 1 N N N N N N N 2 N N
Resistance to moisture'... 3 2 N N 1 4 2-4 N 4 3 N N
3 3 2 t
2 V V
3 V
1
Easy wheeling. 1 3
3 2 2 3 2-4 3 3 2w 2 2 1 2
Nonskid—walking*.
11 9 6 4 12 1 7 3 10 8 2 5
Resilient, comfortable. .. .
4 N N N N 1 1 1 1 N 2 3
Variety of color.
9 5 4 12 2 6 3 10 7 1 8
Quiet. 11
3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Odorless (after 7 days). . . 4 3
7 8 1 6 3 12 5 4 10 11
Acid- and alkali-proof- 9 2
11 1 9 3 10 4 5 8 2
Fire resistance. 1 6 7
Nominal thickness, in.. . . 4—6 1H 2-3 2H 1H H X X X X X X
4H 4H H H X X6 3 X M
5 2H 3 2U M 6 M 6 Me 2 X X
Weight, psft. 3-6
12 25-35 0.8 1.5 0.9 2.0 16-20 1.58
60 15-20 9

Note: Lowest number indicates highest quality; in cost index, the lowest cost. Y = Yes. N - No

or None.
a Separate topping, metallic hardener.
b With acidproof membrane under mastic.
0 Creosote-impregnated end-grain lug block (Kreohte).

d Tar-Rok.
« Acidproof 21/i-in. brick.
/ 24 hr for Lumnite cement.
<7 Can be hardened if necessary, but increases tendency to crack or chip.

* For hard type.

[ Hard^t (^classify fw toughness. Will stand considerable mechanical abuse.

, Based on 1:2:4 mix. Regular 1:1:2 mix with fluosilicate wash should be appro . •

m Based on maple finish. n nil in- U in lieht = 0.019 in.

. High density; M. in. dark = 0.026 in.; M. •'«!>» - 0.011 m. X
r No available testa—probably about 0.035 in.
, No available teats, probably about 0.005 to 0.010 m. lor shale.

:c::eentdrn0arst':P::rbbt1Slino,eum, mastic tile, and magnesite may be purchased with conductive

nualitv to prohibit sparking from static discharges.

q « Moisture to extent that material cannot dry between periods.
v Not recommended.
u> Without wax or lacquer.
* Can be obtained on special order.
. Dry surfaces, designed for traffic. nermission [rom W. Staaier fed.). "Plant Engineering
* Courtesy of R. D. Rodgers; reproduced by *
Handbook," McGraw-Hill Book Company. Inc., New ,
f For thickness indicated.
CH^p g] SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 323
this type of building is hard to heat unless insulation is used on one side
of the sheet metal. However, for foundries and warehouses, sheet metal
is very largely used since heating is unimportant and low initial cost is a
major factor. Where corrosive conditions will not permit the use o
unprotected metal such as steel or aluminum, it is possible to use an
asphalt-asbestos-cement covering which will resist corrosion.
Hollow tile offers a compromise in cost between metal and heavy
masonry. The tile walls are easily, quickly, and cheaply erected and are
not unduly expensive to maintain. However, it should be understood
that they are primarily of temporary construction and subject to rather
rapid deterioration because of vibration or shock. This type ot con¬
struction is very popular for plants erected in the Northern states. It
has a further value in explosives plants in that it will disintegrate easily
upon shock. The combination of hollow-tile walls with concrete pilasters
is commonly used and results in a high-grade building of low initial cost.
Wooden walls are cheap, noncondensing, quickly erected, and easily
altered. A study of the fire hazard, corrosive action of fumes, and insur¬
ance rates will generally be enough to show whether a wooden building is
desirable for the industry under consideration. In the Southern states
wood is subject to splitting due to high humidity and temperature changes
and is subject to rapid disintegration due to termite attack.
Glass in the form of sheet-glass or metal-glass block prefabricated panel
units is used to provide large areas for transparent or diffuse lighting and
an aesthetic appearance. Over 50 per cent of the total wall area in many
industrial buildings has glass in one form or another. Ventilation can be
provided in the sash design (Fig. 8-19). In cold climates, glass can be
used to an advantage in radiant heating, but the panels should be insu¬
lated by use of a double thickness with an intervening air gap. Trans¬
parent glass panels should not be used in structures where closely con¬
trolled air conditioning is essential.

Roof
The first requirement for the roof in the average chemical plant is that
it should have a high degree ol resistance to corroding fumes; and the
second, that it should be noncondensing, or as nearly so as possible.
1 he problem is again the choice of a suitable material to meet the manu¬
facturing conditions. A roof for a building in which an explosive process
is carried out should be light and capable of disintegration upon shock.
The problem may be to resist heat, give maximum light, exclude the
weather, prevent condensation, furnish ventilation and fire protection,
and to combine any or all of the above with as strong and well-appearing
a roof as possible. Appearances, however, rarely enter into a factory
esign. 1 he steel roofs of the train sheds in our larger cities are a good
324 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

example of roofs that combine strength and lightness with unusually good
appearance.
Wood shingles or the various tar and gravel-specification roofs are easy
to erect, cheap, and of reasonably long life. In some cases, excessive
fumes may cause a rapid disintegration of the woodwork. In such cases
a more resistant roof should be installed. Otherwise, a wood-and-tar
roof is probably better for factory purposes than concrete or steel, as its
thermal conductivity is lower, thus improving working conditions, reduc¬
ing condensation, and lowering the heating costs.
Slate is noncorrodible, quickly laid, and unusually durable. It is,
however, somewhat expensive for factories and is also subject to heavy
condensation. The same objections can be applied to a tile roof. Scaf¬
folding is necessary for installation, and repairs are hard to make.

Table 8-3. Minimum Design Dead Load on Roofs*

Roof coverings Psf

Asbestos-cement corrugated or shingles. 4

Asphalt shingles. 2
Copper or tin. 1
Corrugated iron. 2
Clay tile plus mortar. 22-26
Cement tile plus mortar. 26
Composition:
4- ply felt and gravel. 5.5
5- ply felt and gravel. 6
Slate, 716 in
Skylights, %6-in. glass.
Wood shingles.

* As recommended in American Standard A 58.1-1955.

Tin copper, lead, aluminum, and zinc roofs are long-lived. They are,
however, expensive and subject to corrosion in specific cases and are,
therefore, not generally applicable to chemical plants.
Concrete, as precast slabs, makes an unusually good roof. It is not so
subject to corrosion as most other types and is fireproof. 1 he objec ions
of higher installation cost, excessive condensation, and greater u eig 1 p
unit of thickness may be enough to swing the decision in favor ol some of

is especially suited for buildings of ^

character but has nothing to recommend it for permanency. An mprov e
when .be .M.:. 1^ ' <
and in some cases asphalt and asbestos. Such a roof is cheap, last g,
easily erected, quite resistant, and largely self-suppoitmg. y »

^A^unusually durable and fireproof roof is obtained by the use of

CH\P 8] SITE PREPARATION and structures

asbestos and concrete corrugated board, which can be

nf sheet iron. Such a roof does not need paint, will not rot ana is
practically permanent. This material can also be obtained in e orm

flat shingles which can be placed over an old shingle roof. T

i. obtains by "bioh > th«t„ than
usual better insulated, and, therefore, noncondensing
The perfect adhesion of built-up roofing felts and insulation to the steel-
deck type of roof, on which such coverings are often installed, enables e
roofer to make a positive guarantee of roof service. Roofing felts do not
fracture when laid on insulated steel roof decks, as is the case with roo
decks that expand and contract during temperature changes. When
built-up roofing is applied to concrete roof slabs, a priming coat before
the laying of built-up roofing is required to ensure a good bond, whereas
wood roof decks require the nailing of built-up roofing to ensure bond.

Table 8-4. Combined Snow and Wind Live Loads, Psf

Slope of roof, deg

Section of United States
60 45 30 20 Flat

Southern and Pacific Coast. 25 23 21 18 28

Central and Rocky Mountain. 25 24 22 27 32
Northwest and New England. 26 25 22 32 38

Loads on Roofs. There are two types of load on roofs which must be
taken into consideration in a chemical building: (1) dead load, consisting
of structural load, such as roof surface, trusses, and purlins, and (2) live
load, consisting of snow and wind load. The design of roofs, columns,
and foundations is the task of the architect, and to him the chemical
engineer must go to obtain the correct design for the building. However,
oftentimes the chemical engineer is interested in rough estimates on roof
loads when some situation arises where an architect cannot be consulted
and a shelter of some type must be provided. Especially is it essential
to the chemical engineer to be able to answer a question on additional
loads on structures should replacement or new construction be considered
in an old structure. Table 8-3 contains dead-load data for roofs, exclud¬
ing steel-truss work.
For live loads, consideration must be given to the added force from
wind and snow. Simplified data for estimating these live loads appear in
Table 8-4. Additional data on weather can be obtained from the U.S.
Weather Bureau. A useful summary of temperature range and wind
characteristics for 88 cities in the United States is given in Perry’s
“ Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 46.
326 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 8

Safety and Fire Protection

Possible loss of life, property, and productivity makes the hazard

aspects of building design one of the major study areas for the plant
design gioup. Safety problems have already been discussed at length
in Chap. 2. The reader is referred to Table 2-3 as a source of regulatory
groups and information on design principles and codes for all types of
hazard protection. The National Fire Code published by the National
lire Protection Association, 60 Batterymarch St., Boston, should be
studied. The code is available in volumes:
Yol. I, Flammable Liquid and Gases
V ol. II, Combustible Solids, Dusts, Chemical and Explosives
Yol. Ill, Building Construction and Equipment
Yol. IV, Extinguishing Equipment
Yol. V, Electrical
Yol. YI, Transportation
Another excellent reference for study is Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’
Handbook,” 3d ed., sec. 30, pp. 1847-1879.
Safety recommendations in building design can be summarized in
terms of a safety check list:

1. Separate buildings to avoid spread of fumes and fires; use 50 ft or more as the
separation distance.
2. Use outdoor plant construction wherever possible.
3. Use single-story rather than multistory buildings, if possible, with fire wall
cutoffs or subdivisions for highly combustible occupancies.
4. Use as high a degree of fire-resistant construction as is economically feasible,
considering all possible losses in a disaster analysis.
5. Provide at least two exits from all confined areas, and two exits from each floor;
use emergency chutes and escape doors in hazardous areas.
6. Explosion-hazard areas should be designed for rapid pressure relief; one or more
walls or ceilings should be easily pushed out by an explosion pressure wave; score
window panels for easy rupture.
7. Eliminate all open doorways and elevator shafts.
8. Ventilation should be designed for positive elimination of harmful and combusti¬
ble fumes and for elimination of the spread of fire.
9. Provide the correct lighting to eliminate accidents.
10 Design electrical systems according to National Electric Code classification.
11. Provide safety and alarm devices, such as fire-alarm systems, combustible-vapor
detectors, flame arresters, pressure-relief venting of equipment, flame-failure
controls for oil- and gas-fired equipment.
12. Design adequate disposal systems for unwanted and hazardous residues, flamma¬
ble or dangerously reactive liquid or sludge waste.
13. Provide floor drainage to properly vented sewers or emergency holding storage
areas for accidental spillages.
14. Employ proper fire-protection equipment:
a. Water spray or fog automatic sprinkler systems
b. Reliable source of water at accessible locations
 327
SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES
CHAP. 8]

c. Well-designed fire hose and hydrant systems in terms of wato-discharge ^tes

d. Adequate emergency fire-extinguisher system (see Perry s Chemical Cngi
fleers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 1855) . t-_wav8
15. Place proper guards and warning devices on moving equipment, stairways,
ladders, platforms.
all codes which relate in any
16. Last but not least—study and design according to
way to plant design, construction, and operation.

Illumination
Correctly designed lighting throughout an entire chemical plant and its
auxiliary facilities will pay off in increased productivity and comfort of
the personnel and in reducing accidents. Good illumination requires
lighting of sufficient intensity, measured in foot-candles, without glare or
shadows. An excellent section on lighting requirements and charac¬
teristics of various lighting fixtures is found in Perry’s “Chemical
Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 1755-1759.
Lighting in Process Plants. Chemical plants call for proper lighting at
strategic points near equipment where physical and chemical hazards
exist. Recommended values of 15 to 30 foot-candles should be used.
In the control areas where lighting is needed to enable the operators to
make observations and adjust controls more accurately, the intensity
should be increased to 50 to 75 foot-candles of diffuse lighting. The
spotting of the outlets and location of desired points of illumination
cannot be entrusted entirely to an illuminating engineer. The chemical
engineer must assist him in pointing out illumination in terms of operating
needs. Each plant should be custom-designed in terms of lighting
requirements.
Details of location for conduits, complete code specifications, and other
such details are the responsibility of the illuminating engineer. Types
of switches, outlets, lights, and reflectors are chosen by him only after
consultation with the chemical engineer relative to the health, mechanical,
chemical, and fire hazards incidental to the processing.
The design of a complete factory-illumination layout for a chemical
plant is not a difficult task with standard factory electrical equipment.
I amphlets issued by manufacturers of electrical equipment, containing
specifications, details, codes, and quotations, are available and serve as
excellent guides to the designing chemical engineer. Conventional
s\ mbols (see Fig. 8-20) for indicating various pieces of electrical equip¬
ment should be used in all sketches submitted to the illuminating engineer
by ^le chemical engineer to convey to the former the requirements for the
chemical plant.
Painting. The color of surfaces within an enclosure is considered a
part ot the fundamental design of plant illumination. Painted surfaces
are essential in reflecting and absorbing light, particularly on the ceiling
328 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

Circuits : Light lines for branch] heavy for feeders

: Run concealed under floor above -

: Run concealed under floor -

: Exposed -

Outlets : Ceiling £ Thermocouple :

: Extension tl
: Drop cord to Ground :
: Fan OO
: Floor
£ © 9 Fj
: Receptacle £ Lighting: 2-termino! fluorescent

: Wall : Single 1=0 : 4-terminol fluorescent *

: Double 3=0,
: Incandescent filament
: Brocket H3
[Size of lamps indicated by numerals
: Receptacle

□
-I-® alongside symbol)

Panels : Lighting
: Heating V/////A

: Power Oi Audible signaling devices : Bell

: Buzzer

Reloy: ®
Horn, howler, /oudspeoker, siren
[Note: The following letter

Switches: Single-throw, general / combinations may be odded

to identify the symbol)
HN - Horn LS -Loudspeoker
HW - Howler SN- Siren
/
: Double -throw, general

Resistors : General —\AAA*~

'. Knife switch, generol -AWSr-
: Tapped
NC .
: Adjustable
: Push -button
-3 : Variable
NO

-f or

Fuses : General -LLD—

: Fusible element
Meter or instrument: Oor □
General
[Indicate type of instrument by letters m
circle or box)
For exomp/e:
Generator : ©
A ~ Ammeter S - Synchroscope
D - Demand
meter
l/AR - Vormeter
V - Voltmeter Motor : @
F - Frequency WH - Watt hour
meter meter
CD - Ground W- Wattmeter v-O.QOO /
detector or
PF - Power factor Transformer : rom ' o 0 CTO*'
meter
Fig. 8-20. Electrical symbols.
 329
SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES
CHAP. 8]

and upper part of the wall. Good light-reflecting paints are the white,
ii<dit yellow colors, or aluminum paints (65 per cent or greater reflectance).
The light green or light gray colors which are popular for equipment pain s
have intermediate reflecting properties (35 to 65 per cent reflectance).
Dark green, blue, brown, and black have very poor reflectance and should
be avoided as a predominating color. All potentially hazardous areas
should be painted with a standard Safety Color Code (see Perry s Ghem-
ical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 1853).

Air Conditioning—Heating and Ventilation

Industrial process air conditioning is broadly defined as the engineering

control of the temperature, relative humidity, ventilation, cleaning, and
movement of air within a process area. A study is conducted by the
plant design group and a decision is made to control all or only a portion
of the factors governing air conditioning. For example, a pharmaceutical
plant may require a complete air-conditioning system in the packaging
area to provide the customer with a clean, free-flowing hygroscopic
powder. Yet a filter press room where aqueous inorganic slurries are
being handled will require only space heaters for providing a comfortable
temperature level in the winter time and windows for cross-flow natural
ventilation.
Ventilation. Chemical processes inherently contain toxic and flam¬
mable materials which require a careful study of ventilation requirements
for each installation. In its simplest form, a knowledge of the rate of
release of hazardous vapors and dusts and the allowable safe concentra¬
tion in a known volume of the enclosed area will determine the ventilation
requirements for clean air input.
Safety Standards. The toxicity tolerance in terms of maximum allowable
concentration (generally in parts per million on a volume basis) has been
published lor a number of chemicals.1,2 The tolerance for many new
chemicals may not be established, and safe standards will have to be
worked out in cooperation with public health authorities.
Fire and explosion hazards are controlled by designing according to
the lower limit of flammability, which is the least amount of a substance
capable of sustaining flame propagation when mixed with air. Values for
individual materials are listed by the NFPA.2 3

1 A. D. Brandt, “Industrial Health Engineering,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc New
York, 1947.
2 N. I Sax (ed.), “Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials,” Reinhold Pub¬
lishing Corporation, New York, 1957.
3 National Fire Protection Association, “Fire Hazards of Flammable Liquids
Pknts“« l! Substances” and “Prevention of Dust Explosions in Industrial
J iants, GO Battery inarch St., Boston.
330 CHEMICAL
- ENGINEERING
---- PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

Dust-explosion control is more difficult to evaluate, as it depends on

the particle size, hygroscopicity, surface, and combustibility of the dust.
The lower explosive limit of air-borne dust generally ranges from 0.01 to
0.5 oz/ft:i of air. More detailed information is available from the NFPA.
When confronted with the problem of establishing the explosive limit
of mixtures of several kinds of vapors, experimental testing according
to ASTM standards is required. A reasonable estimate can be made
according to the following equation:

1
Sm = (8-3)
Xa/Sa + Xb/Sb

where Sm = lower flammability limit of the mixture as per cent in air

xa, Xb, etc. = volume fraction or mol fraction ol combustible vapors
a, b, etc., on an air-free basis
Sa, Sb, etc. = corresponding lower flammability limit of vapors a, b, etc.,
as per cent in air
Design of Ventilation Systems. Air in controlled area ventilation is
supplied by a positive- or negative-pressure system, the positive-
pressure system is generally used for complete air conditioning in non-
hazardous areas. A controlled volume ol clean heated oi cooled aii is
blown into the room through non-draft-inducing distributors at velocities
from 400 to 1,500 fpm. Air is removed by suction ducts placed to avoid
short circuiting. The exhaust air is generally cleaned and recirculated
with make-up air to save on heating and cooling requirements. Air
losses are always outward with no infiltration of ambient untreated air of
a possible hazardous nature. This system is often used in explosion¬
proofing small rooms or equipment.
The negative-pressure system, is used to prevent leakage of hazar ous
fumes from an enclosure to cleaner surrounding air A suction system is
provided which draws in clean ambient air, often over heating or cooling
fins, and discharges it through the blower to treating equipment and/or
dispersion stack in this once-through system. Air should be treated by
cyclone separators, washing towers, air filters, or electrostatic precp tu¬
tors where air pollution is a possibility or where recovered fumes would
have some economic value (see Perry’s “ Chemical Engineers
3d ed pp 1013-1050). Intake and exhaust ducts should be placed t
'■ void’short circuiting of the fresh air required for dilution and mixing
purposes. Safety codes for installation “
from the National Fire Protection Association and the National

B-eneral room ventilation is commonly used but ofte

The air-inlet rate is established either from recommended values
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 331
CHAP. 8]

changes per hour in the enclosure (Table 8-5) or by material balance

calculations, using allowable safe concentration limits when dealing with
hazardous vapors.
Table 8-5. Recommended Air Changes

Type of building Minimum air changes per hr, C

General offices. 4-6

Mill buildings. 4-6
Toilets (restricted use). 5
Toilets (public use). 10
Conference rooms. 8-10
Machine shops. 8-10
Power houses. 10-15
Chemical process enclosures. 10-30
Chemical laboratories. 10-30

By use of Table 8-5 the air-inlet rate is established as

R = JVC (8-4)
where R = air rate, cfh
V = enclosure volume to be ventilated, ft3
C = minimum air changes per hr (see Table 8-5)
/ = factor of safety (always greater than 1)
When dealing with a hazardous material, the air-inlet rate can be calcu¬
lated as follows:

ra = frh - 1^ (8-5)

where ra = air rate, mols/hr

rh = hazardous material input within the entire enclosure, mols/hr
S = lowest limit of hazard, considering both flammability and
toxicity; mol per cent hazardous material per mol of air plus
hazardous material if a vapor
/ = factor of safety (always greater than 1)
It is often possible to reduce air-input requirements by removing the
hazardous material at the point of discharge by local ventilation. This
lowers the rh value in Eq. (8-5), which assumes possible disposal of hazard¬
ous material within the entire enclosed volume of the enclosure being
ventilated. Hoods and exhaust ducts are placed over such equipment as
open filter presses, pulverizers, open tanks, and over laboratory benches
and equipment to catch the maximum amount of vapor or dust without
interfering with normal operation and maintenance. Local air velocities
in the region of pickup will depend on density of the hazardous material
01 1 s par ic e size if a dust or fume. Air velocities greater than 200 fpm
fun,/ho I emP yf6d for_illdustrial operations, while chemical laboratory
fume hoods range from 70 to 125 fpm when fully opened.
332 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 8

Temperature and Humidity Control. Ventilation requirements must

be met to create a safe working environment. Comfort and process
requirements in terms of temperature and humidity of the air must also
be fulfilled. The quantity of comfort controlled air required on a once-
through system is often prohibitive if ambient air conditions deviate
from room requirements to any great extent. In the winter the air would
be heated; in the summer the heat duty on an air-conditioning or -cooling
system, where specified, would be excessive unless a recirculation-
treating system were used. The summer internal heat load for a com¬
plete air-conditioning system is the load-determining factor, as winter
requirements are invariably smaller.
Heat Load. The heat load within an enclosed structure consists of the
following major factors:
1. Conductive heat transmission through the building structure: the
maximum plausible temperature difference between the enclosure and
the surroundings is used in conjunction with heat-transfer coefficients
for various materials and areas of building structure walls, windows,
partitions, floors, ceilings, and roof. Heat-transfer coefficients for build¬
ing and insulation materials can be found in Perry’s “ Chemical Engineeis
Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 457-458.
2. Solar transmission through the building: sun effects are difficult to
calculate; one practical method is to use conductive heat transmission
and increase the temperature difference 25°F on roofs and 15°F on side
walls in northern climates with 35°F on roofs and 20°F on walls in southern
climates. . , . _i
3 Heat load of occupants. Heat and moisture output from perso
depends on activity of the individuals and ambient room conditions; use
500 Btu/hr per person for a design basis. . , .
4. Heat load from lighting. Use 3.41 Btu/hr for each watt of lighting

111 5H°Heat^loaffrom ‘motors. Use 2,545 times actual brake horsepower

dividX tootac.iorm, motor efficiency (0.80 to 0« or .0 motor,
within the enclosure. This gives motor heat load in Btu/hr.
f, ffeol loud /ront otter Th» «" ’

CZ’£nSi-t humidity control „ ..moved by

coo,m6 systems brmed on meehonio.i ££*•
isee Perry’s “Chemical Engineers Handbook, 3d eel., PP

Maken^ion?ngansystUeZdlify availatl^ ^Sepamte heathj systems use

steam from the power plant, or small

anmlfhot-blast or unit heaters provided in many

 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES
CHAP. 8]

applicat ions where local heating in large buildings or complete heating

of small enclosures is required.

Personnel and Service Facilities

In planning toilets, locker rooms, and other facilities for the service and
convenience of employees, factors that have a direct effect on operating
and maintenance costs may be even more important than those governing
initial costs. Proper layout and distribution of such facilities, for
instance, may save enough of employees’ time to offset any differential in
initial costs, while the selection of materials and equipment that require a
minimum of janitorial services and maintenance will show corresponding
economies.
First-aid and hospital facilities, required to keep pace with industrial
safety programs, can be met economically with compact unit layouts
using standardized hospital equipment. Substantial savings can be
made by anticipating the need for private treatment rooms and multiple
facilities at the outset.
Facilities for in-plant food service can be held to a minimum cost by
careful planning and the adoption of staggered schedules. When it is
advisable to provide large central cafeterias, their cost may be reduced by
designing them for efficient alternate uses in employee training, recrea¬
tional, and community functions.
In office buildings and research laboratories, clear spans of 50 to 60 ft
permit a degree of flexibility that makes it possible to maintain efficient
layouts in the face of changing needs. As in production areas, permanent
walls are held to a minimum and removable partitions are installed
wherever privacy is essential. The character of work and personnel
represented by the occupancy of such buildings frequently makes it
advisable to include air conditioning for maximum control of working
conditions.
Ihe wide range of service facilities normally required by chemical
leseaich and development laboratories can frequently be met at maximum
economy by providing central pipe galleries and service trenches. Addi¬
tional service facilities which may be required and for which industrial
building contractors must provide are listed in the following:

Electrical:
Transmission line to site
Cost of any changes to substation from which transmission lines are run
1 ower generation
Steam:

Boiler house, including buildings, equipment, piping, and other accessories

Steam line to site
Yard distribution piping
334 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 8
Water:
\\ ater intake and supply facilities
Water storage
Water treatment
Cooling towers
Line to site
Yard distribution piping
Fuel gas:
Line to site
Yard distribution piping
Fuel oil:
Fuel-oil storage and handling
Line to site
Yard distribution piping
Compressed air:
Air compressors
Line to site
Yard distribution piping
Sewers:
Lines from site
Yard sewer piping
Fire protection:
Water line to site
Elevated water-storage tank, fire pumps, etc.
Yard distribution piping
Fire-fighting equipment
Sprinkler installations
Other fire protection facilities
Miscellaneous:
Office furniture and equipment
Laboratory furniture and equipment
Cafeteria furniture and equipment
First-aid equipment, etc.

COST ESTIMATING FOR PLANT SITES AND STRUCTURES

A simplified approach for estimating site and building costs in terms of

installed equipment costs was given in Chap. 6 (see fable (i-5). A moie
detailed analysis of these costs is given in the sections which follow.

Site Costs
Site Search and Investigation. A search for a plant site involves the
selection of the plot of ground best suited to the production and distribu-
tion problems of any given manufacturer. It is a painstaking problem
whose many ramifications cannot be overlooked; in many instances, it is
the most significant step in the plant construction program. ns is
especially true in the chemical industries, because of their great depend-
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRI- (11 RES
CHAP. 8]

such factors as the sources of raw material and the power and
ence on
water supply (see Chap. 7). ,
The price range of costs of searching for and investigating sites depen s
entirely on how exhaustive the plant owner wants to make it. Sites
without too specialized qualifications can be found at relatively low cost,
sometimes for less than $5,000. If highly specialized requirements are a
factor, the cost may be many times more.
Land Values. Surveying a plant site is a negligible cost factor for the
average chemical plant. Generally, sites are confined to 20 acres or less,
and even the most detailed surveys can be completed within a week.
Land values vary according to location. In rural areas, land can be
purchased for as little as $200 an acre; in industrialized areas, costs run
as high as $10,000 an acre.
Preparation and Landscaping. Preparation and grading of plant sites
is influenced by the terrain and the locality of the site. In hilly areas,
site preparation is costly. The same is true if existing structures must be
demolished. The cost of this part of a building project usually is slightly
less than one-half of 1 per cent of the total cost of the project in
ordinary cases.
Landscaping costs may vary too. If elaborate landscaping is desired,
experts are called in and even very small plots will require expenditures of
several thousand dollars. If only a grass covering is desired to keep dust
from blowing into equipment and buildings, costs will be considerably
less.
Roads, Parking, and Yard Service. Parking areas, with a black top
surface, generally range from $3 to $5 per square yard, depending on the
terrain. A similar yardstick may be applied to roads. Railroad sidings
usually range from $10 to $15 per lineal foot in today’s market; these
figures include grading, ballast, ties, track, and an average number of
switches. Another consideration that may be counted on is fencing.
The chain-link type of fence is almost standard. Its cost may be com¬
puted at the rate ol $3 to $4 per foot, depending on the number of gates
and on site conditions.

Building Costs

The decisions affecting building costs involve the number of buildings

and stones. Here the fundamental approach should be that of over-all
economy, with the efficiency of the process, manufacturing operations, or
other functions taking precedence over first cost.

an expensive building, the

336 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 8

important point is to avoid these higher costs if they contribute nothing

to the operational efficiency.
Recognition of certain basic principles of building layout can help the
design engineer make judicious decisions. The fundamental principle is
to secure minimum total building costs (amortized first cost, plus main¬
tenance and operating cost of building services). The total required

Table 8-6. Cost Estimates for Buildings (1958 Prices)*

Erected cost of bare shell
including foundation
(add required services and
equipment costs from Sec. II),
I. Type of structure S/ft2 of floor area

Single-story:
Mill buildings for chemical processing
Prefabricated; steel frame, side walls and roof; concrete floor 6
Custom-designed, steel frame, masonry side walls with
glass sash, concrete floor, fire-resistant roof. 14
Warehousing
Prefabricated mill building; steel frame, side walls and roof;
concrete floor, 2,500 psf loading. 4
Reinforced concrete, highly fire-resistant. 9
Laboratories, 10-ft ceiling height
Custom-designed; steel frame; masonry, glass and/or
metal panel side walls; concrete floor; fire-resistant roof
Offices, 10-ft ceiling height
Custom-designed; steel frame; masonry, glass and/or metal
panel side walls; concrete floor, fire-resistant roof.
Multistory:
Chemical processing, 14-ft ceiling height
Structural-steel framing, masonry walls, concrete o , ^

Reinforced concrete, masonry walls, concrete floor an 1 ^

roof, 2-10 stories high.. • • 7 ; '
Warehouses, 2,000 psf loading on floors 16-ft ceding height g
Strnrtural-steel frame, walls and roof.;' ''V ..
“reed concrete, highly fire-resistant, 2-10 stones high 11
Laboratories, 10-ft ceiling height
Custom-designed; steel framing; masonry glass and/ ^
metal panel side walls; concrete ^^TlVrtrc'resistant 22
Custom-designed, reinforced concrete, higij

‘tsrsssa1®—«n sr **"“ -
metal panel side walls; concrete floors and roo .

* For further information see the following:

Figures 8-21 and 8-22^ ..Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation,” McC.raw-
R. S. Aries and R. D. JNewton
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,, •
Engineering News-Iiecord, Oct. 24, 1957, p. •
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES
337
CHAP. 8]

Buildings (1958 Prices) (Continued)

Table 8-6. Cost Estimates for
S/ft2 of floor area
II. Additional costs of services and equipment
4.00
Air conditioning (including heating).
Electric lighting:
1.25
Process buildings and laboratories.
0.90
Offices.
0.70
Warehouses.
1.30
Heating (excluding main heating plant).
3.00
Plumbing (excluding process piping).• • • ..; • ■ ; * *
Fire-prevention equipment: alarms, extinguishers, sprinkling
0.80
system.
4.00
Office equipment.
Laboratory equipment:
12.00
Control laboratory.
15.00-25.00
Research laboratory.

plant floor area should be provided in the minimum number of buildings

and with the minimum number of floors. The ultimate preference is the
single-story structure if land is available.
Costs of Single-story vs. Multistory Buildings. For the purpose of
comparison, it is customary to express building costs on a square foot or
cubic foot basis. These unit costs are influenced by many factors: the
type of construction; local labor, material, and contracting costs; the
size of the building; the ratio of wall perimeter to floor area, etc. A unit
cost for one building should not be used in estimating the cost of another
unless the conditions are similar. The only reliable method of obtaining
building costs for a final cost estimate is to have a set of prints made up
by the architects and get a firm bid price. For estimating building costs
from plant layout plans, as discussed in Chap. 5, a fair degree of accuracy
can be achieved by use of information such as given in Table 8-6. Com¬
parative costs for different types of construction and layout are shown
in Figs. 8-21 and 8-22. From these data it is obvious that multistory
buildings are 20 to 40 per cent more expensive than a single-story building
with the same basic construction materials.
Foundation and Excavation Costs. One can safely figure piling (wood,
concrete, or steel) at $2 to $7 per linear foot in place in ground which will
permit straight and easy driving. Excavation costs of soft dirt or clay
for the average small foundation for machinery or buildings are of the
order ol $3 to 85 a cubic yard. Wooden forms for concrete can be placed
at 80.50 to 81 a square foot. For heavier foundations these figures will
average as follows: excavation, 82 a cubic yard; forms, 80.75 a square foot;
and concrete, 820 a cubic yard. A concrete conduit tunnel will cost
approximately 820 per running foot, whereas a larger walking tunnel
averages 845 per foot. *
338 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 8

In a preliminary estimate, it is not customary to give separate estimates

for the foundations required for each unit of equipment. An estimate
for all the equipment foundations located in the yard and all the founda¬
tions situated in each building is sufficient. Equipment foundation costs
may be estimated either as a percentage of the cost of all equipment
supported on the foundations or from the number of cubic yards of
concrete required and by applying a unit price to this quantity. Similar
considerations apply to equipment supports. The square feet of plat¬
form required for equipment access and the approximate weight of the

!4‘
14

f5^ <4'
A t5 ii ^
2-60' aisles 4-60 aisles 4-30 aisles

Fig. 8-21. Comparative construction costs for the same gross floor areas as provided
by three different building layouts. [Courtesy of G. A. Bryant, Chem. Eng., 54(5):
114 (1947).]

equipment support on mat structures are estimated from preliminary

arrangement drawings, and a unit price applied to the mat area. Sup¬
ports that are tied into the mat framing may be estimated separately as
a percentage of the cost of equipment requiring individual supports.

Indoor versus Outdoor Construction Costs

A breakdown of costs of two plants, each designed for indoor and out¬
door construction, is shown in Table 8-7 to illustrate the distribution ol
costs in the two particular cases. , , nWnts
The structural cost differential between indoor and outdoor pte^s
normally approximates the difference in over-all plant cost, ^e.e the
amount of equipment surface requiring insulation “icre‘)lses gU'^ o' g ■

the plant is installed outdoors, detailed knowledge of the process

required to obtain realistic cost figures.
 SITE PREPARATION AND STRUCTURES 339
CHAP. 8]

Fig. 8-22. Comparative construction costs for similar buildings as affected by varia¬
tions in fenestration and roof structure, (a) Continuous wall sash and flat roof, 100
per cent; (6) continuous wall sash and monitor, 109 per cent; (c) continuous wall sash
and saw teeth, 111 per cent; (d) no sash except vision panels, 105 per cent. {Cour¬
tesy of G. A. Bryant, Chem. Eng., 64(5): 115 (1947).]

Table 8-7. Comparison of Investment Cost Distribution for Indoor

and Outdoor Plants
 CHAPTER 9

Process Auxiliaries

As shown in Chap. 6, preconstruction economics does not require a

thorough study oi such important design areas as piping, instiumentation,
control, and power systems. These areas of chemical plant design must
be considered in detail when finalizing the plans for putting a chemical
process into commercial production. This chapter will highlight the
design principles of these process auxiliaries which by and large are the
highly specialized areas of chemical engineering and require a backlog
of education and experience to do this type of design woik.

PIPING

Piping is used as a general term referring to any type of closed conduit

for transportation of fluids. In chemical process industries, piping can
be considered as the arteries and veins of the plants supplying the life-
giving fluids essential to keep the plants running. Even m those plan
handling mostly solids, finely divided solid material it| quite' “
handled by piping as are ordinary liquids and gases. £ Qf the
pointed out that piping costs can run as high as 50 to P
cost of equipment to which the piping is connected.
Some of the usual piping design problems facing the chemical engine

aT. Choosing the correct material according to experience and estab-

U1edSeledctlng the most economical pipe size to handle a given flow

3. Layout of pipelines for ease of accessibility, proper drainage, and

mi1XcttnSof The belt'valves ^specific service conditions

 PROCESS AUXILIARIES
341
CHAP. 9]
5. Selection of suitable means for joining piping and sealing joints
6. Selection of anchors, hangars, and other supports to prov ide piopei
installation and life service requirements
7. Specifying an economic insulation where required
8. Determining proper outside pipe colors for identification
9. Preparing detailed and accurate cost estimates of piping systems
In the past several decades, piping design was a relatively simple
matter. The engineer set the pipe size from flow considerations, picked
the pressure classification from simple formulas oi lating tables, and
provided the draftsmen with flow sheets from which to make piping lay¬
outs. Thermal expansion was provided by installing loops of pre-
established movement if necessary. Details of branch connections,
attachment of structural supports, and anchors were left to the construc¬
tion crews. This way of handling piping still is generally workable
where mild service conditions exist and low-carbon steel piping can be
readily adopted.
Today the demands of a highly competitive and expanding economy
have led to complex processing conditions which add a host of new prob¬
lems to piping design. Higher pressures require either heavier pipe walls
or stronger materials. The increased strength might be produced by use
of new materials, alloying, heat treatment, or cold work in the case of
extended pipe. Broadening the temperature regime introduces prob¬
lems of creep at high temperatures and notch brittleness at low tempera¬
tures. More severe corrosion conditions, economic demands for fuller
utilization of material strength, and installation to avoid fatigue are
other design complexities.
Where flammable, toxic, lethal, or otherwise dangerous fluids are to
be conveyed, safety in piping design is a prime consideration. Striking
an economic balance between piping costs and loss of life or property
resulting from minimum design standards cannot be met by a simple set
of design lules. Specifications have been worked out by experienced
designers in the form of codes, many of which have legal and, therefore,
mandatory statutes.

Explanation of Codes

Any body of published piping design requirements which is national

in scope of application is defined as a code, though it may bear the title
oi regulations, rules, or specifications. Though chemical engineers may
not be deeply involved in design by code specifications, it is important
from a supervisory standpoint to have a basic familiarity with codes
related to piping design. Tables 9-1 and 9-2 summarize the principal
codes aiadable. Since these codes are constantly being revised in the
g of new materials and research findings, engineers specializing in
342 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
Table 9-1. Sources of Information on Standards and Codes*

ASA American Standards Association. Standards for pipe, pipe flanges, and
fittings. Published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
29 W. 39th St., New York.
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. Standards for
pressure vessels and all ASA standards.
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia.
Standards relating to metals.
AISA American Iron and Steel Institute, 350 Fifth Ave., New York. Steel prod¬
ucts manual.
MSS Manufacturing Standardization Society of Valves and Fittings Industry,
420 Lexington Ave., New York. Standard practices.
API American Petroleum Institute, 1205 Continental Building, Dallas. Oil¬
piping design standards.
FSSC Federal Specifications. Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
Metallic piping standards.
USN U.S. Navy, Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, and/or Bureau of Ships,
Washington, D.C. Specifications, standards, plans, and publication
legally required for USN work.

* An excellent summary of codes and pipe material specifications is given in “ Piping

Engineering,” Tube Turns, Division of National Cylinder Gas Co., Louisville, Ky.

piping design should obtain the latest code information by writing to the
various organizations listed in lable 9-1.

Selection of Piping
ASTM specifications are available for well over 150 different types of
materials which can be used in the manufacture of pipe and tubing.
Perry1 lists properties and size of pipe and tubing for 4/ different mate¬
rials and the reader is advised to study this section of the handbook
thoroughly. However, an explanation of piping nomenclature an
fabrication methods provides the necessary background requirement 01
studying the working in the field of piping design.
Methods of Fabrication. The methods used in making tubulai piod-
ucts are welding, casting, extrusion forging, cupping and Ple^
Welded steel pipe is either butt-welded for pipe under 2 n. or lap ''el

rs i,: i -- x sr "s
,, a.' f..,. m>,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New tort, D50.
 343
PROCESS AUXILIARIES
CHAP. 9]
Table 9-2. Important Codes for Piping Design

ASA B 31.1-1955 Code for Pressure Piping

1. Power Piping Systems
2. Gas and Air Piping Systems
3. Oil Piping Systems
4. District Heating Piping Systems
5. Refrigeration Piping Systems
6. Fabrication Details i
a. Pipe Hangers, Supports, Anchors, Sway Bracing an
Vibration Dampeners
b. Pipe Joints Other than Welded
c. Expansion and Flexibility
d. Welding of Pipe Joints
e. Welding Branch Connections and Fabricated or Case
Specials
7. Materials—Their Specifications and Identification

USN 21Y Code for Installation of Power Plants

API 600 Valve Standards
ASA B 2.1-1945 Pipe Threads
ASA B 16b-1944 Cast-iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Class 250
R1953
ASA B 16.5-1953 Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
ASA B 16bl—1931 Cast-iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings (for 800-lb hydrau¬
R1952 lic pressure)
ASA B 16.9-1951 Steel Butt-welding Fittings
ASA B 16.11-1946 Steel Socket-welding Fittings
R1952
ASA B 16.20-1950 Ring Joint Gaskets and Grooves for Steel Pipe Flanges
ASA B 16.21-1951 Non-metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges
ASA B 26-1925 Fire-hose Couplings (Screw Thread)
R1947
ASA B 36.19-1952 Stainless Steel Pipe
ASA B 57.1-1953 Compressed Gas Cylinder Valve Outlet and Inlet Connections
ASA B 60.1-1950 Refrigerant Expansion Valves
ASA (no symbol) Tolerances for Cylindrical Fits (a primer—not a standard)

under high pressure. Lap welding gives a stronger joint and, hence, is
specified for larger pipe.
Seamless pipe is stronger than welded pipe because its wall is uniform
throughout. It is made by piercing a circular steel billet at a sufficiently
high temperature to maintain plastic flow. This is done on a piercing
mill which contains two compression rolls to compress the billet radially
with the hole size being controlled by an inner piercing mandrel. The
product from this operation is put through dies to adjust diameter and
wall thickness to final tolerance specifications. Short lengths of heavy-
wall seamless pipe are made by forging a central opening into a hot
circular billet with forge hammers.
Thin-wall tubing of various materials can be made by cold-drawing
crude seamless pipe from piercing mills through a mandrel-die machine.
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

Ductile mateiials such as copper, lead, and plastic can he made directly
by extrusion of solid rod material.
Casting is generally applied to brittle materials. The molten metal
is poured into vertical or horizontal stationary sand molds. By rotating
the mold, a centrifugal casting is produced with a stronger homogeneous
wall than that produced by stationary casting.
Pipe Strength and Wall Thickness. The American Standards Asso¬
ciation has set up specifications for wall thickness by schedule number
based on the following formulas:
ps
Schedule number = 1,000—f (9-1)
As-

t
Schedule number = 2,000 (9-2)
Dm

where Ps = internal working pressure, psi

Ss = allowable stress, psi
t = pipe wall thickness, in.
Dm = mean diameter of pipe, in.
Allowable stresses for various ASTM code steel pipes at different tem¬
peratures are listed in Perry’s “ Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,’ 3d ed.,
pp. 1650-1651, and ASA B 31.1 Code for Pressure Piping. For example,
Ss is 6,500 for butt-welded and 9,000 for lap-welded carbon-steel pipe at
temperatures up to 250°F.
Ten schedule numbers are used: 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140,
and 160. Only schedule number 40, 80, 120, and 160 are stock items
for steel pipe under 8-in. size.
Nominal Pipe Size (NPS). Piping is specified in terms of a nominal
pipe size or diameter which is related to an outside diameter independent
of the schedule number or wall thickness. This is required to ensure
interchangeability of fittings. The nominal pipe size of steel pipe ranges
from to 30 in. For 14-in. or larger steel pipes, the nominal pipe size
is the outside diameter. The nominal value is slightly less than the
outside diameter for 3- to 12-in. pipe but for very small pipe the actual
outside diameter is much larger (see Perry’s “Chemical Engineers Han -
book ” 3d ed., pp. 415-417). Pipe of other materials is also made with
the same outside diameter as steel pipes for the same NPS to permit
interconnecting of pipelines and substitution of alloy fittings and valves

The size of tubing is indicated by the outside diameter. 1 he wall

thickness is specified by the BWG (Birmingham wire gauge -
from 24 (very light) to 7 (very heavy). Sizes and wall Jckne
tubing are listed in Perry’s “Chemical Engineers Handbook, 3d ed.,
pp. 417, 424-438.
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES
345
CHAP. 9]
Ferrous Pipe. Ferrous materials account for a large part of all the
piping in process industries. Carbon steel remains the heavy-tonnage
piping material, but the chrome-nickel and high-chrome alloys have been
moving rapidly ahead. Commercial steel pipe, or black iron, is made of
a low-carbon steel specified under ASTM specification f • ■ 1S ™ „
in “random lengths” averaging 22 ft and “double random lengths
averaging 44 ft. It commands a premium for specified lengths, bpeciti-
cation A120 covers a similar steel when galvanized. For higher-tem¬
perature service, lap-welded and seamless steel pipe are produced from
a low-carbon steel containing under 1 per cent manganese (ASTM
specification A106). Line pipe specified by the American Petroleum
Institute is of quite similar composition.
A large number of alloy steels can be secured in the form of piping,
some primarily for temperature and creep resistance, some for corrosion
or oxidation resistance. Small percentages of molybdenum or molyb¬
denum and chromium are added lor temperature and creep resistance.
Increasing the percentage of chromium in such steels tends to increase
the corrosion resistance. Such steels also contain small percentages of
silicon. Many of them are covered by ASTM specification A335. In
a somewhat similar range of alloys specified under ASTM A333, the
substitution of moderate percentages of nickel for the chromium and
molybdenum permits the use of the steel for low-temperature service.
Austenitic stainless alloys containing 8 per cent or more of nickel and
16 per cent or more of chromium are produced in many types. In the
form of pipe or tubing, among the available austenitic stainless alloys
are AISI types 304, 321, 347, 316, 317, 309, and 310. The lighter
schedules 5 and 10 are more commonly used than the heavier schedules
40 and 80. In addition to the austenitic stainless, the high-chrome
ferritic steel type 430 (16-18 Cr, no Ni) finds considerable piping use
for high-temperature oxidation resistance, for example, in tube stills and
catalytic cracking.
Cast-iron pipe is made by pit casting and centrifugal casting. The
latter gives a denser, stronger product by eliminating blowholes and
impurities. Cast-iron pipe has not yet been fully standardized. The
American W ater \\ orks Association has had regional standards for water
pipe and fittings for many years, as has the American Gas Association
for gas piping. ASA now has approved standards for centrifugal-cast
pipe. Pit-cast pipe made under the AWWA standards is produced in
eight pressure classes for hydrostatic heads from 100 to 800 ft and in
nominal diameters from 8 to 84 in. The AGA standards apply to cen-
tnfugally cast pipe for pressures from 100 to 250 psi and in sizes from
3 to 24 in. nominal diameter. Cast-iron pipe is also produced in iron
pipe size, with the same outside diameter as standard steel pipe in sizes
34G CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
from 1 Yi to 12 in., and for pressures of 125 and 250 psi. Either cast-iron
water and gas pipes are made with plain ends for use with special mechan¬
ical couplings which will be described later, or they are provided with
cast-011 bell-and-spigot ends for caulked joints or with cast-011 flanges for
bolted and gasketed joints.
The most commonly used special cast irons for process applications
are the high-silicon cast irons. These alloys, duriron and durichlor, are
too hard for machining and so must be cast and ground. They are made
in inside diameters from 1 to 8 in. using cast-011 flanged ends, and from
1 to 12 in. with bell-and-spigot ends for use in drainage systems.
Nonferrous Pipe and Tubing. Nonferrous pipe and tubing in general
come in size ranges from to 12 in. in diameter and specified wall
thicknesses, and in quite a variety of metals and alloys. Commercial
copper and red-brass pipe conform in outside diameter to steel pipe,
although the inside diameters differ; weights include both standard and
extra-strong wall pipe; such pipe may be threaded.
The copper and alloys group includes materials known as commercial
copper, brass, bronze, and cupronickel. Usual red brasses for pipe and
tubing have 15 per cent zinc. The term bronze generally includes a group
of alloys in which zinc is largely or entirely displaced by other metals such
as tin, aluminum, or silicon, with copper usually making up 90 per cent
or more of the composition. Cupronickel or copper nickel covers a range
of high-nickel alloys with 10 to 30 per cent nickel. Copper and brass
type B tubing have outside diameters equal to those of NPS pipe but
wall thicknesses close to that of the intermediate grade of water tubing.
Tubing is also made in outside-diameter sizes with wall thicknesses
expressed in decimals of an inch or by the BWG or Stubbs gauge system.
Nickel, monel, and Inconel are produced in both NPS and outside-
diameter tubing types, generally in sizes from about V2 t° about 4 in.
and in a variety of tempers, depending on the type of use. Some of the
other high-nickel alloys such as the Hastelloys can be secured as pipe,
generally produced by casting. Hastelloy cast pipes come in % to 4 in.
NPS size, with wall thicknesses closely corresponding to extra-stiong
steel pipe’. Some of the Hastelloys are made in thin-walled tubing by
rolling and welding. . , ,
Aluminum seamless pipe and tubing are produced in a variety of
compositions, including such alloys as 38, 61S, and 63S. Pipe is made
to the same dimensions and thicknesses as standard and extra-strong
iron pipe; tubing sizes are rated by outside diameter and B\\ G wall.
Bot h drawing and extrusion are used in making aluminum tubular prod¬
ucts. Aluminum bronze alloys of the Ampco group are made m sched i
40 and 80 pipe from M to 4 in., schedule 20 in larger sizes. Condenser
 347
PROCESS AUXILIARIES
CHAP. 9]
chemical lead, antimonial lead, and tellunum lead. I he first is t
commonly used, except where the greater mechanical strength of the
alloy materials is needed. Pipe sizes are rated by actual inside diameter

and by wall thickness. From four to six wall thicknesses are pioduc
in each size. For applications where the lead needs remforcemen ,
various weights of lead linings are installed in standard steel pipe, in
sizes from H to 12 in. Three lining methods are used: (1) low-cost
method of expanding the extruded lead sleeve into the steel pipe, without
bonding; (2) bonding the lead sleeve by heat and pressure to the pipe
through use of a bonding alloy applied to both the lead sleeve and the pipe
interior; and (3) casting the lead in place with the pipe and aiound a
mandrel.
Tantalum may be formed into tubular products by lap or butt wielding
or by seamless drawing. Such tubes are thin-walled, in a variety of
thicknesses, and cannot be threaded. Lap-welded tubing is made in
inside diameters from % in. up, and butt-welded from 1 in. up. Seam¬
less tubing is produced in a range of wall thicknesses in inside or outside
diameter from to 2 in.
Nonmetallic Piping and Tubing. For many years the process field
has used numerous nonmetallic materials for pipe, valves, and fittings,
among them ceramics, glass and fused silica, glass-lined steel, carbon,
asbestos-cement, rubber, and plastics. Chemical stoneware is used for
corrosive service in pipe with bell-and-spigot, conical flange, cemented-on
metal flanges, and cast-on threaded plastic sleeve joints. Chemical
stoneware fittings, lubricated and nonlubricated plug cocks, stoneware-
body diaphragm valves, and a variety of low-pressure dampers are avail¬
able. Porcelainware pipe is available with cemented-on metal flanges
and conical flanged joints, ells, tees, crosses, caps, reducers, sight-glass
fittings, and packed expansion joints. In Lapp Y valve construction,
a combined plug and stem is used which passes through a deep stuffing
box equipped with a lantern gland, sometimes packed with Teflon wredge
rings, sometimes armored with fiber-glass bonded cloth for critical loca¬
tions. Armoring for stoneware pipe, fittings, and valves is becoming
common in the stoneware and porcelain industry.
Industrial glass (Pyrex) pipe and fittings come with specially heat-
treated ends said to be 2L> to 3 times stronger than ordinary glass.
Lengths of pipe and fittings are connected by conical flanged joints with
an interface gasket and molded inserts. Available glass fittings include
spacers, slip joints, ells, tees, crosses, laterals, return bends, reducing
fittings, angle spigots, and straight-through plug cocks. Adapters are
available for connecting to metal pipe and tubing and to glass-lined pipe.
Glass pipe armored with glass-fiber tape and epoxy resin is a recent
development.
Standard Pfaudler glass-lined pipe is made in NPS sizes from to
 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

12 in. for 150 psi working pressure. Joints are a modified Van Stone
joint with forged low-carbon steel flanges with gaskets. Fittings include
ells, tees, crosses, return bends, reducers and reducing flanges, hose
connectors, adapters, and valves which use a porcelain disk and seat,
although stainless and Hastelloy can be supplied for these parts and for
the stem.
Impervious graphite or carbon pipe is manufactured in nominal diam¬
eters from 1 to 10 in., with threaded, cemented, and flanged joints; the
joint assemblies are cast-iron split flanges with through bolts and a
flexible packed coupling using neoprene seal rings. Fittings include ells,
tees, crosses, plugs, caps, couplings, nipples, collars, reducers, all-carbon
globe valves with Teflon packing, and diaphragm valves, with neoprene
or Teflon diaphragms.
Standard Transite pressure pipe for water and process use is furnished
with a sulfur-base cemented cast-iron flanged hub. Fittings are fabri¬
cated of steel and lined with transite, produced in equivalent flanged
ells, tees, crosses, laterals, packed expansion joints, and reducers used
with steel pipe.
Soft rubber is supplied in the form of flexible rubber pipe with rubber-
flanged ends, often internally wire reinforced if used in suction service.
Rubber linings ranging from semihard to soft can be installed in fittings
and ferrous pipe. Rubber-lined pipe, fittings, and valves have flanged
ends with the lining carried out over the flange. Hard-rubber and hard-
rubber-lined screwed or flanged pipe, fittings, cocks, and gate and
diaphragm valves are available. Available rubbers include natural
rubber and various synthetic rubbers.
Plastics. Types of plastics used in piping are cellulose acetate butyrate
(Tenite II), polyvinylidene chloride (Saran), reinforced phenolics (such
as Haveg), polyethylene, rigid polyvinyl chloride (unplasticized), poly¬
ester-glass fiber products, and glass-reinforced resin. Saran tubing,
rigid Saran pipe, fittings, and diaphragm valves, Saran linings swaged
into steel pipe, cast-iron and c&st-steel fittings, and in plug and diaphragm
valves, are available in some types up to 6 in. Polyethylene pipe, valves,
and fittings come in sizes of ^ to 2 in. Rigid polyvinyl chloride pipe
and fittings come with threaded, flanged, and cemented joints. Tenite
II pipe and fittings are joined by solvent cementing. Glass-reinforced
Permanite furane resin pipe and fume ducts can be joined with glass
fabric and resin cement wrappings, or the pipe can be supplied wi
enlarged ends to take a special cast-iron split flange.
Criteria for Selection of Materials. The optimum selection is gen-
erally an economic one based on experience of the design engineer bac -e
by code specifications. Alloy steel and nonferrous and nonmeta he
materials have become standard for specific services. Essentially
 qaQ
CHAp 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES

same type of study of materials selection made for process equipment

is applicable to piping (see Chap. 4). . .
Fabrication and erection costs must be considered in selecting piping
materials. Some inexpensive material might require expensive installa¬
tion and joining costs as well as high maintenance costs. On the other
hand, expensive alloy pipe material lasting well beyond the expected
obsolescence period of the process would not be justifiable except where
product quality is lowered by corrosion product contamination.
Pipe Sizing by Internal Diameters. The types of problems in fluid
flow which usually confront the piping engineer are:
1. A new line or system is to be designed for handling a given rate of
flow. Find the optimum diameter of pipe.
2. The capacity of an existing line is to be increased or other conditions
affecting flow are to be altered. Find the pressure drop as a function of
flow rate.
3. Both line size and flow are established; find pressure drops over
the entire line or between certain points as a check on available pump or
compressor capacities.
Students in a plant design course will have had a basic understanding
of the fundamentals of fluid flow and will have undoubtedly solved prob¬
lems under each of the above categories. A summary of conventional
methods can be found in any undergraduate chemical engineering unit
operations textbook. Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed.,
pp. 369-396, gives an excellent treatise on fluid flow, and the following
tables and nomographs from this handbook are of particular use in
piping design:
Pages

Nomograph for solving pipe flow problems. 379

Compressible flow charts. 380, 381
Fanning friction factors. 382
Economic pipe diameter. 385, 386
Friction loss in screwed fittings. 390

Since construction of new plants will generally involve problems of

H pe 1 and since this is probably least emphasized in undergraduate
courses, the economic approach will be discussed further.
In choosing the inside diameter of pipes to be used, the selection should
be generally based on costs of piping and pumping. Small-diameter pipe
costs less but pumping costs are excessive. Conversely, larger-diameter
pipelines will have too high a fixed capital charge even though pumpino-
costs are reduced. This suggests an economic balance as a first approach!
A complete discussion of this economic balance method is given in Perry’s
C hcmical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 384-385, with a nomo-
graph for turbulent flow conditions on p. 386.
350 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
1 lie design equations for ordinary industrial process conditions using
steel pipe are: 1>2

Type of flow Inside diameter, D{ Design equation for /),

Turbulent ^ 1 in. Di = 2.2w0-45p~0'31 (9-3)
Turbulent < 1 in. D{ = 2.5iy°-49p-°-35 (9-4)
/ ic\°'36
Viscous ^ 1 in. D< = 1 -9 (-J Me018 (9-5)
( w\0A0
Viscous < 1 in. = 2.1 pc°-20 (9-6)

where w = mass flow, thousands of pounds per hour

p = density, lb mass/ft3
U-C = viscosity, centipoises
Representative values for an economic fluid velocity expressed as
feet per second in various size pipes are given in Table 9-3.

Table 9-3. Economic Fluid Velocity, Fps

Viscous flow, Turbulent flow

Pipe
viscosity, centipoises density, pcf
diam¬
eter,
NPS 50 60 70
0.01 0.1 10 100 1,000 1 10 40

1.0 0.3 10 4.8 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.7

1 38 10 3.1
0.5 11 5 3.4 3.2 3.0 2.9
2 40 21 1.5
0.8 13 6 4.1 3.8 3.6 3.4
4 45 24 2.5
1.3 15 i 4.5 4.3 4.1 3.9
8 54 28 4.1

For unusual conditions such as expensive alloy piping, high installation

and maintenance costs, low hourly operating time per year, a separate
study should be made [see Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,
3d ed., p. 385, eq. (32)]. . . . .
The considerations which lead to an economic pipe diameter are not
always realistic, based on plant experience factors. Future changes in
demand, corrosion and fouling, and absence of pumping costs m gravity
feed lines are factors not taken into account. In many
selection should be made on practical experience factors as illustiatc

The values are representative, not mandatory, as u"usu^l c<^|4l^°^

may dictate velocities well outside the indicated ranges. I he d.recUon
will generally lie toward lower velocities and larger pipe sizes.

i R. P. Genereaux, Ind. Eng. Chem., 29: 385 093 A (194o).

. B. R. Sarchett and A. P. Colburn, Ind. Eng. Chem., 32. 1-49 (I
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES
CHAP. 9]
Table 9-4. Practical Fluid Velocities in Pipeline

Velocity, fps,
Di = inside diameter,
Type of fluid Type of flow
in.

Pump inlet 1.3 + O.lOTh

Thin liquids, water, alcohol, etc.,
Pump discharge 4 + 0.5 Di
ixc < 10 cp
Pipeline, pumping 5-7
Pipeline, gravity 0.5-1

Pump inlet 0.2 + 0.05D;

Viscous liquids, heavy petroleum
Pump discharge 0.5+ 0.\Di
fractions, nc > 10 cp
Pipeline, pumping 1 +0.5 Di

50-100
(lases * . Low pressure <100 psig
High pressure >100 psig 100-200

* For better values for steam, see Fig. 9-1.

particularly true for small pilot plants where the use of small line sizes
based on economic methods would result in almost immediate clogging
by dirt, sediment, and corrosion products generally present in this type
of work.
Choosing the Final Pipe Size. When the inside diameter for flow has
been determined, the next problem in piping design is to select a pipe
material and a size which closely approximates the desired inside diameter
and has a safe wall thickness to withstand internal working pressure.
The schedule number is found by Eq. (9-1). If severe corrosion is
anticipated, a larger schedule number should be used than calculated by
the stress formula. Pick a nominal pipe size with the specified schedule
number which will give an inside diameter for flow the same or slightly
larger than obtained by fluid-flow calculations or experience factors as
described above. This method will be illustrated by an example.
Example 9-1. Specify the correct pipe size and material for a high-pressure water
line operating at 250°F and handling 20,000 lb of water per hour at 1,500 psia. Seam¬
less piping of ASTM Serial Designation A106 is required by state code.

Calculation of schedule number:

Ss = 11,000 (Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” p. 1650)
Ps = 1,500

Schedule number = ^00 X l’fM) = 136 ^ 160 [from Eq. (9-1)]

11,000
Calculation of D;:
Density of water = 58.8 lb/ft3 @ 250°F
From Table 9-4, velocity in pipe = 6 fps

0.7854
m X 6 = ;

Di = 1.68 in. ID
20,000
8,600 X 58.8
352 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
The closest stock pipe is a 2-in. nominal pipe size, 160 schedule, 1.689 in. ID (Perry’s
“Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., p. 415).
If the economic pipe diameter method is used, then, by Eq. (9-3),

/on 000\ 0 45
Di = 2,2 \1 00(7) (58.8)-0-31 = 2.38 in. ID

This would require a 3-in. nominal pipe size. Experience factors here would dictate
the smaller 2-in. NPS for this installation.

Process Steam Piping

Steam-pipe design problems are common in refineries, chemical process¬
ing plants, and power plants. Since steam is a compressible gas handled
at high temperatures and pressures, fluid-flow calculations are somewhat
more difficult to handle. This section will discuss methods of sizing
steam pipelines.
Steam is delivered from power plants at pressures above 150 psig, but
many chemical plants operate with pressures of 15 psig or less. Black-
iron (steel) pipe is ordinarily used for steam, except where specially
constructed equipment may be necessary, such as thick cast iron to with¬
stand corrosion. When oil is the heat-transfer medium for high-tempera-
ture processing, equipment not especially constructed for high-pressure
work can be used. . f
Steam-reducing and Regulating Valves. Jacketed equipmen o
many kinds, for which the safe working pressure is 15 to JO lb, is common
in chemical plants. In order to bring steam down from the line pressure,
a reducing valve is necessary. This is placed in the service line between
the feed and the equipment. To assist in repairing a reducing valv e,
which often leaks or becomes unseated, a bypass should always be mad e
round he reducing valve. Such a bypass is best provided with a globe

=r ttnsrtr csBarsas -
in the service lines and equipment. Such ®0' ” b[e * withstand
destructive consequences shou^ ^ equipment should be
the pressure. 1 hereto , , f nressures in accordance
provided with pop safety vaives adjus e indicates leakage
with the eauipment m use. -ft- p<>ppa & ’
at the reducing or shutoff valves and the nee or repa for
Selection of Steam-pipe S “. Compre. ^ commercial practice the

des^gner'usuall^dws1 not'have time to derive his own formulas, nor can

3.53
Pounds of steam /hr

Fig. 9-1. Steam velocity chart. (Courtesy of J. M. Spitzglass, Republic Flow Meter Co., Chicago, III.)
354 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
he usually spare time to make tests or trace back through extensive
mathematical transpositions for proofs. Instead he must select a stand¬
ard formula, apply it to the work at hand, and check the results against
those of some other well-known formula. Or, if tables and graphs are
available, he will use such of them as will apply to the problem in question
(see Fig. 9-1).
The velocity chart (Fig. 9-1) is a great timesaver in calculating veloc¬
ities, discharge, and size of pipe required for given conditions of flow of
steam.

Example 9-2. Allowing a velocity of 5,000 fpm, what size of pipe is necessary to
deliver 8,000 lb of steam per hour at 120 lb gauge?
Solution. Trace the 5,000-ft velocity line to 120 lb gauge on the chart. From the
intersection, follow horizontally to 8,000 lb of steam per hour. Read the nearest
size of pipe, namely, 4 in.
The probable drop or loss of pressure is dependent upon the velocity of flow, length
of line, number of turns in fittings or valves, and the covering of the pipes.

Pressure-relief Systems
The loss of operating control of a process will sometimes occur, par¬
ticularly on start-up of a new process, failure of the cooling-water system,
or accidental fire exposure. These conditions develop excessive pressuie
in the piping and process equipment which cannot economically be
designed for containment of fluids under such abnormally high piessures.
Therefore, a pressure-relief system must be designed for adequate fluid
discharge from a system building up abnormal pressures. Piping codes
specify design requirements; the ASA Code for Pressure Piping states:
“The combined discharge capacity of the pressure relief or safety devices
and their location shall be such that the maximum allowable working
pressure of the piping system shall not be exceeded by more than 10 per
cent when the pressure relief or safety valves are blowing. e| ie*e
or safety valve should be located adjoining, or as close as possible to,

Pressure-relief ° Devices.
Spring-loaded pressure-relief valves and
rupture disks of thin sheet material are available from manufacturers
see “Chemical Engineering Catalog”). When using pressure-rehef
disks, a strictly noncorrosive material must be specificbecause of
reouirement of maintaining strength in very small thicknes .
ol Pressure-relief Sysiems. M,

S™ ”,'p”s.»re-relie.
skstsss
device «. be ,ppr„iniafed -
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES
355
CHAP. 9]

Discharge coefficient, C

Relief valve Rupture disk

Vapor . 0.95 0.80

T.innid . 0.40 0.60

Atmospheric venting close to the equipment is sometimes possible on

nonhazardous fluid operations or at heights where the contaminant would
be satisfactorily air-dispersed, e.g., a relief valve on top of a tall fraction¬
ating tower. Safe disposal of large quantities of fluids requiies such
devices as burning pits, water-quenching towers, or 100- to 200-ft-high
flare towers containing a pilot flame. The discharge piping from the
relief device to the disposal equipment should have a line size at least
as large as the relief valve outlet and a total pressure drop not exceeding
15 per cent of the discharge pressure. Further references for study of
pressure-relief systems are available.1

Other Piping Hardware

Pipe lengths are generally limited to 22 ft so that long runs of pipe or

short lengths with directional change require connection by use of
threaded fittings (up to 3 in. NPS) or flanges. Recent piping practice
employs bending and circumferential butt welding of the piping at the
plant site. Other auxiliaries which require connection to pipelines are
valves, flowmeters, steam traps, side-line drawoffs. All these fittings
are rated by ASA code on internal system pressures of 25, 125, 250, and
800 psig for cast iron and 150, 300, 400, GOO, 900, 1,500, and 2,500 psig
for steel. Adequate description of these hardware items is given in
Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed.:

Pages
Pipe joints, flanges, and fittings. 441-447
Process valves. 447-451
Control valves. 1326-1328
Gaskets. 451-453
Flowmeters.

Piping Layout

I he pipe designer has been given process and engineering flow sheets
and equipment layout drawings with or without scale models. He has
c osen pipe sizes and materials according to the methods discussed in

in,! f Syl™nder and D'L- Katz, The Design and Construction of Pressure Reliev-
ng stems, Umv. Mich. Eng. Research Inst., Bull. 31, 1948.
356 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
previous sections of this chapter. The next job is to design a layout of
this piping to meet the following requirements:
1. Easy and economical installation
2. Operation accessibility
3. Ease of inspection, maintenance, and replacement
4. Protection of the piping system from physical or thermal shocks
5. Minimum stress and fatigue from thermal or vibrational environ¬
ment by providing well-designed flexibility
6. Adequate support and anchorage without handicapping accessi¬
bility to equipment or piping
7. Safety codes followed to the letter
Piping Flow Sheets. All the process and utility piping is shown on
engineering flow sheets. A typical type of engineering flow sheet is
drawn in Fig. 3-9. Lines are coded according to a system which makes
piping design identification and procedures easy to follow. The code
system shown in Fig. 3-9 is:
O 102 3"
Fluid designation Line number Nominal pipe size
Fluid designations are convenient letter symbols for the various fluids
handled in the process. Lines are numbered from one piece of equip¬
ment to another. This system allows recording of various lines on forms
for identifying such items as flow rate, pressure, temperatuie, class and
rating of line and fittings, material and labor costs take-offs, etc. Valves
can be identified by a suitable code number on both the flow sheet and
specification sheets.
Layout by Scale-model Method.1 In Chap. 5 the use of models for
equipment layout was emphasized. This method is highly recommended
for piping layout as well; experience with this method has shown that
piping design costs can be reduced as much as 40 per cent and piping
installation costs by 5 to 10 per cent. Piping layout drawings are made
after some juggling, using wires on the three-dimensional scale mode ,
has been done.
Some piping layout rules based on design experience are:

, —meskvs »r —■15 -* -
3; —*■

4 Avoid^overhead ^layout fo/SS l-than jt (NFS: ~tural reason,

5; For below-ground piping in trenches, prov.de fire stops and drams.
1 W. N. Troy, Petroleum Processing, 9(2): 224-220 (12o4).
CHAP 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES 001

6. Allow space for extra piping which is invariably required after operations start;
provide for future plant expansion if possible. .
7. Allow space for other utilities such as service lines, instrument line ducts, and
electrical conduit lines.
8. Valving design and layout considerations are:
a. All valves, particularly large ones, should be readily accessible from floor level
or platforms.
b. Valves on lines discharging into open tanks should be located so that the opera¬
tor is not exposed to splashing or fumes.
c. Use a blocking valve of the gate or globe type behind check valves which invari¬
ably leak.
d. Use double block valves on lines where service on a portion of the line must be
supplied while equipment is being removed for repair on another part of the line.
e. Locate emergency dump valves and discharge lines a safe distance from the
operating area outside of process buildings.

The most economical layout usually results in a lane or shadow design

in which all of the north-south piping is located at one elevation and
all east-west piping at another elevation. This allows for future expan¬
sion or modification without interference. Key lines and large expensive
piping are positioned first for the shortest, most direct route. Smaller
pipes and auxiliary systems, such as steam tracing or jacketing to keep
process lines hot, are then fitted in. After all piping and auxiliaries are
installed on the model, representatives from various design groups study
the model for corrective suggestions. Whereas only one or a few ways
of rerouting piping can be seen on two dimensions even by experienced
piping designers, a multitude of ways are apparent on the scale model and
all of these ways can be tested in a matter of minutes. Accessibility
can very easily be checked by this procedure.
A general agreement on piping layout can be reached speedily by this
method of attack. Then piping drawings can be made up for use in
cost estimating, field fabrication, and installation.
Piping Drawings. Chemical engineers should be familiar with the
general systems used in making piping drawings. Diagrammatic draw¬
ings are most frequently used to represent piping layouts for architectural
plans, plant layouts, or small-scale drawings or sketches. Fittings are
shown by approved ASA symbols (Fig. 9-2) and piping by a single line,
regardless of diameter. An example of a diagrammatic piping drawing
is given m Fig. 9-3. For more exact layout work, diagrammatic drawings
in more than one view are required (Fig. 9-4). The usual orthographic
projection in plan and elevation is at A. By swinging all the piping in
one plane as at B, a clearer view is often obtained. Isometric or oblique

theTavoutS ^ ^ employed for a clearer understanding of

I he general rules for dimensioning drawings hold for pipino- plans

but there .re .Mtion.l point. m,y be
858 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
CHAP. 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES
3G0 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES 361
CHAP. 9]
362 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9

AMERICAN STANDARD GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS FOR PIPING

Air conditioning
28 Brine return —-br- 52 Low-pressure return-

29 brine supply b jj low pressure sieom

30 Circulating chilled CH j*7 iviorvc up w(ji“r

or hot-water flow
31 Circulating chilled _cnn ._ 55 Medium pressure__+_y_
or hot-water return return
32 Condenser water 56 Medium oressure
flow L steam
33 Condenser water_
return Plumbing
... cci
34 Drain d j f A CIO WU STc

35 Humidification line H 58 Cold water -

36 Make-up water 59 Compressed air

37 Refrigerant discharge RD bU urinKing wuicr iiuw

38 Refrigerant liquid RL b 1 DrinKing-water reiurn

39 Refrigerant suction Rs 62 Fire line F

63 Gos G 6
Heating
64 Hot water -
40 Air-relief line
bO MOT WO Ter rciuiii
41 Boiler blow off
66 Soil, waste or leader ____
42 Compressed air A (above grade)

43 Condensate or vacuum _0_0-0 — G7 Soil, waste or leader_

1 (below grade)
pump discharge
44 Feedwater pump _OG-QO-00 — 68 Vocuum cleaning v v
discharge
■■ - FOF-—- 69 Vent
45 Fuel-oil flow

46 Fuel-oil return F0R Pneumatic tubes

70 Tube runs
47 Fuel-oil tank vent-F0V

48 High-pressure return —+ * * Sprinklers

71 Bronch and head °"“
49 High-pressure steam
50 Hot-water heating- 72 Drain s s
return
51 Hot-water heating-- 73 Main supplies
supply

Fig. 9-2 (continued).

CHAP 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES

figures to the centers of pipe, valves, and fittings, and let the pipe fitters
make the necessary allowances. Dimensions of fittings can be found in
Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 432-450. II a
pipe is to be left unthreaded, it is well to place a note on the drawing
calling attention to the fact. If left-hand (LH) threads are wanted, this

Fig. 9-3. Piping drawing, diagrammatic. (T. E. French and C. J. Vierck; by 'per¬
mission from “A Manual of Engineering DrawingMcGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York.)

fact should be noted. Wrought pipe sizes can generally be given in a

note using the nominal sizes.
Flanged valves, when drawn to large scale, may have the over-all
dimensmns given, including the distance from the center to the top of

ie 'to Ilf! T When, °Pen and Wh6n Cl°Sed’ t*e diameter

vheel, etc. Separate flanges should be completely dimensioned, as
364 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9

should all special parts. It is necessary to locate the piping, so that the
parts of the building containing the piping must be shown and must be
accurately dimensioned. The relative location of apparatus and pipe
connections should be given by measurements from the center lines of
machinery, distances between centers of machines, heights of connections,
etc.
Final drawings should be made after the equipment, boilers, and other
machinery have been decided upon, for they can then be drawn com¬
pletely and accurately. At least two views should be drawn, a plan and

Fig. 9-5. Schematic dimensioned piping drawing. ( • . ren ’ u B £

by permission from “A Manual of Engineering Drawing, Sth ed., McOrau
Company, Inc., Aew i ork.)

an elevation. Often extra elevations and detail drawings

Fverv fitting and valve should be shown. A scale of !8 m. to the loot
' S“e to piping d,swing. .h.n it «. b. t»rf, -» » » ««•

^"typical'diagrammaUc sketch with dimensions for the piping m n

symbols (Fig. 9-2). These can be coior-coded, using so oie

spond to ASA color-codes (see Table 9-1 ).
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES 365
CHAP. 9]
A second type of piping drawing is often prepared where large-diameter,
close-fitting piping layouts are required. These are called piping scale
layout drawings. They are also used where parts are cut, threaded, and
shipped to the job from a remote source of supply. Figure 9-6 illus¬
trates a typical scale drawing. Dimensions of fittings can be found in
Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 432-450, or any
engineering drawing text.

Fig. 9-6. Scale layout piping. (T. E. French and C. J. Vierck; by permission from
Manual of Engineering Drawing,” 8th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc
Few York.) ”

Piping Stress Design

Stresses which develop in process piping and the attached equipment

under operating conditions are the result of two effects: first, pressure
and gravitational forces exerted internally, externally, or inherent in the
fabrication and erecting process; second, thermal expansion and con¬
i'1 action of the piping and equipment materials. For example, a 1,000-ft
length of carbon-steel pipeline, 16-in. NFS schedule 40, carrying oil at

before sTart udXPTh! ^ 100°F temperature conditions

before stait-up. I he compressive stress developed in the pipe, if it were

r/oF6 Th "8 ll 7 ^ h°th 6ndS’ WOuld be I70>000 PSh or 260

I■ , . his is well above the yield strength of carbon steel and a failure
would occur unless some method of stress relief were provided n the
des.gin Furthermore, the total weight of piping and liquid is220 < 00 lb
which requires a support design. The manner in which forces^Tsueh
magnitude are to be reduced and handled safely and economically justifies
366 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

a thorough analysis in most cases. Piping design engineers are respon¬

sible for limiting the magnitude of compressive and tensile forces and
bending and torsional moments on process equipment and associated
piping.
A complete presentation of stress and flexibility analysis and design in
piping systems is beyond the scope of this book. This section will serve
as an introduction to the subject, and references for more detailed study
will be included.
Internal or External Fluid-pressure Stresses. A safe design can be
made by use of ASA B 31.1 Code as explained in the section on Pipe
Strength and Wall Thickness [see Eqs. (9-1) and (9-2), p. 344].
Departure from normal steady-state ope^tion can be anticipated.
A few such conditions are:
1. Pulsations from reciprocating or unbalanced centrifugal pumps
2. Water hammer due to a sudden valve-off or plugging
3. Overpressure of boiling liquid resulting from fire or loss ol process
control
The design pressure is usually set slightly higher to anticipate such o\ er-
loads, and incorporation of pressure-relief valves on associated equipment
is required design practice.
Piping-material Stresses. These stresses remaining in the material
by fabrication or erection can be relieved by annealing or change of pio-
cedure. Purchasing from a reliable manufacturer who uses modern
manufacturing and inspection methods is the best way to eliminate the
fabrication problem. Construction practices for welding, fastening, and
inspection as outlined in the Code should be strictly adhered to.
Thermal Stresses. The problems created by temperature stresses
are much more difficult to analyze than the other piping stresses because
of the many assumptions to be made and the inherent complexity o
rigorous force and stress calculations. Detailed references on the subject
are available lor further study. <
Thermal Expansion Effects. Changes in pipeline temperature cause
expansion or contraction. When the pipe is not restramed dimen ional
changes occur with no new stresses added (l‘ig. 9-/a). II IP'
r «Piping Engineering,” sec. 4.0, published by Tube Turns, A Division of National

Cylinder Gas Co., Louisville, Ky. . f Mechanical Engineer-

2 AS A B 31.1 Code for Pressure Piping, American Society for Mechanical g

intTNheeWMYWk Kellogg Co., “Design of Piping Systems,” 2d ed„ John Wiley & Sons.

Inc., New York, 1950.

4 Catalogue 53, Crane Co., Chicago. n

**for Flexibi,ity with

Charts,” Blaw Knox Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.
 367
PROCESS AUXILIARIES
CHAP. 9]
■e— Contraction
Expansion —>■
[o) I

<- Thrust Thrust-Hi

I 1

Short\ rests ton t branch

moy cause overstress at
junction with main line

(0

id)

High end reactions from

stiff line may cause buckling
of thin vessel shell

(e)

EOt !/.// '////.

condition

Cold condition
c:
c: <b*0
Pocket will not drain 2
if) <0

F+ig- 9_7;. TyP^al conditions caused by thermal stresses in piping without proper
stress relief design. (Reprinted by permission from Tube Turns' Piping Engineering
aper 4.01 Introduction to Piping Flexibility Problems copyright 1950.)

restrained from movement, large stresses are set up with the pipe and its
supporting structure (Fig. 9-7b). The free expansion in terms of inches
per 100 It relative to 0°F can be obtained from Perry’s “Chemical Engi¬
neers’ Handbook ” 3d ed tablo 1 n aia Tv L S
. u ea*> laDle E P- 413. 1 he coefficient of expansion

bvT200 *’18 6d fr°m the tab‘e by dividing the exPansion Per degree
368 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
- PLANT DESIGN
-- _-- [chap. 9

Example 9-3. Compute the free expansion of 1,000 ft of a schedule 80 steel pipe
in heating from 100 to 750°F. From Perry’s “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,”
3d ed., table 1, p. 413,
(8.36 - 0.76)0,000)
Free expansion = 76 in.
100
Example 9-4. Compute the coefficient of expansion in Example 9-3.

8.36 - 0.76 = 9 7 x 1Q_6 in /(in )(oF)

e =
(750 - 100) (12 X 100)

Stresses and forces developed in restrained piping are computed as

follows:
Se = Ee AT (9-7)
F = SeAp (9-8)
where Se compressive pipe stress, psi
E modulus of elasticity, psi. (see Perry's “Chemical Engi¬
neers' Handbook,” 3d ed., table 4a, pp. 1539-1541)
e coefficient of expansion, in./(in.)(°F) (see Example 9-4)
AT temperature change, °F
Ap cross-sectional area of pipe wall, in.2
F expansion thrust or force, lb
Typical calculations will show that temperature differences of 170°F will
create forces about equal to the yield strength of carbon steel, whereas
temperature differences less than this value will cause the undesirable
condition pictured in Fig. 9-7c to /.
Increasing pipe-wall thickness will not remedy overstress as it v ould in
the usual fixed-load static problem; in fact this tends to increase the forces
and moments at the ends [see Eq. (9-8)]. Undesirable thermal stiess
conditions can only be relieved by proper flexibility design.
Flexibility Design. Flexibility in piping systems can be provided by
two basically different methods:
1. Expansion absorbing devices in straight-line layouts between two
fixed terminals . , .. __
2. Piping layout to provide departure from straight-line connections
between two fixed terminals
Expansion joints which cause the piping to behave as two free-end sys¬
tems are illustrated in Fig. 9-8a. These units are expensive and are gen¬
erally used only where space is limited. An additional feature of the
corrugated or bellows joint is that it does not transmit vibration. S p

Flow resist-
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES 369
CHAP. 9]

Elementary corrugated joint

(£) Space or multiple-plane bends

1

•—Hj—•
[g) Double U bend
(e) Z or offset bend

To cold spring, pipe is cut short

\Ond_sprungJnplace, cousing flexure.

J^derexponsion, flexure is reversed.

(h) Cold springing

design r«Ucf !n t"I,inK layout

Introduction to Piping Flexibility Paper
370 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

Corrugated-pipe designs shown in Fig. 9-8b behave structurally as an

intermediate between a bellows joint and straight pipe. They are also
intermediate in price and require tie-rod support to keep the corrugations
from straightening out under creep conditions. Such expansion designs
are limited to short-expansion, straight-line requirements.
The most common and economical method of providing flexibility in
one or more non-straight-line layouts is pictured in Fig. 9-8c to h. These
designs are based on the rule that departure from a straight-line neutral
axis connecting two fixed points creates an improvement, with the tie
members, such as welding elbows, furthest removed from the neutral
axis contributing most to the flexibility. By running lines in more than
one plane (Fig. 9-8c) a 30 per cent increase in flexibility is achieved, since
the tie members are in torsion rather than bending.
A comparison of the controlling stresses in the various uniplanar bends
shown in Fig. 9-8d to g with the basic square L bend dimensions gives their
relative effectiveness for stress relief as follows:
Square L bend. 1.0
Z bend. 0.84
U bend. 0.12
Double U bend. 0.04

Offsetting the improved effectiveness of the U bends is the resulting

increase in pressure drop.
A method allowable under the Piping Code is known as cold springing
(see Fig. 9-8h for one typical example). The pipe is initially placed under
tension by deliberately cutting one or more joints short and closing by
springing The final compressive stress of heating the pipe to operating
temperature is thus reduced. The Code allows a cold-springing credit
equivalent to one-third the total expansion. . .
Mathematical methods of analyzing stresses in complex piping layouts
are completely rigorous, time-consuming, and costly, despite adaptation to
high-speed computers. The short-cut methods with charts used m most
design firms are still too complex to be included in the scope ot this boo '
and the reader is referred to the detailed references listed on page 366.
Model testing using strain gauges is often used by large pipe t cmgn
firms to solve complex piping designs and verify mathematical methods
and assumptions when a high degree of accuracy is required.

Piping Installation
Since piping systems are usually not self-supporting, piping design must

T
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1956.
—'*****■
CH AP 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES °'A

Principles of Layout to Facilitate Support and Maintenance. Some of

the principles of piping layout to effect an economic support design arc.
1. Group pipelines to minimize the number of pipe supports, restraints,
and braces.
2. Locate lines near other required supports such as building wall and
flowing supports.
3. Make the piping system self-supporting as far as practical within
flexibility requirements.
4. Additional supports or restraints may be required to avoid excess
amplitude of movement or vibration (e.g., vertical pipelines which require
only a bottom support for sustaining the weight).
5. Route piping from compressors or vacuum pumps which are prone
to vibrate on supports independent of other process piping and use rests
or sliding supports which provide some damping capacity rather than
hangers.
6. Pipeline should be sufficiently close to the support point so that con¬
nection has adequate rigidity.
7. Piping from upper connections on vertical vessels is advantageously
supported from the vessel to minimize relative movement between sup¬
ports and piping; hence such piping should be routed next to the vessel
and supported close to the connection.
8. Route piping beneath platforms near major structural members
favorable for adding loading of the piping.
9. Provide sufficient space for accommodating the support assembly
and for its maintenance.
10. Route very large lines to make short and direct runs, even though
it means skewing at a sacrifice in appearance, to save on piping and sup¬
port costs as well as operating expenses.
11. Provide adequate headroom and drainage.
Some of these points will be discussed further.
Typical Supports for Piping. A high percentage of the piping in
modern chemical process plants is carried on structural steel pipe sup-
poits. Figure 9-9 is an example of a typical outdoor support for multiple
group piping using horizontal steel beams supported by structural steel
stanchions. Similar indoor construction under flooring and platforms
can be designed by use of a hanger as pictured in Fig. 9-l(M. Examples
o ot ler manufactured hangers and supports are shown in Fig 9-10
Thesp are generally cheaper than field fabricated hangers for single pipe

Design of Overhead Piping. In designing such piping structures the

c ealance and gradient or slope are primary considerations. The head-
room required over railroad tracks usually is 20 ft and may need to be
more to accommodate locomotive cranes. Plant roadways and power
mes also require headroom consideration. Overhead piping should be
372 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9

Portion of insulation simply

cut away on moderate

Fig. 9-9. Section through typical outdoor overhead pipe rack showing arrangement
of north-south runs at two elevations and east-west runs at an intermediate elevation.
(Reprinted with permission from The M. W. Kellogg Co., "Design of Piping Systems,
2d ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1956.)

set on a grade so that it will drain to avoid air pockets or low places which
may freeze or permit the deposition of sediment.
When the nominal height of the piping above ground has been decided,
the proportioning of spans is the next factor, i.e., whether to use more
posts and shorter spans or fewer posts and longer spans. Sweeney is-
cusses this design problem in terms of weight of pipe and its contents and
wind loading, together with drainage-deflection conditions. Allowable
span length can be computed from a formula for a continuous beam wi i
maximum bending moments at the supports:

i R. J. Sweeney, Chem. Eng., 63(3): 199 (1956).

 c.
<53
C>3
c -S?
CD <o
-«5
<353
<o c; <5sCh
Cs
<5> C. -k i ^ C: .53
«c C3 ^ * £ <b <5h CD
<13
(j H cj _<5>l- S'IS CD* <5 <
5 S C3 CD<5 <cd
<D ^3 ^D < ■Cd V.
C: "Cd Ch
r-. c. .CD .5 <a c.
cd 5
CD
<5
COO -S>
-Cl5> $8£ -5?c* <o -ci5s "Cd<5
C Q > C: e, , CD CD
^ Q kj ^ <0 <0 QQki
CD -Cl Cd ~Cd <53 •<- C>i -<5

Fig. 9-10. Typical pipe hangers.

373
374 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

where L = span length, ft

W = total loading per unit length, lb/ft
S = maximum fiber stress, psi (approx. 20,000 psi for carbon-steel
pipe)
I = moment of inertia, in.4
D0 = outside radius of pipe, in.
The elevation over span length L required for proper drainage is

2.26ITPL4
e = (9-10)
~nr
where e = elevation over span length L, ft
Wp = weight of empty pipe, lb/ft
E = modulus of elasticity, psi (approx. 3 X 107 for carbon-steel
pipe)
These formulas are satisfactory for pipe sizes larger than 2 in. Table 9-5
summarizes the important data for designing overhead piping, using
carbon-steel schedule 40 pipe filled with water, and wind loading in excess
of 100 mph. Pipes smaller than this show larger deflections due to plastic
deformation at point of support (see Catalog 53, Crane Co.). It is best
not to use overhead design for piping less than 1 in. If the support pole
elevation for long lines becomes excessive on level terrain, it is better to
drop the line periodically to the low limit and add a low-level drainage
connection.
Table 9-5. Design Information for Overhead Piping*

Loading, lb/ft Eleva¬

Nomi¬ Load at
Span tion
nal support
OD, I, Wind, length between
pipe Total poles,
in. in.4 Pipe L, ft supports,
size, Water horizontal lb
WP W
component ft
in.

8.11 37.2 0.82 302

2 2.375 0.0003.05 1.45 3.01
14.20 49.2 1.14 700
3.500 3.0177.58 3.22 3.40
3 1,140
3.91 20.20 50.5 1.18
4 4.500 7.233 10.79 5.50
30.20 08.0 1.14 2,480
0.025 28.14 18.97 12.54 4.09
0 1.12 4,320
21.70 5.15 55.30 78.0
8 8.025 72.49 28.55 6,910
5.31 79.92 80.0 1.08
10 10.75 100.7 40.48 34.13
104.0 92.0 0.98 9,500
48.70 5.74
12 12.75 279.3 49.50

* Abstracted from It. J. Sweeney, Chem. Eng., 63(3): 199 (1950).

Design of Underground Piping. Laying a pipeline in a tunnel (1)

reduces the heat losses and insulation costs, (2) does not occupy valuable

r±7 5K.™r, it » a good rule to c.n.ide, .1 the d,,ad„n-

 PROCESS AUXILIARIES 375
CHAP. 9]

tages before installing pipe underground. Leakage, which would be diffi¬

cult to locate underground, is virtually certain to occur in chemical lines
' sooner or later. This would require frequent inspection and would make
repairs difficult. When piping must pass under certain obstacles, e.g.,
under a concrete roadway or a shallow stream, it should be installed in
such a manner as to permit it to be withdrawn readily for replacement.
Underground piping is also subjected to the usual underground corrosion.
The tunnel should be built below the frost line to avoid movement of the
line. Pipe supports installed in an underground trench or tunnel are usu¬
ally of simple design—the roller, wedge, or common pipe or bar.
Steam lines and returns, all hot-water lines, and any hot chemical lines
that run outside the power plant or between buildings can be run under¬
ground. These lines may be insulated by a special system of underground
insulation.
Erection of Piping and Supports. The design engineer is frequently
called in to assist with and observe the adequacy of the piping installation.
For this reason he should familiarize himself with field practice methods.
The permanent pipe-support structures are usually positioned first to
minimize temporary rigging. A large majority of the process piping is
shop or field welded and tested so that long sections can be dropped in
place to avoid overhead welding or other difficult handling in the con¬
struction area. Minor plastic deformation of piping and structural sup¬
ports is tolerated, particularly on cold-springing design for flexibility stress
relief. Pipe is first aligned at the more critical locations; then the inter¬
mediate stations are adjusted by pulling into alignment with or without
heat treatment at locations away from girth welds. Ring or muffle gas
burneis are used advantageously for the required uniform heat treating,
whereas torch heating must be applied by at least two continuously
moving torches to give even heating.
During start-up, the performance of all supports, restraints, and
braces should be checked and adjustments made to avoid fatigue failure
and unusual distortion with possible leakage.

Insulation

1 he object of insulation is to prevent an excessive flow of costly heat to

the surroundings from piping and equipment in which heat is generated
-toied, or conveyed at temperatures above the surrounding temperature’

E “ i*r" r T*,or
age nom high- or low-temperature surfaces.
«•— •J-t »S”:
Insulation is just as useful

muPstebeenkept at ^ °y! ^ fr°m the outside to Aerials which

Til si hP * v te™Peraturcs below that of the surroundings.
section tmUve diebackground in h*at transfer so that this
“ g‘Ve the applled ^ correctly selecting, installing
 *
Table 9-6. Characteristics of Thermal Insulation Materials
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379
 Table 9-6. Characteristics of Thermal Insulation Materials* (Continued)

* By permission of R. Thomas and W. C. Turner, Chem. Eng., 60(6): 222 (1953); supplemented by information from W. C. Turner, Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Company
t R, rigid; BF, blankets or felts; C, cements; SR, semirigid,
t Suitable for shop prefabrication.
 381
CHAp Q] PROCESS AUXILIARIES
AUAlblMUiiO

and maintaining insulation. (For review, see Perry’s “Chemical Engi¬

neer’s Handbook,’ 3d ed., sec. 0.)
Types of Insulation Available. There are numerous types and iorms
of insulation available. These can be classified according to temperature
levels of operation:
1. Low temperature—below room temperature; used in refrigeration
service (see Table 9-G)

2. Medium temperature—from room temperature to 1900°F; most

piping insulation for heat savings falls into this classification (see Table 9-6)
3 High temperature—above 1900°F; refractory ceramics available in
molded forms or can be cast in place. Metallic refractory sheets are
available for reflective insulation. See Tables 9-0 and 9-7 and Fig. 9-11.
Up to C00°F, 85 per cent magnesia is the most commonly used insulation.
382
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

Table 9-7A. Characteristics of High-temperature Insulation.

Classification and Use Properties of Refractory Brick

Approx.
Melting Normal True Bulk
Composition, S/M
Name point, use limit, specific
per cent density, Source
op* 9-in.
°F gravity Ib/ft*
equiv.

Alumina-silica:
Fireclay ba'e
First quality. 35-40 AlsOi; 3,090-3,175 2,400-2,700 95 2.60-2.70 125-140 Fireclay
54-60 SiO-
Semi-silica. 70-80 SiOj 2,400-2,700 100 2.40-2.45 125-140 Fireclay
Superduty. 41-45 AUOi; 2,500-2,800 115 2 65-2.75 130-145 Flint fireclay
51-55 Si02
High burned super- 41-45 AI2O3; 2,500-2,800 155 2.65-2.75 130-145 Flint fireclay
duty 51-55 Si02
50% alumina. 50 AI2O3 3,200-3,245 2,500-2,800 160 2.75-2.85 130-145 Fireclay, diaspore,
bauxite
60% alumina. 60 AI2O3 3,245-3,310 2,700-2,900 200 2.90-3.05 130-145 Fireclay, diaspore,
bauxite
70% alumina. 70 AI2O3 2,700-2,900 235 3.15-3.25 135-150 Diaspore, bauxite
80 % alumina. 80 AI2O3 2,800-3,000 260 3.35-3.45 140-155 Diaspore, bauxite
90% alumina. 90 AI2O3 2,800-3.200 1,175 3.55-3.65 172 Calcined alumina
Kyanite base. AhCVSiCb; 2,800-3,000 500-680 3.00-3.06 140-150 Kyanite
58-68 AI2O3
Kaolin base (high-fired) Al203-2Si02; 3,190 2,800-2,900 170-335 2 65-2.75 135-145 Kaolin
44-45 AI2O3
Fused mullite base. 3Al203-2Si02; 2,900-3,200 685-1,370 3.08-3.25 150-160 Bauxite and synthetic
72-75 AI2O3
Silica:
Standard. Si02 3,142 (pure) 3,000 95-100 2.30-2.38 100-105 Quartz sand, ganister

Superduty. SiO> 3,142 (pure) 3,000 plus 110 2.30-2.38 100-105 Quartz sand, ganister

Magnesite:
MgO plus 5,070 (pure) 3,000-4,000 520 3.40-3.60 160-165 Magnesite, sea water
Burned.
brines, brucite
Si02, Fe203,
Cr>03
MgO plus 2,900-3,100 465 3.60-3.80 170-175 Magnesite, sea water
Chemically bonded.
brines, brucite
FeO, Cr.03
Chrome:
3,540-3,990 2,800-3,200 430 3.60-4.10 185-190 Chromite ores
Burned.. • FeO-Cr-03
pure; plus
some AI2O3,
MgO, Fe203,
SiO>
2,900-3,100 450-485 3.90-4.10 170-180 Chromite ores
Chemically bonded. FeO-CriOj
plus MgO
3,000 530 3.30-3.40 150-155 Olivine or synthetics
Forsterite. 2Mg0-Si02
1,520 3.19 155 Synthetic
SiC Dissociates 2,800-3,200
Silicon carbide.
at 4,082
3,400 2,000 3.70-3.90 175-195 Bauxite
Fused alumina. AI2O3
3,400 1,210 4.70 205 Zircon sands
Zircon. ZrOSiOj
9,430 5.75 275 Zircon sands
4,300
Zirconia (stabilized). Zr02
4,000 1,600 2.25 137 Carbon
C 6,330
Carbon (graphite).
(reduc.
atm.)

^rom C. L. Norton, Jr., Refractories for Every Use, Chem. Eng., 60(6): 217 (1953).
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES 383
CHAP. 9]

Diatomaceous-silica type insulation is suitable for temperatures up to

1900°F and is used as an inner temperature-reducing layer in combination
with 85 per cent magnesia or other lower-temperature insulations. Min¬
eral wool has an excellent temperature utility range ( 150 to 1 /00 F) and
is generally used where insulation must be removed frequently since it is
held together by metal fabric.
Prefabricated molded pipe insulation is specified by an ASTM Dimen¬
sional Standard system which provides great flexibility in the choice of
thickness. The actual thickness of any given pipe insulation is one-half

Table 9-7B. Characteristics of High-temperature Insulation.

Classification of Insulating Firebrick

Normal Approx. Bulk

Type* Composition, per cent use limit, S/M density,
°Ff 9-in. equiv. lb/ft3

Group 16.... 15-37 A12Os; 30-60 Si02 plus Ti02, 1,600 115 21-37
Fe203, alk.
Group 20.... 26-38 A1203; 45-61 Si02 plus Ti02, 2,000 125 26-45
Fe203, alk.
Group 23.... 25-42 Al2t)3; 45-67 Si02 plus TiQ2, 2,300 150 27-47
Fe203, alk.
Group 26.... 40-46 A1203; 47-55 Si02 plus Ti(),, 2,600 195 43-64
Fe203, alk.
Group 28.... 45-53 A1203; 42-52 Si02 plus TiO,, 2,800 260 45-65
Fe203, alk.
Others. 45 A1203 2,900 285 52
65 A1203 3,000 480 69
90 A1,03 3,250 750 81

Croup number is std. ASTM classification, indicating normal use limit (X100).
t See note under Table 9-7A.
loom C. L. Norton, Jr., Refractories for Every Use, Chem. Eng., 60(6): 217 (1953).

of the difference between the OD of two successive pipe-covering layers

minus the clearance. This insulation is prefabricated for pipe sizes from
/2 to 30 NFS so that insulation will have nominal thicknesses of 1, 1.5, 2
oi 2.5 in. By selecting one, or a nest ol two or more coverings it is
possible to obtain thicknesses up to 10 in. in increments of U in ’ Pre¬
fabricated insulation coverings for fitting, flanges, and valves are also
available. Flat or curved block, blankets, molded brick and cast cements
a.e other orms available for insulation of both piping and equipment
As Pointed out in item 23, Table 9-6, a reflective, preformed ins2“

t^^nBiripo,ito coiistructio11 consistmg °f ^ ■**» of

384 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN
- _ [chap. 9

Factors Governing Selection of Insulation. The 'proper selection of

insulating material is an engineering problem which cannot be treated by
rule of thumb. Certain principles can be listed for guidance:
1. Select the material to withstand working temperature range.
2. Choose an inexpensive low-thermal-conductivity type.

Table 9-7C. Characteristics of High-temperature Insulation.

Classification of Refractory Castables
(Refractory aggregates plus hydraulic cement)

Normal Approx. Bulk density,

Name, standard types Composition use limit, cost, .f/T, installed and
°p* CL fired, lb/ft3

Alumina-silica:
Fireclay type AI2O3, Si02) 2,400-2,700 60-75 100-140
plus CaO,
Fe203, Ti02,
alk.
Superduty type. AI O , Si02
0 3
2,700-3,000 100-170 100-140
plus CaO,
Fe,(>3, Ti02,
alk.
Fe0Cr203 2,700-3,100 90-150 160-190
Chrome
plus AI2O3,
CaO, Si02
Insulating types:
1,600-1,800 40-50
Expanded mica
1,800-2,000 . 55-70
Si02 plus
AI O ,
0 3

impurities
2,000 70-100
Bloated clay base . AI O , SiO,
0 3

plus CaO,
Fe203, Ti02,
alk.
2,000-2,500 90-130 50-90
Porous refractory base.. A1203, Si02
plus CaO,
Fe203, Ti02,
alk.

;S0: a Retctories for Ever, Use. <W 60(6): 2,7 (1*3).

O Choose a type and form which has sufficient durability and struc-
„il to withstand severe conditions. This include, resistance to
 385
CHAP 9] PROCESS auxiliaries

standpoint (see Fig. 9-12, Tables 9-8 to 9-11, and Perry’s “Chemical
Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 479-480).
Application of Pipe Insulation. Prefabricated insulation is applied to
a pipe with joints tightly butted and pointed up. Each section of insu¬
lation is wired to the pipe with not less than three loops of lb-gauge
annealed iron wire on pipe up to and including 6 in. and with not less

Table 9-7D. Characteristics of High-temperature Insulation.

Classification of Refractory Plastics and Ramming Mixes

Bulk
Normal Approx. density,
Composition Melting point, °F use limit, cost, installed
Name op* */T, CL and fired,
lb/ft8

Alumina-silica:
Fireclay base . AI2O3, SiCh, 2,850-3,100 2,500-2,700 50-70 125-140
plus Fe203,
TiCL, alk.
Superduty base. AI2O3, Si02, 2,700-3,000 60-80 130-140
plus Fe203,
TiCh, alk.
Kyanite base. ALOs’SiCh, 3,000-3,100 150-175 140-150
plus Fe2C>3,
Ti02, alk.
Fused mullite base. . . 3Al203-2Si02 3,000-3,200 175 150-160
plus Fe203,
TiCh, alk.
Silica. SiC>2 3,142 (pure) 2,800-3,000 100-105
Magnesite:
Grain... MgO 5,070 (pure) 2,900-3,100 70-100 150-160
Mixtures 145-165
Dolomite .. Ca0Mg0-2C02 4,650-5,070 (pure) 2,900-3,100
Chrome. . . FeOCnCL 3,765 (pure) 2,900-3,100 95-110 180-200
plus AI2O3,
MgO
Silicon carbide. SiC Dissociates at 4,082 2,800-3,150 150-170
Fused alumina. ADO, 3,722 (pure) 2,900-3,400 175-195
Zircon. ZrOSi02 4,532 (pure) 3,200 205
Zirconia (stabilized) . . . ZrO 4,870 (pure) 3,800 275

* See note under Table 9-7A.

I rom C. L. Norton, Jr., Refractories for Every Use, Chem. Eng., 60(6): 217 (1953).

than four loops for larger pipe sizes. All asbestos-sponge felt insulation
2 in. and greater in thickness, 85 per cent magnesia of 3 in. and double
standard in thickness, and combination insulation, should be applied in
two layers with both circumferential and horizontal joints staggered and
with each layer securely wired in place as previously described. The insu¬
lation on bends should be given a thin finishing coat of cement to present
a smooth, even surface. Insulation of flanges and fittings over 4 in. in
lameter should be the same as the insulation on the line, surfaced with
386 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9
M in- of cement applied in two layers, the first coat being left to dry with
a rough surface before the application of the smooth finishing coat.
Canvas is stretched tightly over the cement and pasted neatly. On lines
under 4 in., the fittings and flanges are insulated entirely with cement to
the same thickness as the adjacent insulation. Outdoors, the flanges
and fittings are waterproofed with Insulkote or a similar preparation,
applied in place of the second coat of cement, the canvas being omitted.
All insulation on piping indoors should be finished with an extra jacket of

8-oz canvas, sewed on over rosin-sized paper or asbestos paper and if

desired, sized with glue and painted with two coats of lead and oil pan t.
All insulation on piping outdoors, or exposed to the weat; er, sou e
protected with a waterproof jacket, the canvas being omitted. Pipe insu
Lion located close to the ground or where there is possibility of mec an
pnl iniurv should be protected with a metal jacket.
Weatherproof and Fire-resisting Pipe-insulation Jackets. For outdoor
HZ particularly those of some length, the most satisfactory .nsulation
is asbestos-sponge felt with an integral, waterproof 1- et A b
sponge felt not only has high insulation value but also, owing
CHAP 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES
387

construction, is not damaged by fall or blow and maintains its efficiency

on hot lines over a long period of time. The integral jacket provides
complete weather protection and obviates the labor of a separate appli¬
cation. Where insulation other than asbestos-sponge felt with integral

Table 9-8. Cost of Pipe Insulation (1958 Prices)

(Basis: Installed cost per 100 ft of straight pipe. For approximate cost of
insulating valves and fittings as well as straight pipe, multiply values in
table by 1.35. “M” denotes 85 per cent magnesia; “S” denotes
high-temperature block insulation; number immediately
following denotes thickness in inches.)

Temperature range, °F
Nominal pipe
diameter, in.
200-270 270-350 350-400 400-500 500-000 600-700 700-800

2 M-l M-l M-l y2 M-2 M-2 s-i y2 + M-i y2 S-l H + M-2

$135 $135 $164 $187 $187 $344 $426
3 M-l M-l m-i y2 M-2 M-2 s-i y2 + m-i y2 S-l y2 + M-2
$149 $149 $182 $217 $217 $395 $466
4 M-l M-l M-1H M-2 M-2 S-l>2 + M-l H S-1M + M-2
$162 $162 $197 $260 $260 $465 $550
6 M-l M-i y2 M-2 M-2 M-2 y2 S-IJ* + M-2 S-l M + M-2H
$190 $247 $320 $320 $425 $570 $680
8 M-1K m-i y2 M-2 M-2V2 M-2 y2 S-1M + M-2 s-l x + M-2H
$230 $280 $382 $483 $483 $668 $792
10 M-l X M-l >2 M-2 M-2M M-2 y2 S-1M + M-2 S-l H + M-2H
$274 $328 $455 $573 $573 $751 $1040
12 M-1M M-2 M-2M M-3 M-3 S-l \2 -f- M-2 S-1M + M-2M
$362 $516 $1)41 $728 $728 $848 $1120

Adapted from R. M. Braca and J. Happel, Chem. Eng., 60(1): 183 (1953).

Table 9-9. Cost of Installing Magnesia Blocks

(Basis: Dollars per square foot—1958 prices)

Installation height
Thickness, in.*
Below 15 ft 15 to 25 ft Above 25 ft

1 $1.35 SI .50 $1.74

1^ 1 .45 1 .GO 2.00
o
1.55 1.70 2.10

* W ith additional 1 £ in. cement finish.

waterproof jacket is used, one of the best forms of weather protection for
insulated pipelines out of doors consists of a waterproof asbestos jacket
". h all jomts IaPPed at least 3 in. and all horizontal laps located on the
»' 'h* -"*• *™«i *>" *» « !«„*, of h,avy““p,“ 5d
388 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9

wire are applied on 4-in. centers to hold the jacket in place over the insu¬
lation. Sheet metal is another popular form of weatherproofing. Where
exposed to fire hazard only, it is good practice to apply an asbestos fire-
retarding jacket. In such cases the application of asphalt-saturated
roofing jackets is inadvisable, since flame may be carried along exposed
piping when a fire occurs adjacent to lines so protected. The fire-retard¬
ing jacket consists of one sheet of asphalt-saturated asbestos felt over
which is cemented an unsaturated felt. It will not drip asphalt, carry
flame, or support combustion.
Cold Insulation. Refrigeration cannot be efficient without insulation
of the fittings, valves, and flanges, as well as the straight piping. Fitting

Table 9-10. Cost of Installing Cork Lagging

(Basis: Dollars per square foot—1958 prices)

Inside Outside
Thickness of installation height
installation height
single layer,
in. Below 15 ft Above 15 ft
Below 15 ft Above 15 ft

$1.10 $1.38 $1.60 $2.00

1
1.38 1.60 2.00
iy2 1.10
2.00
2 1.10 1.38 1.60
1.10 1.38 1.60 2.00
3
1.25 1.60 1.78 2.25
4
1.70 1.85 2.32
5 1.35
1.85 1.95 2.45
6 1.45
1.92 2.05 2.52
7 1.53
2.00 2.12 2.60
8 1.60
2.07 2.20 2.75
10 1.68

covers are made from cork granules compressed and baked in molds, of
exact size to fit snugly and leave no space between the cold surface and
the insulators where frost could accumulate. Built-up covers have a
lower material cost, but a higher cost of labor on the job erases this pos¬
sible saving; and there is always danger that the built-up job may not
be well fitted and result in trapping frost in the hollow spaces, later les

thickness and size of cork insulation.

.,,««...
CHU> 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES

Cold insulation is more expensive than heat insulation. For example,

a Houdry cracking unit required 9.1 per cent of the total project cost for
insulation, while a large-scale refrigeration job required 21.4 per cent o
the total project cost. .
Preinsulated Pipe. A number of concerns are able to supply preinsu-
lated pipe in special or standard 21-ft lengths for both underground and
overhead installation, in both high- and low-temperature insulations.

Table 9-11. Guide for Thickness and Size of Cork Insulation*

Pipe or equipment diameter, in.

Equip-
Pipe and Pipe and ment
Temperature, Pipe Pipe Pipe equip- equip- and flat
°F 34- 1342 2-6 8-20 ment, ment, surfaces
20-54 54-120 over
120 in.

Insulation type and thickness, in.

-300 to 250 6-8, C 9-11, C 12-14, C 14-16, L 16-18, B 22, B

-250 to 200 5-7, C 8-10, C 11-13, C 13-15, L 15-17, B 18, B
-200 to 150 5-6, C 7-8, C 9-11, C 11-12, L 12-15, B 15, B
-150 to 100 4-5, C 6-7, C 8-9, C 9-10, L 10-12, B 12, B
-100 to 50 4, C 5-6, C 7-8, C 8-9, L 8-10, B 10, B
- 50 to 20 4, C 4-5, C 5-6, C 6-7, L 7-9, B 9, B
- 20 to 0 STB, C STB, C 5, C 5-6, L 6-8, B 8, B
0 to 20 BT, C STB, C STB, C 4, L 4-6, B 6, B
20 to 50 BT, C BT, C BT, C 3, L 3-4, B 4, B
50 to 100 IWT, C IWT, C IWT, C 2, L 2, B 2, B

Key: C, sectional pipe covering; L, lagging; B, board; STB, special thick brine sec¬
tional pipe covering, 2.63 to 4 in. thick; BT, brine thickness sectional pipe covering,
1.70 to 3 in. thick; IWT, ice-water thickness sectional pipe covering, 1.20 to 1.93 in.
thick.
* F. C. Otto, Chem. Eng., 54(5): 118 (1947).

One oi more pipes may be installed and insulated in the same conduit.
For underground use the pipe (or pipes) is packed in insulation within a
16-gauge corrugated iron conduit which is then covered with asphalt-
saturated felt. For overhead use the insulated assembly is wrapped in
copper or aluminum foil (min. 0.003 in. thickness) bonded with asphalt
and asphalt-impregnated felt. In all such preinsulated assemblies the
pipe ends protrude to allow welding or other methods of joining adjacent
lengths ol pipe. After joining the lengths the gap is insulated and sealed.
390 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

Color Coding1

The identification of piping and equipment by color has been standardized

through the efforts of the American Standards Association (ASA). See
1 able 9-12 lor typical color codes. All process piping should be first classi¬
fied according to fluid content as safe, hazardous, or protective and then
color-coded accordingly. The colors may be used over the entire surface
of the pipe covering or color stripes and bands, placed next to valves,
junctions, and other critical locations are used for economy reasons.
Self-adhesive color tapes are available for this purpose. Often the name
of the fluid and direction of flow arrows are stenciled on the colored bands
or pipe covering. Recommended ASA stencil letter sizes in inches for
various pipe sizes are: Y to 134 NPS, use 34; 134 to 2 NPS, use Y) 234
to 6 NPS, use 1J4; 8 to 10 NPS, use 234; 12 NPS or greater, use 334-
The cost of painting (material and labor) for bare steel pipe, including
sandblasting, can be estimated as $0.35 per square foot. If painting over
canvas-coated insulation, reduce this to $0.20 per square foot.

Drainage Piping Design

Gases released from drainage systems in a chemical plant, owing to
defective design or installation of the waste-disposal piping, endanger the
health and even the lives of the workmen. Such gases may arise from
both the sanitary and the chemical waste systems. Still greater danger
and discomfort may exist when the two types of waste, in intermixing,
act upon each other to accelerate or decelerate reactions that might occui
normally or abnormally. In other cases, such as in food-products plants,
the product may be contaminated by gases released from improper waste-
disposal systems.
Plumbing Codes in Chemical Plants. The system for drainage and
sewage, together with water-supply and water-heating equipment and
accessories, is installed by the plumber. This is usually done in accord¬
ance with specifications prepared by the architect; in chemical plants, it
will be in accordance with the wishes and desires ot the design engineer,
since drainage systems are connected directly with equipment. The
specifications are also subject to official municipal regulations because
the local authorities assume responsibility for the installation of an e -
cient and safe system of sanitary plumbing. Systems for handling iquic
wastes in chemical plants are not clearly defined in plumbing codes,
solution to the problems being left to the processor (until such He as
damage to others may bring the case to the attention of the courts).
Effluent. The reference point-the lowest point in a drainage system
wifi” general be one of two types: (1) an effluent pipe into a sand pit,
■ D. E. Garrett and W. A. Jordan, Chem. Eng., 63(9): 195 (1956).
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391
392 CHEMICAL
- ENGINEERING
- PLANT ---
- DESIGN [chap. 9

stream, pond, or river, or (2) a tap into another sewer. An effluent of the
first type must be well protected from washing by the construction of a
concrete support and spillway, with such a curvature as to direct the drain
water out into the stream to reduce backwashing and undermining. An
effluent of the second type, into a larger drain, is either the connection to
the drain at a preexisting tap, or a cut made into the drain and the ter¬
minal line cemented into place.
Where the natural drainage is shallow and where rainfall may convert
a tract of land into a shallow lake, drainage is difficult. Usual practice is
to drop the sewage into a well, then pump from this reservoir to a higher
level and at a distance to permit gravity disposal or long-distance pump¬
ing. Common practice for chemical sewage is to impound the waste and
permit diffusion through the soil or diversion of the impounded waste
through a treating plant or bed before it is run off into the natural drainage
system.
Capacity. The first point to consider in determining the location and
size of drains of a sewage system is the service to be rendered. The proper
size of drain pipes for chemical plants is subject to considerable variance
of opinion. Plumbing codes specify 4 in. as a common minimum for
buried piping and 2 in. as the minimum where suspended. The sizes of
drains vary with the number of floors. In a chemical plant, however, the
question is not one of connecting sanitary branches, but one of disposal
of wastes, either corrosive or containing suspended matter. A small pipe
allows scouring and prevents the deposition of solids on the sides of the
pipe. Calculations of flow must be made if the time required for empty-
in- is an important item in removing wastes from equipment or from an
area Floor drains cannot be considered as all being in full capacity a
the same time unless the specific plant process calls for it. A flow of liquid
to fill the pipe but half full should be considered as the carrying capacity of
a drainage pipe. In Table 9-13 will be found data on the carrying, capac-
ity of different sizes of sewer pipe for various drops per 100 ft. The pitc
of a waste-disposal system is a matter of local health code specificatrons,
hut ordinarilv this amounts to about 34 in./ft.

susses
cftles^n^he^United'strtes this is^a ^^^^^ig^^Ud^f'^ramtc^iP®®

w 4vTft long against 2- and 3-ft lengths of tile,

since its sections are gene ‘ • than cast iron to breakage, owing to
Tile, furthermore, is more suscepiuui
CHAP. 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES

settling. Terra cotta tile and pipe come in standard sizes, shapes, and
grades; these are sold locally in 3-ft lengths. Cast iron is manufactured
in three grades: light (or standard), heavy, and extra heavy. For chem¬
ical plants the standard grade is unsatisfactory. The extra heavy is
costly, but where corrosive liquids are dumped into the disposal system,
the added life of the extra heavy more than offsets the initial high cost.
Heavy pipe is ordinarily considered the normal grade to use where cor¬
rosion is not an item. Wrought iron and steel can be used but are con¬
sidered as highly unsatisfactory in chemical plants. As added protection
against corrosion, cast-iron pipe is heavily coated inside and outside with
asphalt.
Table 9-13. Carrying Capacity of Sewer Pipe*
(Gallons per minute)

Inches fall per 100 ft

Size,
in.
1 2 3 6 9 12 24 36

4 27 38 47 66 81 93 131 163
6 75 105 129 183 224 258 364 450
8 153 216 265 375 460 527 750 923
9 205 290 355 503 617 712 1,006 1,240
10 267 378 463 755 803 926 1,310 1,613
12 422 596 730 1,033 1,273 1,468 2,076 2,554
15 740 1,021 1,282 1,818 2,224 2,451 3,617 4,467
18 1,168 1,651 2,022 2,860 3,508 4,045 5,704 7,047
24 2,396 3,387 4,155 5,874 7,202 8,303 11,744 14,466
27 4,407 6,211 7,674 10,883 13,257 15,344 21,771 26,622
30 5,906 8,352 10,233 14,298 17,714 20,204 28,129 35,513
36 9,707 13,769 16,816 23,763 29,284 33,722 47,523 58,406

F. E. Kidder and H. Parker, “Architects’ and Builders’ Handbook,” 18th ed.,

p. 1751, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1931.

Laige-sized pipe is commonly made of concrete, cast on the job, or a

concreted tunnel is constructed. The smaller tile can be either straight
joint or of the bell-and-spigot type. Building and sanitary codes of
municipalities control the type and size of drain tile permitted, especially
where the sanitary sewage of the plant is handled in the municipal system.
n general, main soil pipe cannot be less than 4 in.; soil pipe for more than
five water closets not less than 6 in.; drain soil lines not less than 4 in •
and main waste pipes not less than 2 in.; when service is required for more
v anf five Sm.kS) ,u]nnals’ or showers, the size should be not less than 4 in
v ent pipes should not be less than 2 in.
A knowledge of building and drainage codes is necessary to specify the
construction of the system, from the digging of the trench in the proper
394 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9
place and at the correct drainage depth to the connection of the reference-
point effluent into its ultimate objective.
Cleaning. Provision for the easy cleaning of sewers must always he
made. This is best accomplished by the construction of wells or man¬
holes, properly bricked up or concreted, from which inspection of the lines
can be carried on. At every bend, change in elevation, or terminal point,
means must be supplied for inspection and cleaning.
Fittings. Standard catalogues of fittings should be consulted to deter¬
mine the standard types and sizes of all parts of the drainage system,
because the construction of special equipment is costly. Plumbing and
sewage contracting is provided with an endless choice of materials.
Plumbers’ handbooks and trade catalogs are the best sources of informa¬
tion on different types of equipment available, giving service require¬
ments, capacities, construction details, essential improvements, and com¬
parative costs. The large number of such sources of information available
in manufacturers’ literature makes it unnecessary that detailed descrip¬
tions of such equipment and service be given here.
Both the type and location of service urinals and stools for both men
and women employees require prime consideration. It is important that
the sanitary service be somewhat removed from the plant processing in
order to simplify fittings underground. Process equipment service may
interfere with sanitary service in drainage, since equipment drainage may
overtax the system at periodic intervals. Therefore, each piece of equip¬
ment should drain directly into the main laterals.
Floor Drains. Floor drains should be liberally used in a chemical plant.
A pitch to the floor of 1 in. in 8 ft is not sufficient for the rapid runoff so
essential to chemical plants, and a pitch of from four to six times as much
will repay the designer in efficient floor drainage. Floor drains are made
with integral traps and cleanouts. If a simple trap is used, a deep seal
trap and a cleanout flush with the floor should be provided. Drains tor
floors not on the ground should be provided with floor seals to prevent
leakage seeping around the setting to the floor below
Pipe Joints. Pipe joints of the hub type, or bell and spigot, are sealed,
first by packing with oakum, driven in tight, and following t is wit
molten lead. Incidentally, the fact that jute costs five times as much as
lead makes a calked joint rather costly. Each joint for a 2-in. pipe
requires 4 lb of lead and 0.1 lb of oakum. For 4-in. pipe the quantises
are 7 5 lb of lead and 0.2 lb of oakum, while a 6-m. pipe requires lO.-o
of lead and 0.3 lb of oakum. All joints should be given proper attention for
nerfect sealing Where small cast-iron piping is used, the Jon • >y
screwed, but these should be specially threaded and the fittings provided
with raised internal parts that eliminate the recesses and dams
the water and steam types of standard pipe fittings. Fittings of this sort
give free flow of liquids and reduce the tendency to clog.
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES 395
CHAP. 9]
Vents. Where local health codes require that waste-disposal piping
systems be ventilated, a survey should be made of the specific code to
ascertain the correct number and placement of the vents. Oftentimes,
the code does not apply to chemical plant wastes; in such cases ample
venting should be provided to eliminate the possibility of breaking trap
seals on account of any rush of waste when a piece of equipment is voided.
Traps. Every fixture and each piece of equipment should be separately
trapped by a valve or a water-sealing trap placed as close to the fixture
outlet as possible, and no trap should be placed more than 2 ft from any
fixture. The sizes of traps for chemical equipment depend upon the
desired drain-off, but for sanitary purposes the minimum size is stipulated
in the code. Closed traps must be of 4-in. size, while those for sinks,
urinals, showers, and the like must not be under 2 in.
Traps are known as full S, %S, }£S, or P, V, bag, running-Y, and grease
traps, and combinations, depending upon the use and configuration.
Floor drains usually incorporate easy cleanout traps in their construction
to reduce joints and to add serviceability.
Suspended Piping. Suspended piping should be hung below the ceiling
to permit ready examination of all connections. It should be provided
with Y branches at the changes in direction of flow, to permit easy access
to the piping for rodding and cleaning. Substantial support should be
given all suspended piping in order that vibration and the weight of the
pipe may not cause a slow sagging and opening of the pipe at the joints.
Drains under Processing Equipment. Detail drawings of drainage
under equipment must show all construction and sewage lines up to
equipment. Large openings and rapid runoff are desirable, so no traps
are provided. Cleanout ferrules are always used to permit unscrewing
the cap and securing ready access to the drain. Brass traps and ferrules
are preferable because cast iron “freezes” on long standing.
A sudden rush of liquids from equipment into the drainage system
would cause compression of entrapped gases in the sewer ahead of the
stream and a vacuum behind the stream. Such pulsation drains all the
traps and permits permeation of odors and sewer gases. The breather
system, by proper installation of vents, is always installed according to
code. In order to prevent the back rush of liquids, a ball check is installed
ahead of a condenser. Both check valve and subsequent trap should be
accessible for cleanout. The bell of the trap extends down from the per¬
forated or gndded floor screen and covers a portion of the drain pipe
extending above the bottom of the drain pit. More commonly the floor
drains, dram screen, bell, and outside case of the pit are cast iron.
Sanitary Drainage. If complex systems of traps and check valves are
to be avoided, the sanitary sewage and process wastes must run into a

beZn^nd Wht SeWerfSystem' However> in municipalities this cannot

be done and both types of sewage are mixed. Urinals, stools, washbasins
396 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
showers, and fountains are recommended for personnel in industrial plants
on a basis similar to those proposed in Table 9-14. Sanitary codes control
in a measure what type of service must be provided and, hence, must be
consulted. Cleanliness and clean appearance, with accessibility, are as
important in the plant as in office toilets.

Table 9-14. Toilet Facilities

Water faucets. 1 per 3 persons

Showers. 1 per 25 persons
Urinals. 1 per 20 persons
Stools. 1 per 15 persons
Fountains. 1 per 50 persons

Testing Drainage Systems. The necessity for testing waste-disposal

systems should be evident to chemical engineers. Not only are suspended
pipes a source of danger and hazard, but high leakage in underground pipe
through which chemicals may be flowing, insufficiently diluted by other
streams, may seriously affect the structure or neighboring land. The
water test is easy of application. The engineer should not permit the
vertical stack, which connects the first and second floors, to be sealed
until he can have the downcomer pipe plugged and all the openings closed
except the one to the roof via the vent. Water should then be pumped
in and the joints tested for leaks. Either a drop in the watei le\el oi
visible evidences of leaks at the joints are sought. Additional tamping
of the lead usually seals the leak. Plugging oi the outlet and filling the
underground system with water, with subsequent checking on the water-
level enable one to ascertain to what extent underground leaks may exist.
Such leaks are difficult to find. Consequently, the engineer should insist
on an inspection of the waste piping before covering in the case of under¬
ground systems. . .
Design of a Drainage System. The points to be taken up in the design
of a drainage system, in the order of their consideration, are as follows:

1. Quantity of service demanded 8. Location of traps with clean-

2 Quality of service demanded outs
3. Reference point 9- Location o check valves
4. Pitch of drain 10- Layout in building
5. Effluent protection 1' • P^ision or vents
6 Wells and manholes for cleanout 12. Toilet facilities
°* 13. Equipment drains

7. E”o“ ol equipment «■

Symbol, lor «. *'* ** »'

 397
CHAP 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES

unless certain precautions are taken in the design and installation All
underground pipe should permit as direct a run of sewage as possible, all
changes of direction should be with long sweeps or curves; and branch
connections should be Y branches (Fig. 9-14). Ample provision should

PI on Band initio Line Color

: Sanitary San Blue

Sewage O
: Industrial © IS Green

Combined © cs — + —+ —+— Blue

; Storm © Storm Green

Stacks : Soil o SS Blue

: Vent o VS Blue

\ Waste o ws Blue

Waste \ Chemical 0 cs Green

Roof leader RL Green

Drains
Floor drain Drfo~| Goroge drain Dr[~[~|

Fioordrain (with
backwater valve) Drf—1 Clean out [co]

Shower drain Or|g| Roof sump Dr[o3

Fig. 9-13. Drainage symbols.

1 - 4-inch C. I. soil pipe

2 - Sixth bend
3 - Lateral
4 - Two way lateral
5 - Rodding basin
6 - Clean -out
1 - U traps (running)
8 - P traps
9 - Floor drain
10 - Floor drain with
backwater valve
11 - Vent
12 - Equipment
connection

Fig. 9-14. Undimensioned assembly plan of drainage system.

be made for cleaning out all lines, for chemical precipitates and sludges
ma> settle in the lines and cause no end of trouble. Y branches should
be used at changes in direction of the lines and each branch provided with
e in criule, sealed with a close-fitting, screw-in brass plug. If
398 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

Fig. 9-15. Dimensioned diagrammatic piping drawing for cost estimating. [Courtesy
of W. G. Clark, Chem. Eng., 64(7): 243 (1957).]

rodding basins are permitted, these should be placed at connecting points

of branch sewers to provide access to danger points. Iron rodding basins
should be mounted flush with the
floor and provided with sealed covers,
to be removed only when the plug¬
ging of lines calls for cleaning out.
After cleaning, these should be re¬
sealed. A layout of sewer and drain¬
age lines should be made so that
proximity to piers or foundations is
avoided, in cases where the weight
of the pier or foundation would be
likely to cause crushing or disruption
of the lines.

Estimating Piping Costs

Piping cost estimating as a per¬
centage of the purchased or installed
equipment cost was outlined in Chap.
6. This method suffices for prelimb
nary or order-of-magnitude type esti¬
mates. When an estimate to within
10 per cent or less is required, a more
accurate procedure using piping flow
sheets, models, and drawings is m
order. Materials and labor take-oil
to get accurate cost estimates by
the diameter-inch method of Clark1

1 be explained by means of a sample problem.

W G Clark, Chem. Eng., 64(7): 243 (1957).
CHAp 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES
399

Table 9-15. “X” Factors for Estimating Piping-material Costs

(Based on steel pipe; reference: Fig. 9-16)

“X” factor

M-2" 3-8"
Nominal pipe size (NFS)

Pipe:
1.0 1.0
Carbon steel, schedule 40, seamless, random length.
0.82 0.93
Carbon steel, schedule 40, butt- or lap-welded.
Carbon steel, schedule 40, threaded on both ends and coupled 1.06 1.10
1.42 1.42
Carbon steel, schedule 80.
0.72 0.50
Carbon steel, schedule 10.
Type 304 stainless steel, schedule 5. 6.3 4.1
Type 304 stainless steel, schedule 10. 8.0 4.8
Type 316 stainless steel, schedule 5. 7.1 5.2
Type 316 stainless steel, schedule 10. . 10.2 6.5
Galvanized steel, schedule 40. 1.4 1.3
Saran-lined steel pipe. 7.8 4.6
Aluminum. 4.0 2.7
Brass. 7.1 6.2
Pyrex glass. 4.5 2.9
Lead. 5.3 2.9
Cast iron. 3.0
Asbestos-cement. 1.50 0.71
Valves, all types:
Carbon steel, 150-lb class. . 78 101
Carbon steel, 300-lb class. 125 162
Carbon steel, 600-lb class. 272 354
Type 304 stainless steel, 150-lb class. 284 284
Type 316 or 347 stainless steel, 150-lb class. 375 362
Brass, 150-lb class. 83 137
Aluminum, 150-lb class. 375 362
Cast iron, 1‘25-lb class. 120 86
Monel, 150-lb class. 164 200
Fitting, 90° ell, reducer or coupling:
Carbon steel, schedule 40. 3.2 4.7
Carbon steel, schedule 80. 5.2 6.7
Type 304 stainless steel, schedule 10. 14.7 18.0
Type 316 or 347 stainless steel, schedule 10. 21.6 23.0
Cast iron, 125-lb class.
36.0 17.8
Cast steel, 150-lb class.
90.0 47.3
Fitting, tee or unions:
Carbon steel, schedule 40, weld.
14.3 13.0
Carbon steel, schedule 80, weld.
13.5 18.8
Type 304 stainless steel, schedule 10, weld.
24.6 26.0
Type 316 or 347 stainless steel, schedule 10, weld.
30.5 32.3
Cast iron, 125-lb class.
75 24
Cast steel, 150-lb class.
120 58
Fitting, stub end:
Type 304 stainless steel, schedule 10
9.3 6.0
Type 316 or 347 stainless steel, schedule 10.
12.0 8.1
400 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
Table 9-15. “X” Factors for Estimating Piping-material Costs
(Continued)

“X” factor

Nominal pipe size (NPS) K-2" 3-8"

Flanges:
Forged steel, slip-on, 150-lb class. 6.1 3.2
Forged steel, slip-on, 300-lb class. 10.0 6.7
Forged steel, slip-on, 600-lb class. 24.4 13.7
Forged steel, welding neck, 150-lb class. 9.2 4.8
Forged steel, welding neck, 300-lb class. 15 10
Forged steel, welding neck, 600-lb class. 36 21
Type 304 stainless steel, slip-on, 150-lb class. 25 13.5
Type 304 stainless steel, slip-on, 300-lb class. 40 28
Type 304 stainless steel, welding neck, 150-lb class. 41 21
Type 304 stainless steel, welding neck, 300-lb class. 67 45
Type 316 or 347 stainless steel, slip-on, 150-lb class. . 28 15
Type 316 or 347 stainless steel, slip-on, 300-lb class. . 45 31
Type 316 or 347 stainless steel, welding neck, 150-lb class. . 46 24
Type 316 or 347 stainless steel, welding neck, 300-lb class. . 75 50

Cost of Materials and Labor for Piping and Fittings, Including Fabri¬
cation and Erection. A dimensioned piping drawing or scale model should
be available. Figure 9-15 will be used for the example. Material price
estimates, exclusive of the costs of pipe supports, hangers, and gaskets,
are given in Fig. 9-16 and Table 9-15. To price an NPS fitting, obtain
the cost per foot of black pipe of the same NPS (Fig. 9-16). Then mul¬
tiply by the correct “X” factor for the fitting, as given in Table 9-15.
(For a higher degree of accuracy, up-to-date manufacturers’ catalogs and
quotations on all job items are necessary.) . ,
Table 9-16 was prepared using this information and the diameter-inch
method All threaded and welded connections are counted an mu-
tiplicd by the corresponding nominal pipe diameter and this product
multiplied by the eott.ot l,b„, facto, listed in Table 9-17 Bol.m, ot
flanges is accounted toe by a sopaiate labor factor m Table 1-17. 'P"'«
labor costs vary with the job location; use $3 to *4 per hour.
Tlr. metbchtropcrly grve. little consideration . J
Since the fabrication and erection cost. ,'„g.b.

5i£ ISS—■ *... *— -

the inch-diameter column for labor charges^
 i
0
o
r—
O

£
<
><
H
lO

X
c

a
<
£
a
»
£o
O
C/3
co

Vf-i
<
£
5
<
O

S<
CO

o
i

i
I
fc-

©
o
i-

eS

2
o
iO
o

i-
05

Oi 'C
2
Oo
o
05

c
£
oS
-©
co
CO
co

O's-
Tt<

0
-M
©
©
©
©r-
'"O
©

c3
O
co
CO

©
o

©
b£

Of
‘a,

o'
* Number of connections multiplied by pipe diameter (fabrication and erection of welded or threaded connected pipe or bolt-up of
flanged ends),
f See Table 9-17.
X See 3-in. price.
402 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9

order of magnitude estimates the following costs can be used: overhead

pipe racks such as shown in Fig. 9-9 range from $300 to $800; structural
brackets such as shown in Fig. 9-10e range from $30 to $60; pipe hangers
cost $0.25 to $0.70 per nominal pipe diameter-inch; 150-lb flange bolt and
gasket sets can be priced from $0.30 to $0.40 per nominal pipe diameter-
inch.
Cost of Painting and Insulation. Cost figures for these two items have
been given on pages 384 to 390.

Table 9-17. Labor Factors for Piping Installations

A. Pipe Layout, Cutting, Welding, Threading, and Erection

Man-hours per diameter-inch

Nominal pipe diameter,
in. Carbon steel Alloy steel
schedule 40 schedule 5-10

K-i H 1.30 1.60

2-3 1.00 1.30
4-8 0.90 1.25

B. Handling and Bolting Up Flanged Valves and Fittings

Nominal pipe ilfan-hours per diameter-inch

diameter, in. Ver ent^

H-i'A 0.40
2-5 0.35
6-8 0.30

C. Additional Labor Factors for Various Piping Areas

1. Highly complex and confined areas: Add 20 per cent.

2. Open process towers above second floor: Add 10 per cent.
3. Elevated piping requiring temporary scaffolding: Add 15 per cent.
4. Long straight runs of piping: Subtract 10 per cent.
5. Testing of completed job: Add 5 per cent.

Total Piping Cost Estimate. The above costs are additive and must
be factored for overhead and profit if contract piping costs are required.
Overhead figures range from 50 to 05 per cent of direct labor and 8 to
10 per cent of materials. Profit is also a variable item, depending pn-
i'arily on local business conditions; use 5 to 12 per cent of total project

piping costs.

PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

Process control and automation, together with then ass°^ f

mentation, e.n be eon.W.t.b » t .
modern chemical processing. M ariables in c p
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES
403
CHAP. 9]
and then controlled and integrated for optimum processing conditions.
Mechanical and electrical components and systems have been designe y
- instrumentation and control engineers to reduce labor and improve feasi¬
bility of plant operation, and to allow extensive outdoor plant construc¬
tion. The economic advantage of automatic process control has been
well established throughout the industry, thus accounting for the rapid
growth in this area of the chemical process industry. The field is spe¬
cialized and design organizations have an instrumentation and control
group consisting of chemical, mechanical, and electrical engineers who
have acquired education and experience in this area. This group works
closely with the process engineers to accomplish their mission of incorpo¬
rating the best instrumentation and control design into each new process
being developed. Decisions within the group, based on a cooperative
effort with other groups, must be made on the following points:
1. What are the variables that affect process operation, and to what
extent do they influence the operation?
2. What physical functions should be measured, and with what degree
of accuracy?
3. What physical functions should be automatically controlled, and to
what extent?
Chemical engineers not specializing in process control should have a
working knowledge of this field, so that they can appreciate the relative
merits of process control and automation. Most schools give a required
course to all chemical engineers on instrumentation for just this reason.
Many excellent books and periodicals are available for those who wish to
specialize in this field (see Additional Selected References). The pur¬
pose of this section of the plant design book will be to highlight the prin¬
cipal features of process control and instrumentation and show their
relationship to chemical process and plant design practice.

Process Control

Chemical reactions are affected by a number of variables e g tem¬

perature, pressure, etc. Input, output, and in-process conditions’ must
be measured by some physical and/or chemical means to determine rates,
compositions, and holdup in processing equipment and ninine- TCW

1 See pages 74 to 82 for instrumentation symbols and flow sheets.

404 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

Figure 9-17 is a schematic diagram of a typical closed control loop.

If the error detection is done by an experienced human operator, then the
process is controlled manually. Manual control is used only where the
required instrumentation either is not available or is too expensive from
either a first cost or maintenance standpoint. Mechanical and electrical
error detecting elements or controllers are almost always used in closed-loop
control to give a fully automatic process control system.

Disturbances

Automatic control system

Fig. 9-17. Diagram of an automatic control system. \G. A. Hall, Jr.; by permission
from “Process Instruments and Controls Handbook;' Douglas M. Considine (ed.),
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1957.]

Another of the essential components of the controlled loop system is the

measuring element, often called indicating and recording instrumentation.
Examples of a measuring element are a temperature indicator, a pressure
recorder, or a recording flowmeter. The final component of the closed
loop is the control element, such as a valve or switch.

Selection of Process Instrument Elements

Process design engineers should be able preliminarily to select types of
instrumentation for process control. Several excellent guic es 01 se ec ing
instrument elements are available. In Perry’s “Chemical Engineers
Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 1266-1309, there is a discussion of processiv
ables and their measurement in terms of (1) energy variables, sue . .
peLture pressure, and radiation; (2) quantity and rate variables such as
fluid flow,liquid level, thickness; (3) physical and chemical character^
such as density, moisture content, and chemical absorption, just
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES
405
CHAP. 9]
tion a few. A more recent guide1 is recommended for further study of
process instrument elements. It is organized into 22 sections on process
variables and their measurement, with 5 sections on error detection and
final control elements in closed-loop automatic control systems. Ihese
guides are not intended as a substitute for manufacturers catalogs or tlieii
recommendations; final selection should be done only by an experienced
instrument engineer. Some of the factors which comprise the proper
selection are: level, range and function of the instrument, accuracy
required, materials of construction, possible effect on process conditions
(e.g., a control valve with too large a pressure drop).
It would be advisable to look through this guide to become familiar with
the concepts of process instrument elements. Their use in automatic
process control systems will be explained next.

Elementary Principles of Automatic Control

It is seen that the basic functions of automatic control are (1) measure¬
ment, (2) comparison, (3) computation, and (4) correction. Thus, a
mechanism used for measuring the value of a controlled process variable
and operating to limit the deviation of this variable from a desired value
or set point is an automatic controller. Disturbances which cause devia¬
tions in the controlled variables are classified as either supply-load changes or
demand-load changes. The automatic controller regulates by making cor¬
rections to one or more manipulated variables of the system. These points
can best be illustrated by a typical process that uses automatic control.
Example of a Process Control System.2 Figure 9-18 shows schemati¬
cally an air-operated control system applied to the control of a water
heater process. The parts of this control system, arranged in block-
diagram form to illustrate the basic control function that each part per¬
forms, are shown in Fig. 9-19.
Measuring Means. The measuring system of the typical controller
consists of three parts:
1. Thermometer bulb (primary or sensing element). This is part of
the measuiing system that is directly sensitive to the controlled variable
(temperature). The primary element converts energy from the con¬
trolled medium (hot water) into a measurable signal (fluid pressure).
2. Bourdon pressure element (receiving element). This part of the sys¬
tem evaluates the signal from the primary element, and converts it into
scale readings, chart records, and actuation for the error detector.
3. The capillary tubing (transmitting means). This part of the system
1 T. R. Olive and S. Danatos, Chem. Eng., 64(6): 288-319 (1957).

G?Hirr.tm tlliS SCCtiT (thrgh p- 408) is modified slightly from that of

’ by Permission from “Process Instruments and Controls Handbook ”
Douglas M. Considine (ed.), McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc, New York 1957.
406 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9

COLD WATER
STEAM VALVE IN
(FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT)

STEAM
HOT WATER
INPUT PROCESS J OUTPUT

DIAPHRAGM THERMOMETER
AIR MOTOR BULB
(MOTOR (PRIMARY
SET POINT KNOB ELEMENT)
OPERATOR)
(DESIRED VALUE) /-BAFFLE AND JET
/ (ERROR DETECTOR
AND 1ST AMPLIFIER)

3-15 PSI CAPILLARY

AIR PRESSURE- JET BACK TUBING
(AMPLIFIED PRESSURE (TRANSMITTING
ERROR SIGNAL) (ERROR MEANS)
SIGNAL)
BOURDON TUBE
(RECEIVING ELEMENT)

PILOT VALVE
RESTRICTION
(POWER AMPLIFIER)

20 PSI AIR SUPPLY

(AUXILIARY POWER)

Fig. 9-18. Typical pneumatic controlled system applied to a heat-exchange process.

[G. A. Hall, Jr.; by 'permission from “Process Instruments and Controls Handbook,”
Douglas M. Considine (ed.), McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1957.]

AND COMPU IATION (UESIRED VALUE)

[G. A. Hall, Jr.; by
Fig 9-19 Block diagram of the control system of Fig. 9-18.
Douglas M. Considine
permission from “Process Instruments a^ Cont^kH^?° ’
(ed ) McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New 1 oik, Uo/.J
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES
407
CHAP. 9]
Ill
carries the signal from the primary element to the receiving element. In
some controllers, the afore-mentioned three parts ol the measuring system
are combined into one or two devices.
Error-detector Elements (unbalanced detector, summing point, 01 pn-
rary relay). In Fig. 9-18, the error detector is the baffle and jet. The
mar
error
ei detector compares the measured value of the controlled variable with
its desired value, and produces an error signal when deviation exists. A
brief description of how the error detector of Fig. 9-18 operates is given
in the following paragraphs.
The desired value is represented by the position of the left end of the
baffle, as determined by manual adjustments to the set-point knob. 1 he
measured value of the controlled variable is represented by the position
of the right end of the baffle, as determined by the deflection of the
bourdon tube. Thus, the baffle is a differential lever; the position of its
center (at the jet) represents the deviation (difference) or error between
the desired and measured values of the controlled variable. In order to
be usable, this very weak, small deviation or error signal, represented by
the position of the baffle mid-point, must be both measured and amplified.
This is done (in this particular controller) by the baffle-and-jet error
detector.
The jet back-pressure air system is continuously furnished with air
which bleeds in from the air supply through the restriction. This air
bleeds out from the jet back-pressure system through the jet to atmos¬
phere. As the center of the baffle (representing error) is moved closer
to or farther from the air jet, the resistance to the flow of air through the
jet changes. This changes the back pressure in the jet air system. This
back pressure is proportional to the baffled position through a small range
of baffle motion. Thus, the amount of deviation or error is measured and
converted into an air-jet back pressure, which is an amplified error signal.
The error detector is the heart of any automatic controller, for it is the
part that senses deviation and first instigates corrective action.
Amplifier. In order not to restrict the sensitivity or accuracy of the
measuring system, an error detector must take very little power from the
measuring system. Thus, error signals usually are very weak. In order
to operate most final control elements, the error signal must be greatly
amplified in power. Therefore, most automatic controllers contain a
power amplifier that uses auxiliary power to increase the strength of the
error signal. In the typical air-operated controller of Fig. 9-18, some
amplification is obtained from the jet-and-baffle error detector, which
might be called a first-stage amplifier. Additional power amplification is
produced by the pilot valve, which might be called a second-stage or power
ampler B°th stages use auxiliary power furnished by the 20-psi air
supply. 1 he jet back pressure (error signal) from the error detector is
408 CHEMICAL
- ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN
U£JOiUi> [chap. 9

applied to the diaphragm of the pilot valve. This causes the pilot-valve
plug to move up and down, which delivers more or less 20-psi supply air
to form an amplified error signal or output from the air controller that is
still proportional to the error or deviation represented by the baffle mid¬
point.
Motor Operator. The error signal must be converted into corrections
to the manipulated variable of the process. In most control systems, this
requires some form of operator or
motor to operate the final control
CONTROL _ r CONTROLLED
AGENT 4 5 ♦ MEDIUM element. In the air-operated con¬
(o) trol system of Fig. 9-18, the motor
operator that positions the steam
SELF-OPERATED
MEASURING MEANS valve is the diaphragm air motor.

•cm 3 *
The output air pressure (amplified
error signal) from the pilot valve
rz
is applied to the motor-operator
T
RELAY-OPERATED
CONTROLLING MEANS
OIL* diaphragm.
Final Control Element. The final
(b)
_RELAY-OPERATED
control element corrects the value
^MEASURING MEANS of the manipulated variable. In
■ » -»□ ♦ e lect.
the control systems of Figs. 9-18
P*-AIR
o=-
and 9-19, the final control element
RELAY- is the steam valve which is in di¬
OPERATED
PROCESS
CONTROLLING rect contact with the control agent
(c) MEANS
(steam) and makes corrections to
Fig. 9-20. Classification of automatic con¬
trollers: (a) self-operated controller,
the manipulated variable (rate of
using energy only from controlled medium steam flow).
through primary element; (b) relay- Self-operated and Relay-operated
operated controller with self-operated
measuring means and relay-operated con¬
Controllers. Some control systems
trolling means; (c) relay-operated con¬ obtain all power for operating the
troller with relay-operated measuring error detector and final control ele¬
means and relay-operated controlling
ment from the controlled medium of
means. [G. A. Hall, Jr.; by permission
from “Process Instruments and Controls the process via the primary element
Handbook,'' Douglas M. Considine (cd.), and measuring means. Such con¬
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. New
trol systems are termed self-oper¬
York, 1957.]
ated controllers (Fig. 9-20a).
Control systems that use an auxiliary source of power, in addition to
the power provided through the primary element, are termed relay-oper¬
ated controllers (Fig. 9-201, and c). Thisauxiliary power may be
into the measuring system, the error detector, or one or more amphfy g
relays In the typical controller of Fig. 9-18, the measuring means s self-
operated. The auxiliary power is provided by compressed a,r supplied at
the baffle-and-jet error detector and at pilot-valve power amplifier.
 CHAP. 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES 409

Dynamic Response Characteristics of Process and Control Systems.

Processes and their associated equipment have the characteristics of
delayed changes in the values of the process variables. The control
instrumentation also has response lags. In the previous example the
following types of time lags exist:

1. Process lags
a. Supply side capacity: heat capacity of steam coils
b. Demand side capacity: heat capacity of water in tank
c. Transfer resistance: heat-transfer resistance of fluid films and steam coil metal
wall
d. Velocity—distance: delay on lead time due to separation of inlet from measuring
element point (depends on velocity and degree of mixing)
2. Controller lags
a. Measuring element: resistance-capacitance characteristics of the measuring
element (e.g., thermometer bulb)
b. Controller: usually negligible
c* Transmission: resistance capacitance of connecting pipe and diaphragm motor;
keep the line length and volume of diaphragm motor as small as possible
d. Final control element: frictional inertia; dead time results from sticking valves

Dynamic system response theory in terms of time constants, corre¬

sponding to each lag, has been developed by means of differential equa¬
tions, while a corollary method known as frequency response has been
de\ eloped both theoretically and experimentally for determining the
dynamic lesponse characteristics of a system or component.1 A non-
mathematical graphical approach to frequency response has been pre¬
sented as an aid to engineers lacking advanced mathematics background.2
It is ob\ ious that lags of any kind should be reduced to a minimum bv
careful design, selection, installation, and maintenance.
Modes of Control. Modern industrial control instruments are designed
to produce one or several modes of control (or control responses to system
disturbances) as follows:
1. On-off (two position)
2. Proportional (throttling)
3. Proportional plus reset
4. Proportional plus rate (derivative)
5. Proportional plus reset plus rate (three-term control)

FiJ gT/hut nSTVi'lbe illustrated by use of the heat-transfer process of

% off p Wlth d!fferent types of error detectors and compensators

h,?Sp”“' ;'“m"he >■>. ”"be

“ F’ « I“'"‘ » 1»*F. The error-detecting ,„d compe,'

Pa
^1U CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

sating device, such as the on-off air-operated automatic control system

pictured in Fig. 9-18, either fully opens the steam valve if the hot water
is below the set point or fully closes it if the hot water is above the set
point. A hunting or cyclic action results, as shown in Fig. 9-2la; the
amplitude is inversely proportional to system demand capacity, and the

"Wvpv- — Set point

Hunting action
(a)

- — New control point

Offset
— Set point
Recovery I
Sudden - time
decrease in
demand id)
Pig. 9-21. Typical control mode characteristics, (a) On-off response (creates hunting
action); (6) proportional response (eliminates hunting but creates offset excep.on
constant preset demand); (c) proportional and reset response (eliminates hunting
and offset); (d) proportional plus rate or derivative response (reduces recovery time
but maintains offset unless reset is also used).

period is directly proportional to transfer resistance lag. This type of

control is not generally satisfactory and should be used only for mfrequen
or small demand changes, high system demand capacity, and low-transiei

Proportional Response. To eliminate hunting, a control element move¬

ment is incorporated which is a linear function of the controlled v ar 1a .
 CHAP. 9] JTJWV,.C<»0
PROCESS -T. —
AUXILIARIES 411

The resulting proportional controller throttles the steam supply in pro¬

portion to the demand. Instruments are designed lor a full-scale change
of the controlled variable, e.g., 100°F, or from 140 to 240 F in this example.
The instrument can be manually set to provide complete on to off valve
action over a percentage of the full-scale range ol the instrument. 4 his
percentage is termed proportional band width. In this example, a 20 per
cent proportional band width of 20°F at a set point ol 190°F would mean
that the control valve would be fully closed at 200°F, fully opened at
180°F, and half open at the set point of 190°F.
This control action eliminates hunting but creates offset or droop with
varying demand changes, such that there is a shifting control point (Fig.
9-216). A narrow proportional band setting produces the minimum offset
but maximum cycling action and recovery time. Offset can only be
eliminated by manually changing the set point of the instrument.
Proportional plus Reset Response. By adding an automatic element to
a proportional controller, the control point automatically returns to the
set point (see Fig. 9-21c). Thus, control without offset error is possible
under all load conditions, but the reset itself does not contribute to the
stability of the control loop. A majority of control applications require
only the proportional plus reset control. However, on systems with long
process lags, such as temperature applications with long thermal lags, a
more sensitive control is necessary to avoid overcontrolling and cycling,
thereby reducing recovery time. This mode of control will be discussed
next.
Proportional plus Rate Response. To decrease the recovery time, deriv¬
ative or rate response may be added to a proportional controller.’ The
control valve is moved at a rate proportional to the rate of change of the
controlled variable with time, i.e., derivative. Thus, the valve has its
greatest movement when the controlled variable is changing fastest and
t ns type of anticipation and response reduces the recovery time of the
system (Fig. 9-21 d). 1 he addition ol the reset mode, giving three-term
control, will eliminate the offset shown in this example.
These explanations serve as an introduction to the principles of
process control For further study, see the Additional Selected Refer-
s. The Process Instruments and Controls Handbook” cited
previously is particularly recommended.

Process Control Center

XmicZTalr tCh a" mr C0,ltr0,S are operatcd ‘ypi-

and operation, X77i
be designed for comfortable and pleasant working conditions'.
412 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT
_ __ DESIGN [chap. 9
Within the control room, the control board and data-logging center is
the key to automatic process control. Two functional control boards are
used. In conventional control panel design (Fig. 9-22a), instruments are
mounted closely together to centralize the working area; the operator is
within easy reach of every instrument, and the control room may be
reduced in size, allowing a more favorable plot location. Proponents of
graphic control panels (Fig. 9-22b) have designed the panel board as a
replica of the process flow diagram with instruments located in the proper
position in the process. This graphic panel has the advantage of quickly
impressing on the new operators the functional characteristics of each
control point in terms of the entire operation. This tends to reduce errors
in operating a plant. Miniature instruments designed originally for the
graphic system to reduce panel dimensions are also being incorporated in
conventional panel designs for the same reason.
Automatic data logging is an addition to control rooms which aids
process control (Fig. 9-22b). Electronic equipment is provided which
continually scans all process variables, typing on a log sheet the variables
which are off their preset limits, so that operators can make adjustments
when necessary. Other options include typing of a complete log of vari¬
ables periodically and teletyping production rates and other information
to remote points, such as the sales office.
The next step now being studied is complete automation and control of
the process by means of electronic computers, without use of operating
personnel. Such systems require mathematically defined knowledge of
the effect of process variables, which is presently available for only a few
simple processes. .
To provide adequate facilities for the control room, which, incidentally,
is only a small percentage of the capital investment, a few pointers are m

° L Provide comfortable heating and air-conditioning facilities; elimi¬

nate all flammable and toxic gases.
2. Use color schemes which are pleasing and restful; shades of green are
most often specified.
3. Provide a comfortable walking surface, such as rubber tile
4. Provide office, lunch preparation equipment, toilets, loc'er an

Sh5WeurSe00d"ffuSe lighting of about 30 foot-candles except in

front of and behind the panels where directional lighting

foot-canches “or explosion-proof wiring if the control

TliLatcoii operating functionality; provide at least

6 ft in the rear of control panels for instrument maintenance.
Fig. 9-22. Control room elements (n\ i?,. 1 -
center—S. D. Warren Co., Cumberland Mill^M^0 ^ conventional panel control
and S. D. Warren Co.) (b) Example of J ! G' (Courtesy of the Foxboro Co.
rr~S°hi° ,U0finery’ Toledo, Ohio. (Courtesij of TheM &W logging c°ntroi
Company of Ohio, and E. M. Payne Studios, New Yolk.)' W' A°9Q C°mt Standard
413
414 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

Control System Design

Centralization of control in one area, as described above, is possible

only through the use of transmitters and telemeter devices. The signal
from the measuring element located at a process point is carried back to
the control room where indicating, recording, and prime controlling ele¬
ments are located. The signal is then sent from this type of instrument
to the final control element within the process area. Transmitters of
either the electronic or pneumatic type are the signal carriers within the
process area. Telemetering by telephone, wire, or microwave is used for
remote operation.
The pneumatic control systemi has been the standard of the industry, but
has some disadvantages which must be “designed around” to reduce their
effects. Transmission lines over 300 ft should have a booster relay to
speed the signal. The required instrument air is usually supplied by a
separate air compression and dehydration system. The air supply must
be free of oil to prevent clogging of the instrument parts, and free of water
to avoid freezing. Pressure at the distribution header of about 3-in. line
size is 75 psi with instrument air at 3 to 20 psi operating standard dia¬
phragm valves. For higher-pressure systems, larger diaphragms or air
relay multipliers should be specified.
The electronic control system is the newer of the two and has several
advantages. Electric impulse signals from sensing elements, such as
thermocouples or liquid-level devices, can be transmitted after suitable
amplification through practically unlimited lengths of transmission lines.
This provides much greater sensitivity and eliminates the difficulties
caused by ice formation in air lines during extremely cold weather. The
principal disadvantage is that a proportional control signal must be con¬
verted to a pneumatic valving system, since electric motor-driven valves,
which could operate directly from the electric signal, are too slow and gear
wear is excessive. However, an electrically operated solenoid valve can
be used directly without pneumatic conversion for off-on control.

Design of Process Control Systems for High-pressure Plants1

The fundamentals discussed previously are applicable to plants of any
nressure range. However, instrumentation of processes at pressures over
3,000 psi presents additional complicating factors which fall into one or
more of the following general classifications:
1. Physical properties of process chemicals
2. Small-dimension characteristics, particularly lines
3. Safety requirements
4 Pulsating flows
. y. Anderson and S. Humbla, Vulcan-Cincinnati, Inc, private commumcahon.
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES 415
CHAP. 9]
There follows a brief discussion of each of these factors in relation to meas¬
urement and control of the more common variables, such as temperature,
' pressure, flow, and liquid level.
Physical Properties. Accurate values of process materials at high pres¬
sure are not known in most cases, nor can they be extrapolated with any
accuracy. Gases are above the critical point, and liquids are compres¬
sible, so that absolute measurements are difficult to obtain. Specification
of suitable instruments is difficult.
Small Dimensions. High-pressure gas lines may be quite small; in.
OD by Jfe in. ID is a common size. Making flow- and pressure-measure¬
ment sensing devices to fit on small lines, particularly jacketed lines, is a
real mechanical design problem.
Safety Requirements. This is not solely an instrumentation problem.
Code practice should be followed with special flanges, materials, and
welding procedures, specified for connection of the instrumentation ele¬
ments to pressure, piping, and equipment (see Perry’s “ Chemical Engi¬
neers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 1233-1261).
Pulsating Flows. This is the most troublesome factor of all, since it
adversely affects flow, pressure, and liquid-level measurements. Pulsa¬
tions set up by reciprocating pumps and compressors create pressure vari¬
ations superimposed on normal system pressures, along with vibration
effects. Damping devices, such as snubbers or restricting orifices, should
be used in the process lines. Signal damping can be specified' on the
instr ument transmission lines, if transfer lag is not excessive. Flexible
connections, in the form of U or O loop design, should be used to reduce
\ ibration transfer to instrument lines, if the vibration cannot be removed
fiom the process lines. The selection of proper instruments, which do not
use pressure-sensing devices, is the best way to circumvent the pulsed-flow
problem. Liquid level can be obtained by capacitance or radioactivity
probes; flow is measured by an electromagnetic flowmeter, if the fluid is
an electrical conductor.

Cost Estimation for Process Control

As cited in Chap. 6, basic instrumentation costs range from 3 to 20 per

ma io ooTo Z'Tr T"’ °n the ““P^nese of auto-

estimate Wthinm n "f™Tnientatlon costs are required for final cost
from th P • Instrumentation as listed by code numbers
trom the instrumentation flow sheets is set „r, „c. , . s
items on specification sheets and sent to suppliers FirmV Ins ,rument

purpose. i„ J "h
416 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9

Table 9-18. Iypical Price Ranges for Industrial Instruments

(1958 Prices)*

Estimated price range, $t

Low Average High

Temperature:
Differential expansion thermostat. 10 25 40
Indicating expansion thermometer. GO 145 230
Indicating resistance thermometer. 100 310 600
Indicating pyrometer. 100 225 300
Pressure:
Indicating bourdon-type gauge (noncorrosive con¬
ditions)
0—500 psi. 20 75 160
0—10,000 psi. 35 115 200
0—30 in. vacuum. 25 105 160
Indicating bourdon-type gauge (corrosive conditions
requiring diaphragm seal)
0—500 psi . 85 140 225
0-5 000 nsi . 110 170 250
0 SO in vfir.iinm . 75 150 225
St.rn i n-trail err lnfl.H r.rlls . 240 360 975
300 400 500
Fluid flow:
Volumetric meter
XTn + Q + innr rliQ^r mpt.Pr . 200 350 500
200 350 500
T coalrrl trast mrtrr . 100 200 300
Variable head
180 400 595
lIl(llCdllIlj5 UI lilt-G ..
110 360 700
indicating Vcllluii ..
Variable area meters
30 320 950
Indicating taperea tuuc loidintici.
Velocity meters
450 730 1,000
Electric-current tumine-wneei ..
775 3,290 7,800
Electromagnetic ..
300 440 620
Hot wire ..
Level:
Float type 200
75 150
Gauge glass. 1,590
200 810
Tank float with external intact tux.
Hydrostatic 210 400
40
Differential gauge. 500
300 400
Continuous capacitance. 2,000
465 1,230
Radioactive-ray absorption.
Strain gauge weighing 600 625
540
825 1,200 1,550
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES 417
CHAp. 9] niutMO --
Table 9-18. Typical Price Ranges for Industrial Instruments
(1958 Prices)* (Continued)

Estimated price range, $f

Low Average High

Density:
Photoelectric hydrometer. 120 550 1,000
Gas density balance. 480 1,150 2,000
Radioactive-ray absorption. 2,000 3,000 4,000
Viscosity:
Continuous viscosimeter. 220 2,450 4,000
Continuous consistency meter. 1,500 2,300 4,160
pH . 550 1,170 1 ,500
Electrical conductivity. 200 500 800
Thermal conductivity. 200 900 1,400
Combustible gas analyzers. 600 800 2,000
Gas humidity. 650 1,150 1,800
Spectroscopy:
Infrared. 2,000 3,000 20,000
Ultraviolet. 2,000 2,500 4,000
Mass spectrometry. 2,500 8,000 20,000
Radio frequency. 3,000 5,000 15,000
Gas chromatography. 4,500 6,500 15,000
Radioactivity measurements:
Ionization. 900 450 3 000
Scalar for proportional or G-M counting 500 1,100 1,500
Scintillation counters. . 900 1,400 4,000
Recording instrumentation for most of the sensing ele-
ments listed above (e.g., temperature, pressure, flow
rate):
1 point. 9nn cnn
OUU 1i , onn
ZUU
4 points. Qe;n ftnn i1,4UU
a no
ouu oUU
16 points.
i1 j uuu
non 1 , OUU 1
i, AAA
yoo
Recording-controlling instrumentation for most of the
sensing elements above (e.g., temperature, pressure,
flow rate); price does not include main control
valves:
1 point. ann r'AA
oUU / uu 1,600
4 points.
1i ,4UU
i nn 1,500 1,750
16 points. i1, onn
oUU 2,000 2,250
* _:. n l
companies.
costing less than ^ 000^° iTorf86 Pf1Ce for mstaPation charges on instruments
’ ’ ac ( Per cent f°r instruments costing over $2,000.
418 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9

POWER SYSTEMS

Chemical plants cannot operate without power from such sources as

steam and electricity. Power requirements are shown in tigs. 6-33 and
6-34. Reliability of power sources is taken for granted by chemical plant
design engineers. However, a great deal ol design experience must be
incorporated in such systems to guarantee economical and trouble-free
sources of power. IVIuch of the responsibility ot such systems lies in the
hands of electrical and mechanical engineers, but chemical engineers
should have a basic appreciation of the engineering features of power sys¬
tems used in chemical process plants.

Power Requirements
Power for the modern chemical plant is required for a variety of serv¬
ices, i.e., (1) process heat in the form of steam, electrical, nuclear, or
fossil-fuel power; (2) mechanical power; (3) electric power; (4) refriger¬
ation; (5) heating, ventilating, and air conditioning; (6) gas compression.
These power requirements can be supplied in several ways, depending on
economic factors. Typical power sources are (1) utility-owned hydro¬
electric, steam-generating, or nuclear power plants; (2) company-owned
steam-generating or nuclear plants for process heat and electric power (3)
company-owned internal-combustion plants, particularly adapted to
emergency stand-by operation; (4) conventional direct or indirect tossil-
fuel-fired furnaces, heat exchangers, kilns, etc. A discussion of several ot
these types of power plants is in order.

Process Steam Power

Most chemical plants produce their own steam *or » HncUu"-
heatinc medium, and as a direct power source for pumps, jets, and tu
bines, In addition to furnishing a
some chemical processes, such catalytic re to V indus.
The pressure-temperature requirements of steam or t P ^ ^

tries vary greatly. A somewhat uni mry ^ saturated) being one

terms of low or high pressures, with 250 psia (40 boiler
dividing point. Supply stations can be^ one^ or more U

house, with . complex •'«*"'» *.p°c„dh,s on pi.u.

boilers, located strategica y from turbine operation, is a
economic studies. Steam exhaus , available enthalpy
source of process heat. Waste-heat bofie^ ise t break-even
from high-temperature gases to^generate steam. ^Aue^

point study on waste-heat steam geneiauo

should be above 1000 to 1100 F.
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES
419
CHAP. 9]
For further study of boilers, furnaces, and waste-heat recovery units,
the reader is referred to Perry’s “ Chemical Engineers Handbook .kl e .,
sec. 24, pp. 1628-1652, on steam plants; sec. 23, pp. 15J8 102o, on 1
naces and kilns.

Nuclear Power
The development of nuclear-power devices has grown rapidly since
1950. It has been estimated that 1 lb of a fissionable luel, such as the
uranium isotope U235, has an energy equivalent of 3 million lb of coal, and
there is 40 to 60 times more energy potentially available from nuclear
than from fossil fuel, based on known reserves. The vast amount of
energy available from a small quantity of fissionable fuel found m lela
tivelv large abundance on the earth s surface, or capable of being gen¬
erated by fission-fertile fuel processes, makes this type of power attrac¬
tive. Steam power plants have been designed and operated with nuclear
fuel as a power source. Competitive economics has limited nuclear plants
to locations where fossil fuel is expensive. This situation will shift as
fossil-fuel supplies are gradually reduced and allocated for small-capacity
power units. Direct application of nuclear heat for chemical processing is
being recommended; economic factors again limit this idea. In Chap. 10,
Nuclear Chemical Plant Design, nuclear systems are discussed in more
detail. The reader is referred to this chapter and its References.

Electric-power Generation

Electricity is a very important and useful form of power for the chemi¬
cal industries. Electrochemical industries are based on this energy
source. Other chemical plants use electricity for driving pumps, com¬
pressors, agitators, and other mechanical equipment, for process instru¬
mentation, and for lighting.
Careful consideration must be given to the source, cost, and reliability
of the primary electric-power supply. Power can be either purchased
from a public or private utility, produced at the plant site by steam-driven
turbogenerators or natural gas-driven engines, or purchased from an
adjacent industrial plant as a by-product. An economic study is neces¬
sary to select the type or types of power supply to be specified. Impor¬
tant factors which are considered in such a study include:
1. Proximity to existing utility power lines. The plant location may
be so remote from satisfactory public utility lines that power costs would
be excessive and service undoubtedly unreliable.
2. Magnitude and type of power requirement. Many plants, particu¬
larly electrochemical plants, require large blocks of power, sometimes
more than an entire municipality. Utility companies may not wish to
420 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
expand their facilities for only one user. Cooperative industrial area
development would be required to interest a utility company. Fre¬
quently, peak demand and load requirements do not match the utility’s
output.
3. Large demand for low-pressure steam for processing and heating.
Through the use of high-pressure boilers, some operating above the critical
conditions for water, it is possible to extract power for prime movers, such
as electric-generating steam turbines, and to obtain a cheap and plentiful
source of bleed steam or high-pressure exhaust steam. This balancing of
process steam and electric power is a part of the economic study which
should be made if process steam requirements exceed 50,000 lb of steam
per hour.
4. Availability of by-product fuel and heat. Fuel and heat sources are
readily available in many chemical industries with no cost other than
handling. Forms of this by-product energy differ: combustible chemical
products from paper mills; combustible gases from blast furnaces, coke
ovens, and refineries; hot air from smelters and cement plants.
5. Competitive capital ventures. The over-all investment picture
must be considered. If competitive electric power is available from a
progressive and reliable utility, the capital should not be invested in a
company-owned electric generating plant, but in additional chemical
plant facilities which yield higher returns.

Emergency Power
Well-designed and maintained electric-power supply systems have a
very high degree of reliability. However, accidental power interruptions
do occur and some stand-by system must be provided to keep essential
equipment running. Certain vessels, pipes, and sumps must be drained.
Refrigeration or heating may be required to prevent spoilage. Emer¬
gency lighting is important to shut down the plant safely.
° A diesel- or gas-engine-driven generator set is usually provided for t is
purpose. These internal-combustion plants are discussed in erry s
“Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 1652-1655 For effective
action in the event of a major power failure, automatic interlock with the
emergency power generator is provided. Emergency fire equipment is
usually driven by direct-connected gasoline engines.

Electric System Design for Chemical Plants

There are many factors which govern the design, installation, and main-

by the electrical group in a chemical plant design g

major electrical design items include:
 PROCESS AUXILIARIES
421
CHAP. 9]
1. Power generation or purchased power substation and switching
a Cost factors—investment and operating costs ,
b. Operating factors-reliability, safety, voltage regulation, joint use of lines an

2. Distribution systems-feeders, unit substations, transformers, switchgear, and

overload protection
3 Power wiring for plant equipment—motors, heaters, furnaces, welders
i Lighting equipment—inside and outside buildings, yards, roadways, and protective
lighting
5. Electrical process control systems
6. Communication equipment—intercommunication, public telephone
7. Safety equipment—fire alarm, burglar alarm, lightning and other static arresters
8. Environmental factors—excessive temperature, corrosion, and explosion hazards

Codes and Sources of Design Information. Electrical design is

governed by rules and regulations of such codes and organizations as:
1. American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE), 33 W. 39th St.,
New York.
2. Association of Iron and Steel Engineers (AISE), Empire Building,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
3. American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), 1916 Race St.,
Philadelphia.
4. Edison Electrical Institute (EEI), 420 Lexington Ave., New York.
5. National Board of Fire LTnderwriters, 85 John St., New York.
(Prepares the National Electric Code.)
6. National Bureau of Standards (NBS), Washington, D.C. (Hand¬
book 14-32 in particular contains basic safety rules dealing with the
installation and maintenance of electric supply and communication
systems.)
7. National Electric Code (NEC), Cl-1959 edition, with editions pub¬
lished triannually; available through American Standards Association,
70 E. 45th St., New York.
8. National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA), 155 E
44th St., New York.
9. National Safety Council (NSC), 20 Wacker Drive, Chicago.
10. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL), 207 E. Ohio St., Chicago.
11. Local or plant codes (check with local authorities and plant engi¬
neering group).
Codes are only the minimum requirements, and with these aids a good
job can be done, but experience within the electrical design group is
required for incorporating the best engineering practice.
Electrical Distribution Systems. Starting at the source of power sup¬
ply, the basic electrical system includes transmission, substation, trans¬
formation, switching, distribution by feeders, the items of use and
protective safety equipment. Electrical flow sheets are prepared, using
422 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 9
symbols such as those given in Fig. 9-23. Reference to NEC code for each
system item is also included. Some important facts about the principal
items in this industrial plant electric system will be discussed next.

1959 National
Electrical Code
References
Articles:
Primory cobles-710,230
Outside aerial wiring_730
Lightning arresters_ 280,2391
Potheods_ 2387
Meters and instruments-2352,2375

, -fr-- 7--i'cRelays. 2870

-Disconnecting switches_710,230
\
[._ --L-Circuit breaker in vault-2389
K-Circuit breakers_710,230

Transformer vaults_450,712

j-1-Transformers, instrument-.4512, 262

Transformers, oil insulated-450

System grounding_250
-Bus bar. .328

-Aircircuit breakers_ 240,248

T -» budbr: Switchboards (or switchgear)-384,385

Equipment grounding-250
A ^

A ~
—

) ) Transformers, dry-type-450,4521
Rigid metal conduit.-346
Flexible metal conduit-350
>e-wireways_362
Capacitors-460,2352
Higher voltage fluorescent lighting-2113
-Buswoys-364
:-Safety switches-

_Ground for low-voltage lightning arrester .263

Receptacles, heavy-duty-4160,r:i4d
-<-Transformers, low-voltage-450
--Flexible cords. 400
-Portoble appliances. 422
-Infrared heating appliances-422

Transformers, machine-lighting-450

670
500
Hazardous locations- 0
- -YV?
Motor disconnects 4330 438
Motor controllers-432,433U,<oo
Equipment grounding-250

See nextpage .430

_,_Motors- fi7n
for continuation __Mochine tools-D
industrial plant electrical distribution system.
Fig. 9-23. Graphical symbols for an - . „ ,
Book Company, Inc., 1950; revised by General Electnc C o.|
CH\P. 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES

Incoming Power Source. The characteristics of the primary power

source from the main transmission line should be determined as follows:
1. Incoming line voltage and frequency. This is generally 60-cycle
alternating current and 13,800 volts or higher.
2. Available short-circuit kva from the transmission line in order to
size circuit breakers.
3. Main substation ownership and maintenance.
Internal Plant Power Distribution. The voltage for a distribution sys¬
tem is governed by several factors, including the plant area to be sei\ iced,
size of largest motors and other power equipment, voltage drop, and cost.

1959 National
Electrical Code
References
424 CHEMICAL
- ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN
-[CHAP. 9
Electrical equipment specifications are discussed in Chap. 4; in particular,
see Fig. 4-5. Lighting requirements are given in Perry’s “Chemical Engi¬
neers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., pp. 1755-1759. Voltages most commonly used
are 13,800, 4,1 GO, 2,300, 550, and 440 volts with secondary reduction to
220 or 110 volts for lighting and office fixtures.
Size of substations must be chosen with care. As size is reduced, more
material is required for high-voltage feeders, transformers, and switches.
However substations supplying too great an area will increase secondary
circuitry costs. This is again an economic balance. Optimum power
ratings for a three-phase substation are 400 to GOO kva with 208/120 or
230-volt secondaries and GOO to 1,000 kva with 4G0-volt secondaries.
The two general methods of running primary feeders to substations and
secondary lines from there to equipment are underground and overhead.
Underground distribution is generally recommended around chemical
plants unless rocky ground makes the cost prohibitive or the water table
is sufficiently high to flood permanently any below-ground installation.
Underground feeders may be insulated neoprene, lead-covered or steel-
armored cable of aluminum, or copper buried directly in the soil below
the frost line. A group of cables can be run in a light-wall galvanized
steel, concrete-asbestos, or compressed fiber pipe, colored red on the out¬
side, and either buried, laid in a trench below ground, or rested on top of
the ground. The best method is to use underground tunnels, accessible
by manholes 100 to 250 ft apart, with sufficient room for two men to
install the cable and make the necessary repairs. The advantages of the
underground type of distribution are: (1) safe except to maintenance
personnel under certain conditions, (2) reliable since it is not affected
by severe weather conditions, and (3) does not produce an unsightly
appearance. . , -
The inherent disadvantages of the underground system are high hist
cost, inconvenience, and excessive cost of maintenance. Overhead con¬
struction is often used since it can be installed at about one-third the cost
of the underground system, and repairs can be quickly made. However,
such lines are exposed to impairment by weather, lightning, true 's,
cranes and corrosion, so that overhead construction should be avoided in
congested areas where a reliable and safe electrical system is necessary.
Electrical Equipment Protection. Equipment must be constantly pro¬
tected against excessively high currents from short circuits or faulty o
ation Circuit breakers which open the circuit automatically on overload
are sized and installed throughout the ent ire distribution system, mclud g
both primary and secondary systems. The design P
fine the interruption to the piece of equipment or circuit at fau ,
CHAP 9] PROCESS AUXILIARIES

disconnect switches are installed for isolating purposes when repairing

or replacing equipment in various areas.
Safety Practices in Electrical Design. Damages and losses of equip¬
ment and personnel make adherence to codes a necessary requirement of
design. The National Electric Code (NEC) is issued for the purpose of
preventing loss of life and injury to personnel and preventing fire losses.
Types of construction for electrical equipment have been dictated in fhis
code by the degree of hazard in the surroundings and give rise to NEC
area classification.

Area Classification
Class I. Hazards of combustible gas or vapor mixtures.
Groups A through G: Order of decreasing explosion hazard atmospheres
containing the following combustibles:
Group A: Acetylene
Group B: Hydrogen or manufactured gas
Group C: Ethyl ether vapor
Group D: Acetone, alcohol, gasoline, petroleum fractions, lacquer solvents, and
similar vapors
Group E: Metal dust
Group F: Carbon black, coal or coke dust
Group G: Grain dust
Division 1. Location where flammable gases or vapors may exist under normal
operating conditions, or under repair or maintenance conditions.
Division 2. Location where flammable gases, vapors, or volatile liquids are handled
in a closed system with suitable equipment, or where hazardous con¬
centrations are normally prevented by positive mechanical ventila¬
tion, areas adjacent to Class I, Division 1, from which fumes might
occasionally drift.
Division 3. Locations where ignitable deposits of combustible finishes, such as
paints, can accumulate.
Class II. Hazards of combustible dust-laden atmospheres
Groups A through G: Same as under Class I
Division 1. Similar to Class I, Division 1
Division 2. Similar to Class I, Division 2
eiass III. Hazards of low-ignition-point materials of construction and production
lvision 1. Manufactured areas where ignitable materials produce large surface
to volume “flyings”
Division 2. Storage areas for ignitable materials

Design for Hazardous Areas. This type of area classification tends to

simplify ,he electrical design by directive means, but poses alternate
choice problems, dictated by economics. The cost of an explosion-proof
installation is as much as twice that using standard equipment. As an
e. °f n,10r.e cost*y electrical equipment, rigid metal conduit with
readed explosion-proof boxes and fittings are required for all Class I
1 ivrsion 1, hazardous locations; either rigid metal conduit or electrical
etal tubnig is approved for both Class I and II, Division 2, locations ‘
II, Division 1, locations, the wiring must be in rigid metal
426 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 9
tubing with threaded boxes and fittings. Watertight equipment is
required for damp locations; suitable materials of construction must be
supplied for corrosive conditions. Everdur or aluminum is used for cer¬
tain acid or alkali conditions.
Electric motor design for hazardous areas has been given in Chap. 4,
and cost of motors can be found from Fig. 6-22.
Often explosion-proof equipment is not available; for example, it is
difficult to buy explosion-proof motors greater than 250 hp as a stock
item. One of the following methods can be used to provide low-cost pro¬
tection in hazardous-area operations:
1. Remote location. Substations and switchgear can often be located
outside the hazardous area. Lighting equipment can be placed outside
the area, and the electric-light energy transmitted through skylights and
windows. Power may be transmitted by extending sealed shafts into the
hazardous area.
2. Ventilation in special rooms or chambers. Lower-cost standaid
motors are enclosed with light sheet metal and pressurized with uncon¬
taminated air or other inert purge gas. A housing pressure of 1 to 2 lb is
sufficient to exclude hazardous gas from the equipment enclosure. In
some cases, positive-pressure ventilation of an entire room or building is
recommended to allow use of less expensive standard electrical equipment

th(Grounding. The best-insulated and most carefully installed electrical

system does not always stay perfectly insulated. Grounding when
properly installed, acts as a double safety: (1) personnel are protected
from dangerous shock hazards because voltage to ground is not excessive
and (2) faults in circuitry give high current surges to ground, and rapidly
open the overload switching. The two common types of grounding are
nermanent grounding of the distribution system and equipment giounds
rhrough the non-current-carrying metal parts. Metallic parts, which
must be grounded according to code, include conduits or cable sheut 5,
,Ut!h,roar electric-motor frames, and similar items. Equipment placed
on cement floors is not truly grounded and must have independent gumm
connections to water piping and the 1 ' i trie svstem
Protection by Inaccessibility. Common sense dictates electricsys en
protection, and one of the best means is to=t unaut
from contact with J*tnc syste^stations are enclosed by chain fencing
greater than 110 volts. Outsi le suosui Indoor substa-
with barbed-wire topping, an warning *-> c electrical-maintenance
tion rooms are also posted in the
men can have ready ^ess. black, yellow, and orange for
:rhe«a,,a"ts red adapted for buried cable carrying condrut.
 CHAPTER 10

Nuclear Chemical Plant Design

INTRODUCTION

Chemical engineering as applied to design in the nuclear field is basically

the same as applied in other industrial realms; it is based on physical and
chemical principles. Specialization within the scope of the nuclear field
is termed “nuclear engineering,” which involves the following problems of
a chemical engineering nature: nuclear-fuel production starting from basic
mineral depositions, enrichment via gaseous diffusion, nuclear-fuel “burn¬
ing” and heat removal, chemical reprocessing and regeneration of spent
nuclear fuel, fission-product utilization, and radioactive waste disposal.
To understand the factors which make nuclear chemical plant design
different from the conventional chemical plant design discussed in previ¬
ous chapters, two basic nuclear physics principles must be understood.1
The first is the nuclear chain reaction:

Fission fuel + 1 neutron —► fission fragments + 2-3 neutrons + energy

This simplified equation shows that more than one neutron is emitted for
each one used in the fissioning of the fuel (U233, U235, or Pu239) By
proper design of a nuclear reactor or a chemical processing vessel contain¬
ing fission fuel, the chain reaction can be controlled so that there is no net
gain of neutrons available for fission with time.
The second principle of prime importance to the design engineer is that
ol ladioactivity. In simplified form:

' negative beta (/}-) particles or electrons

j positive beta (d+) particles or positrons
Fuel and fission fragments I gamma rays (7)
alpha particles (a) or helium nuclei
.neutrons (n)
' Nomenclature and nuclear constants are given on pages 469 and 470
427
428 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 10

As will be discussed under health physics, the energy represented by the

products on the right-hand side can be injurious to both man and material.
1 hus we see that the two novel plant design factors in nuclear chemical
engineei ing aie (1) protection of personnel and selection of materials of
construction to avoid the injurious effects of radioactive energy; (2)
inherent hazard of accidentally producing an uncontrolled nuclear chain
reaction with the instantaneous release of vast quantities of energy and
radioactivity. This chapter will emphasize the design principles involved
in coping with the hazardous problems created in the nuclear engineering
field.

HEALTH PHYSICS PRINCIPLES

The design engineer is responsible for protecting all people within and
without the plant area from nuclear process hazards. In radiochemical
processes, protection from radiation hazard is of prime importance. The
human body may be exposed to radioactivity externally by direct bom¬
bardment of rays or particles or internally through breathing, ingestion,
or cuts in the skin. Radiation hazard experience includes skin burns, skin
cancers, eye cataracts, bone tumors, and fatalities from acute exposure.
Other injurious effects reported are sterility and leukemia. Thus, it is
necessary to employ good plant design practice and rigid monitoring by a
plant health physics group after plant start-up.

Biological Effects
The exposure to radiation is the product of the absorbed dose rate, which
is a rate of energy absorption, and the exposure time. Most of the
injuries listed above are of the threshold type. The dosage lecek ed must
exceed a minimum before any physiological effect is observed. Above
this level, small dose rates for a long period of exposure time are less
injurious than an equivalent total dosage comprised of a very-high-level
dose rate for a much smaller period of time. From an engineering view¬
point, the dose rate must be expressed in quantitative units as discussed
next.

Radiation Dose Units

The roentgen (r) is the unit most commonly used to define a unit of
radiation energy. One roentgen is the quantity of X rays or gamma rays
which will produce one electrostatic unit of charge as a result of ionization
of 1 cm3 of dry air at 0°C and 700 mm Hg pressure. 1 his is equivalent
to 83 ergs/g of air. The roentgen is a measure of the total energy absorp¬
tion in air; as such the unit is independent of the other media, such as o y
CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
429

tissue, in which the absorption may occur. The relationship between the
roentgen and destruction of body tissue requires new units of definition.
The International Commission on Radiological Units has adopted a
unit of absorbed radiation, called the rad, which represents 100 ergs/g of
any energy absorbed by any material at the point of interest. For muscle
and most soft tissue, ordinary X rays or gamma rays produce a local
energy absorption per roentgen of 93 ergs/g of tissue. Under these special
conditions, 1 r equals 0.93 rad. The difference between 0.93 rad and
1 rad is insignificant in specifying dosage levels for protection. Theiefoie,
assume that 1 r of ordinary X rays or gamma rays produces a soft-tissue
dose of 1 rad.
The physical damage to tissue is a function of the type of radiation, i.e.,
100 ergs of X-ray absorption differs physiologically from 100 ergs of alpha

Table 10-1. Practical Relationships among Radiation Units

Relative Radiation Roentgen

Roent¬
biological absorbed equivalent
gen
effectiveness dose man

Accepted abbreviation. r RBE rad rem

Type of radiation:
X and gamma rays. ~ 1 1 1 1
Beta particles. ~ 1 1 1 1
Fast neutrons. ~ 1 10 1 10
Thermal neutrons. ~ 1 5 1 5
Protons. ~ 1 10 1 10
Alpha particles (internal ingestion). ~ 1 10-20 1 10-20

particles when absorbed in body tissue. A comparison has to be made on

the basis of a quantity called the relative biological effectiveness (RBE)
defined as

RBE = physical dQSe 200-kv X rays to produce desired effect

physical dose of other radiation to produce same effect

Uilues of RBE for various types of radiation are listed in Table 10-1.
The final unit of interest, the rem or roentgen equivalent man, is a true meas¬
ure of the biological injury produced from various types of radiation
the dosage can be expressed in terms of units of total energy absorption
multiplied by the relative biological effectiveness:

Dose in rems = dose in rads X RBE

A summary of the relationships between the values of the r, rad, and rem
foi \ anous types of radiation is given in Table 10-1.
430 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 10

Maximum Permissible External Exposure

To stay below the threshold levels for radiation damage, the National
Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurement recommends the
following standards for occupational conditions in controlled areas:
Accumulated Dose. The maximum permissible accumulated dose, in
rem, at any age is equal to five times the number of years beyond age
eighteen, provided no annual increment exceeds 15 rem. Thus, the
accumulated MPE = 5 (N — 18) rem, where N is the age and greater
than 18. This amounts to an average of approximately 5 rem per year
between ages eighteen and seventy.
Weekly Dose. The permissible weekly whole-body dose is 0.1 rem
(100 mrem) or 2.5 mrem/hr on a 40-hr-week basis.
By restricting the exposure to certain parts of the body such as the skin
of the hands or feet where the threshold levels for damage are greater, the
MPE may be doubled. Most companies allow anywhere from 20 to 50
per cent of the 100 mrem per week value on a yearly integrated dosage
basis for their personnel.
Emergency Dose. For planned short-time emergency exposures a
total dose of 25 rem to the whole body is allowable, provided it occurs
only once in a lifetime. Note that the lethal dosage for short-time
exposure lies between 200 and 800 rem.

Maximum Permissible Internal Exposure

Radioactive material may enter the body by ingestion, by breathing,
or through open wounds. Maximum permissible concentration (MPC)
of various isotopes in air and drinking water have been set up by the Inter¬
national Commission on Radiological Protection. These are based on the
average energy of radiation and an average dose rate internally of 0.1 rem
ner week Threshold values of the dose are difficult to determine because
of the variation of biological half life (time to reduce the radioactivity in
the body to one-half its initial value). Table 10-2 lists MPC values for
some isotopes likely to be encountered. Where mixtures of isotopes are
encountered, multiply the MPC value for each isotope by its respectiv

atom fraction.

Maximum Permissible Radiation Flux

The flux (d>) is the number of particles or photons flowing per unit time

.hS&S 1. -p-*t' - *■ “-r V £TS

is the product of the flux and the energy (E) per paiticle.
 nuclear chemical plant design
431
CHAP. 10]
shielding. The basic absorption law is

<t> = <j> = <t> oe~b (10-1)

where 4>o is the flux at the front plane of the absorbing medium, cj> is the
flux at a distance x from the front plane, p is the attenuation or absorption
coefficient for the absorbing medium, and b = \xx. W riting Eq. (10-1) in
incremental form, .
— A<f> = n4> Ax (lU-ij

Consider A.t = 1/p for a unit gram mass of material with an exposed frontal
plane area of 1 cm2, where p is the density of the absorbing substance in
grams per cubic centimeter. Since E is the energy in millions of electron
volts (Mev) per particle or photon of radiation, then the rate of energy
absorption or dose rate is

D in Mev/g-sec = E A<£ = — E<f) = - I (10-3)

P P

Application to Gamma Rays. One mrad =1 mr as shown previ¬

ously. One mrad absorbed in the tissue liberates 0.1 erg/g. The mass
absorption coefficient p/p is 0.032 cm2/g for tissue in the energy range of
0.07 to 2 Mev. Substituting these values in Eq. (10-3) gives

D in mr/hr = D in mrad/hr
3,600 secN
hr

= 5.76 X 10-2- E<t> = 1.86 X lO~3E<t> (10-4)

P

If the maximum allowable dose rate for a 40-hr week is 100/40, or 2.5
mr/hr, then the maximum allowable flux is

2.5 1,300 photons

<t> = (10-5)
1.86 X 10~*E E cm2-sec
and the maximum allowable intensity is
1,300 Mev
cm2-sec
(10-6)

Table 10-3 lists design values of flux and intensity for other types of
radiation.

Radioactive Energy Sources

In previous sections, the absorption of energy in various media is dis¬

cussed along with the resulting tissue damage. The source of this energy
" i . b.°, descnbed next. A radioisotope is an element whose nucleus is
unstable and undergoes a disintegration process in which energy is released
in one oi more forms of alpha or beta particles or gamma photons. The
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a. • lO »o »o p © © © p XX X X
5 0010
rH CO CO rH fN. t>. 1—1 c— co t— * co P
rH rH 1-H CO co
H OJ OJ OJ ; oj oj oj -

3-3
o a
S<- a 4)
3 d
O 3
a>
o tl
c
C3
-♦-> 2© 3 i§
CO Pi( B £
£} CO CO : n; S t»tc= _ •H
^ c3 03 53 HPi GO ^
- c flppp c c 1 o; c cz p--or B'z *v
O co .
— H 3 3
Table

rinH . - 3CS33 . ' 2 -• CO - rj

3 CGGGGGG-0
3 © g H .2 5 C m — *»h C >— •«-» • H ^ r-
3 2 3* B 45* S 45.3 C 3 3 £ tW caS P 3 « a-B 11
3 — GhhGggogog2
B 3 0 0 3 3^ r- rf q OT"l! ^ T ^ 0 QO.^
O 2‘S'S'S’S'C'C gs
O
+J
+-■ C3c4033ss223j-J3^B •c
3
■a
■—* O
3 3 .3
odd £ bcop t‘2
d5 O uJl o 0. u *
S3 45 S S'® H
2.2 h h k h >.BJ3 1, # u # « XX2
p^H
ce 0
SE pdPPPHHfeO^Oi-l
432
 433
CH\P. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN

Table 10-3. Design Values of Flux and Intensities for Maximum

Permissible Exposure (MPE)
/Basis: MPE = 100 mrem/week; 40-hr work week\
\ E = energy in Mev '

MPE, Flux, <j>, Intensity, / = E<t>,

Type of radiation per cm2-sec Mev/cm2-sec
mrad/week

100 1,300/E photons 1,300

X or gamma (7).
100 32/E particles 32
Beta (j3).
20 050 neutrons 650 E
Thermal neutron.
Fast neutron (E = 0.01 to
10 Mev). 10 20/a/E neutrons 20 VE
Proton. 10
Alpha (internal only). 5

disintegration rate follows from the kinetic equation

— dN
—=— = XiV disintegrations/unit time (10-7)
dt

where N = atoms of radioactive element

X = decay constant
t = elapsed time when N = N0
Equation (10-7) integrates to

N = N 0c-x< (10-8)

A convenient measure of the rate of disintegration is the so-called half

life {ty2), which is the time to reduce the concentration of the radioactive
element to one-half its original value. Substituting in Eq. (10-8),

N
(10-9)
Wo ~/2 = e ,M
0.693
or X = (10-10)
'H

The half-life (ty) values for some elements of interest are listed in Table
10-2.
It is sometimes desirable to determine the number of disintegrations
per second coming from W grams of radioisotope of atomic weight A. Use
of Eqs. (10-10) and (10-7) and Avogadro’s number gives

W
Decay rate = (0.693) (6.03 X 1023)
disintegrations/sec (10-11)
At^

The curie unit is in common use as a measure of disintegration rates. One

curie is that quantity of any substance that gives 3.7 X 1010 disintegra-
434 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 10

tions per second. Let Sc be the source strength in curies of W grams of an

element of atomic weight ,4 and half life ty in seconds. Then, by substi¬
tution in Eq. (10-11),

W
Sc = 1.13 X 1013 (10-12)
Aty2

Note that the definition of a curie involves disintegrations per second,

not particles or photons per second. One must know the type of decay
and the energy liberation per particle.

Example 10-1. One hundred disintegrations of I131 by negative beta (0 )-particle

decay produce statistically the following particles, photons, and energy (see Table
10-2):

0~ particles, Gamma photons,

Number energy per particle, Number energy per photon,
Mev Mev

0.7 0.815 2.8 0.722

87.2 0.608 9.3 0.637
9.3 0.335 87.2 0.284
2.8 0.250 0.7 0. 163
87.2 0.080

100 jE'av = 0.574 Mev 187.2 £av = 0.398 Mev

y = 1.0 particle/disintegration y = 1-8/ photons/disintegration

Typical emission data for isotopes can be found in Table 10-2^ with a
complete listing given in the Radiological Health Handbook, Sanitaiy
Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1955.
From the example above, it is seen that the yield (y) of particles and
photons per disintegration can be obtained as well as the accompanying
average energy. These two variables can be inserted in Eq. (10-11) to
give the source strength Sp in particles or photons per second or SE m
terms of Mev per second.

(0,693)(6.03 X 10")QCy) rticles 0r photons/sec (10-13)

ty>A
(0.693)(6.03 X 1023)(IC^Tav) Mev/sec (10-14)
tyA

or, with Eq. (10-12),

(10-15)
.S' = 3 7 X 101(>ySc particles or photons/sec
(10-10)
Sg = 3.7 X 10">yE.A Mev/sec

To permit maximum permissible exposure ^P^dC?“d^°^e^ term

(see Table 10-3), the source strength must be divi e )
CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN

which is related to the space configuration between the source and the
receiver. If the resulting flux or intensity is too large, biological shielding
' will have to be placed between the radiating source and the person or
material being exposed. This brings up the very important subject of
shielding design.

SHIELDING DESIGN

Chemical process plants handling radioisotopes of high-level activity

will require shielding for alpha, beta, and gamma emission to avoid dam¬
age to personnel and equipment. The basic principles developed in this
section will apply to all radiations but only the gamma-ray shield design
is discussed in detail because the gamma rays are far more penetrating
than the others. Hence, the common occurrence of (3 and y radiation
simultaneously requires no design for (3 shielding since any shielding mate¬
rial which will reduce the y intensity to a safe level will automatically
reduce the intensity to a negligible value.
Plants handling heavy radioisotopes such as uranium have a problem
of guarding against a-particle emission. Alpha particles of less than 7.5
Mev from stable isotopes do not have sufficient energy to penetrate the
protective layer of body skin, thus requiring no external biological shield¬
ing. However, extreme precaution must be taken to prevent internal
sorption as the heavy isotopes accumulate in certain sections of the body
and cause serious tissue damage.

Gamma Shielding Design

The exponential law for absorbing radiation energy as given in Eq.

(10-1) is not exact for gamma photons, principally because the scattering
of some of the photons in the beam and subsequent return is not true
adsorption. The attenuation of beam intensity is always less than
piedicted by Eq. (10-1) and this physical phenomenon is taken into account
by modifying the exponential attenuation law to give

0 = = foBe-

The approximate build-up factor B for most elements up to 3 Mev is

1 +'\bT°r ‘Tead’ B=1 + h/Z <See FiS- 1<W for the relation between
- and 0o/<*>.) In most cases, it can be assumed that B = 6; this is known
as linear build-up.

The absorption coefficient „ can be estimated from the fact that a/p or

for dernents fr°n C°, ^ iS & C°nStant and ef>ual to about 0.04 cm*/g
values of u/ Tn T™ )° "ranium for 2-Mev photons. More exact
m/p c. a function of photon energy are given in Fig. 10-1.
436 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 10

Density
/5,g/cc
Os.Ir —22
Absorption Pt ~ —
coefficients 20
Au.W
Linear
=-18
F cm'
To-E
§-16
Moss
p/p. cm2/g
=-14
Hg
Rh- =
Pd-E-12
Pb
Th
Ag Mo
-10
Bi -E
— 1 Co ,Cu
Ni -p 9
0.8 Cd
Se 8
Sm
E-0.6 Sn,In-E
Cr -7
■0.5 Pr
Zr
Te
-0.4
V-
Photon energy, Mev

Go
Y-t I.C.
Ge- =
-0.3
I-j^-5
Se
Ti —
- 0.2
—4
Bo
B.C.

0.1
Al
i-0.08 Sr
Si
O.C.
-0.06

S— 2
Cs
-0.04 Be
Mg
C
-0.03
Co
Rh

-0.02
0. C. - Ordinory concrete
B. C. - Barytes concrete
£ C. - Iron oggregate concrete
No -1

- 0.01 -0.9
K
-0.8

Fig 10-1
Absorption coefficients for gamma-ray attenuation. [Courtesy of D. G.
Melt Nucleonics, 140): 40 (1956).]
 NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
437
CHAP. 10]
id)
ko)
p- 30

h25

-20

15 ic)
C-110

H00

10

9 -90

8
id)
7 p 80 c- 3.0
E— 2*
6
r-70
- 2.0
i-3'
P5

-60 j-4'
-4
he'

he'
-3.0
F-io'
r- 2.5
E-15’

- 2.0 p-20'
-20
l—0.5
P30'
yEov
1.5
(Mev)
PlO P40'

L0 D0 x10~* p60'
— 1.0 Reference (mr/hr)
— 80'
Sc x\0~N
R
(curies)

10-4).10 2 N°m0graPh for P°int source-absorbed dose rate calculations (see Table
438 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10

The flux 4> can be converted to the health physics dose rate D by Eq.
(10-4) if there were some method of relating the source strength S to the
initial or frontal plane flux </>0. Furthermore, if the area for absorption
incieases with distance as is the case lor a spherical shield surrounding a

For build-up correction, 0.02-q

B-\^b for concrete, steel, and water
B = 1 + b/2 for lead
0.03

>-—i.o,

-2.0

CO
1.0

“-1.0

0.5

3.0-

H- £
(cm-1) (Mev)

Fig. 10-3. Nomograph for shielding thickness determinations: point source or linear
build-up cases (see Table 10-4).

point source or a concentric shield enclosing an internal volume source,

then this area change has to be taken into account. If there is appreci¬
able absorption of energy within the 7-ray source itself this sell-absorp¬
tion complicates the picture. The complexity of such shielding calcula¬
tions does not justify exhaustive treatment in a book of this scope^
Modifications of the nomograph solutions of Balderston, 1 ay 01, an
 NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
439
CHAP. 10]
io)
3.0 —FT 20

■15 ic)

2.0

-10
1.5
-9
[b)
~-\.0 xIO8 r-3.0
8

7 r8 r2.5
1.0- H6 if 2.0
0.9-_^6
h 5 xIO7
0.8 f- 4
b-5 r- 1.5
0.7-
|-3
et4
0.6-
Et 2 - 1.0
0.5-
E-1-5
3.0 r0.8

0.4- irl.O xIO7

h2.5

CVJ
- 8 — 0.6
E
o
l/> 0.3 —: 2.0 </) ~
P6
#0> L0.5
w_ j-5 xiO6
o
3 3
O /^"ov
\- 4 (Mev)
—1.5
h3
0.2-

-2 xiO6
Z?0X 10“*
1.0
(mr/hr)
5^x10-*

Fia l°-4. Nomograph for surface flux-absorbed dose rate calculations (see Table

Brucher1 and of Chappell2 are presented in Table 10-4 and Figs. 10-2 to
10-6 for four different cases which cover most of the geometrical configu¬
rations usually encountered in radiochemical plant design.

= DatidBGdrh!°nn’ H Nucleonics,
uavid Lr. C happell, wT7l0r' ^ 14(1): J-40BrU0her’
(1956). AEC- TIS AECD-2934, 1948.
440 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10
For build-up correction
see Fig. 10-3

20 5 l0.5

Do _ $o_ _ Ip x
D ~ 4> ~ I

F E ,
(cm-1) (Mev)

Fig 10-5. Nomograph for shielding thickness determinations: unity (B - 1) and

nonlinear (B * b) build-up cases (see Table 10-4).

Point Sources. (See Table 10-4, case 1.) Imagine a highly concen¬
trated small-volume source emitting energy through a relative y non-
absorbenTmedium such as air. This is the no-shielding condit.on and
the inverse-square law holds:
Sp (10-18)
4> =

where * is the distance from the point source to the surface where the dose
 NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
441
CHAP. 10]
rate is measured, known as the receptor plane. For the same geometry
but with a gamma absorbing shield substituted for air,

Be~b (10-19)
47r.r2

These equations can be combined with Eqs. (10-4) and (10-15) to obtain

Fig. 10-6. Curve for determination of surface flux from volume source (see Table 10-4).

the dose rate for the nonshielding case:

D in mr/hr = 5.5 X 10«ScyE av (10-20)

x1
and for the shielding case*

D in mr/hr = —** ^ _ (10-21)

x2
These equations are plotted in nomograph form in Figs. 10-2 and 10-3

0r d0Se rate requirements. Note particularly

that the shielding thickness is the same no matter whether the shield is
442 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10
I able 10-4. Summary of Shielding Design for Different Configurations
of Source and Receptor (F)

Case 1. Approximate point source system, 0 < 20° or tan 0 < 0.36
For all sources (planes, disks, lines, and
small volumes) where 0 is less than 20°.
Figures to be used: 10-6 for self-absorp¬
tion correction (multiply Sc by Fe), 10-2,
and 10-3. Correct dose rate or flux
ratios on left-hand scale of Fig. 10-3 as
follows:

(scale) = yy (actual) X B to obtain x

(actual) = yy (scale) X ^ to obtain D at position R, given x and D0

Case 2. Volume source system, 20 < 0 < 45° or 0.36 < tan 0 < 1
Same as case 1, but with larger view angle 0. Shapes include slabs, short cylinders,
polyhedrons, and spheres of finite volume.
Case 21. Linear build-up (B = b)
Figures to be used: 10-6 for self-absorption, 10-4, and 10-3. Correct dose rate
or flux ratio on left-hand scale of Fig. 10-3 as follows:

^ (scale) = (actual) X (jfj to obtain x

^ (actual) = ^y (scale) X (J^j to obtain D at position R, given x and D0

Case 2b. Nonlinear build-up (B ^ b)

Same as case 21 except B ^ b.
Figures to be used: 10-6 for self-absorption correction, 10-4, and 10-5 (left-hand
scale, 0 < 45°). Correct dose rate or flux ratio taken from left-hand scale of
Fig. 10-5 as follows:

(scale) = ^ (actual) X R X (^°) to obtain *

Bl (actual) = % (scale) X | X (£) to obtain D at position if, given x and D.

Case 3. Long cylindrical or line sources, 0 > 20° or tan 0 > 0.36
Case 31. Linear build-up (B = b)
Identical to case 21 except use (Ro/R)W
and (R/Ro)H in making Do/D cor¬
rections.
Case 3b. Nonlinear build-up (B ^ b)
Identical to case 2b except: (1) left-
hand scale of Fig. 10-5 should be used
for 0 > 45° or 0 < 45°, depending on
geometry relations; (2) use (Ro/R)^ or
(R/Ro)M in making Do/D corrections.
 NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
443
CHAP. 10]
Different Configurations
Table 10-4. Summary of Shielding Design for
of Source and Receptor (F) ('Continued)

Case 4. Planes or slabs, 0 > 45° or tan 0 >

Includes cylinders viewed endwise and
large cubic sources.
Case 41. Linear build-up (B = b)
Identical to case 21 except there is no
Do/D correction.
Case 4b. Nonlinear build-up (B ^ b)
Identical to case 2b except there is
no Ro/R or R/Ro correction for Do/D.

placed near the source or receptor. Minimum weight of cylindrical or

spherical shielding is obtained by placing the shield close to the source.

Example 10-2. Design a water shield for a 1-kilocurie Co60 point source to allow a
2 mr/hr dose rate at the surface of the water.
Solution. (Use case 1.) Gamma rays of 1.17 and of 1.33 Mev energy are emitted
per disintegration of Co60; so y = 2.0 with Ea.v = 1.25 (see Table 10-2). From the
statement of the problem, Sc = 1,000 curies, D = 2 mr/hr, b = nx — nR. Since
x = R, the solution involves a trial-and-error calculation using Figs. 10-2 and 10-3.
Starting with Fig. 10-2, Sc X 10~3 = 1.0 and yE*v = 2.50, guess R = 12 ft and read
Do = 8.5 X 101 X 103 = 8.5 X 104. Therefore, D JD = 8.5 X 104/2 = 4.25 X 104.
Using Fig. 10-3 with n for H20 at E = 1.25 Mev gives x = 6.0 ^ R = 12 ft. To
estimate B, find 5 = 11 from left-hand scale when Do/D = 4.25 X 104. Then
B = 1 + b = 1+ 11 = 12; so

(scale) = ~ (actual) X B

= (4.25 X 104)(12) = 5.0 X 105

This gives x = 7.2 ft when scattering is taken into account.

For a second trial, guess R = 8.0 ft, which gives Do/D = 1.9 X 105/2 = 9.5 X 104
from Fig. 10-2. Using B = 13 from the left-hand scale of Fig. 10-3,

(scale) = (actual) X B

= (9.5 X 104) (13) = 1.23 X 106

and x — 7.5 ft. 1 his is close enough to 8 ft guessed for R; thus the design should call
for 8 ft of water between the Co60 source and the surface of the water.

Cylindrical Sources. (See Table 10-4, cases 2 and 3). This is a com¬
monly encountered problem in plant design involving storage tanks,
extraction columns, and the designing of spent-reactor-fuel shipping con¬
tainers. 1 he case can best be discussed by an example.

Example 10-3. Cylindrical spent-fuel rods 0.5 in. in diameter and 7 ft long are
reirmved after 3 yr from a reactor operating at a power level of 8,000 watts /lb fuel.
After storage for 65 days, they are shipped in a lead-shielded, horizontally positioned
cylindrical container, measuring 6.6 in. ID. The average density of the fuel including
void volume is 7.84 g/cm3 with a mass absorption coefficient h/p = 0.045. The curie
444 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10
level after 65 days’ cooling is 0.3 curie per operating power watt (Fig. 10-76) and the
average energy is 0.7 Mev. Calculate the thickness of the lead shielding required if
the dose rate is to be 10 mr/hr at a distance 3 ft from the wall of the container.
Solution. Use case 3b because the configuration is a long right cylinder and lead
shielding does not approximate linear build-up.

Sv = (0.3)(8,000) ^-T~728—) = curies/in.3

** = ~P = (0.045)(7.84) = 0.353 cm"1 nR0 = (0.353)(3.3 X 2.54) = 2.95

r

From Fig. 10-6 for cylinders, Fe = 0.330.

Sa = 0.5FeSvRo = (0.5)(0.330)(680)(3.3) = 370 curies/in.2

To obtain D0, use Fig. 10-4 with SA = 3.7 X 102 and yE*Y = 0.7 Mev.

D0 = 1.53 X 109 mr/hr

-jj (actual) = -—-- = 1.53 X 108

In using Fig. 10-5, the shielding thickness x must be guessed to compute tan 9 and
(Ro/R)W correction. Guess x = 1 ft. Then

tan 9 =
7A = 0.81 or 9 = 39c
3.3/12 + 1+3

To obtain the build-up factor B, read 18 on left-hand side of Fig. 10-3 for Do/D
(actual) = 1.53 X 108. For lead, B = 1 + 6/2 = 10.

Do (actual) XBX (jfj" = (1-53 X 10»)(10) (J^ = 3.87 X 10s = ^ (scale)

D
For a safety factor, use the absorption coefficient n for lead at E = 1.5 Mev. From
Fig. 10-5, read x = 11 in. If the less accurate linear build-up case (case 31) had been
used, Do/D (scale) = Do/D (actual) (R0/R)H = 3.87 X 107. Then using Fig. 10-3,
read x = 11.5 in.
Example 10-4. A 500-gal spent-fuel dissolving tank is placed inside a concrete
cell along with several holding tanks. This equipment is known as the “head-end”
section of an aqueous spent-fuel processing plant. The dissolving tank measures
3 ft in diameter, is 10 ft high, and is wrapped with a 3-in.-thick layer of lead. The
closest concrete wall is 1 ft from the outside of the tank. If the tank is full and holds
a solution containing 400 curies/gal, calculate the thickness of the concrete wall
required if the outside of the wall has a dose-rate tolerance of 10 mr/hr. The average
energy of the radiation beam for dose-rate purposes is 0.85 Mev/curie and the shield
design should allow a /x at E =2 Mev for a safety factor.
Solution. Use case 31 since concrete and small thicknesses of lead are involved.
S = 400/231 = 1.73 curies/in.3 From Fig. 10-1, u = 0.049 cm 1 for •> a
E = 2 Mev. = (0.049)(18 X 2.54) = 2.24; F, = 0.44 from Fig. 10-6. Sa. -
0.5F,S,R» = (0.5)(0.44)(1.73)(18) = 6.85 cunes/m.! With this value of Sa and y ..
value of 0.85, the dose rate can be read from Fig. 10-4 as D„ - 3.4 X 0 mr/ .
find the dose-rate ratio at the nearest distance to the inside concrete wall, use Fig. 10-
“ = 2 Mev for lead. DJD (scale) = 50; R = nearest distance to insMe of con¬
crete wall = 33 in.; B. = 18 in. (ID of tank, neglecting metal wall as shieldh 0.7
 NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
445
CHAP. 10]
erete wall and use cylindrical attenuation a good approximation can be made using
the plane-source method (case 41). Do/D (actual) =5X10 /10 - 5 X 10 . t
Fig. 10-3, using E = 2 Mev for ordinary concrete, x = 3.5 ft. If this had been do
by cylindrical attenuation (case 31), guess x = 3.3 ft, or 40 in.

D
} (scale) - % (actual) (§)* = (5 X 10*) (jofss)'" = 33 X 10<
D
From Fig. 10-3, using E = 2 Mev for ordinary concrete, x = 3.2 ft, which is close
enough to the assumed value of 3.3 ft.

The cases and examples discussed above are typical of ones encountered
in nuclear chemical plant design. More detailed analysis of shielding can
be obtained by use of shielding manuals.1-2 However, for most design
work, the above-described procedures are adequate.

Heat Evolution in Shielding Design

From the discussion on absorption of radiation energy by shielding
materials, it is recognized that the kinetic and electromagnetic energy
must be changed to heat energy on absorption. Heat transfer from
volume-heat-generating sources is sometimes an important part of shield¬
ing design. The thermal properties of the source or shield may be such
as to cause damage to shield material and the source itself. For quanti¬
tative heat-transfer calculations, the rate of energy or power-rate libera¬
tion from the source material must be known.
Radiation Power Rate. For sources consisting of a known weight of
a single radioisotope whose decay properties are known, the power in
Mev/g-sec can be computed from Eq. (10-14) or (10-16). Conversion
to watts is then made on the basis that 1 Mev/sec = 1.6 X 10~13 watt.
The addition of other radioisotopes to the volume source requires a sum¬
mation of the power value calculated for each isotope as described. The
power liberation from a complex mixture of radioisotopes such as found
in the fission products of U235 fuel is time-consuming to calculate. Figure
10-7 avoids the necessity of this by giving the (3 and y power, curies and
composition of the radioactive isotopes, all as a function of elapsed time
after the fuel is pulled from the reactor. This elapsed time is known as
the radiation cooling period.
Designing for Heat Dissipation. 1 he radiation power rate must be
handled by heat transfer through the walls of the container holding the
isotopes in addition to the possibility of removing most of the heat by
vaporization or forced convection of a fluid which surrounds or solubilizes
the heat-generating material.
i
Reactor Handbook,” vol. 1, Physics, Technical Information Service, AEC,
February, 1955.

IncjNew'York,’ ‘i^8401, ShieMin8 DeSign Manual<” McGraw-Hill Book Company,

 Elapsed time otter irradiation or cooling time, days
10 20 40 100 200 400 1,000

446
XjiAipo oun^ iojoj jo uoipojj

Fig. 10-7. See legend on opposite page.

CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN

For heat dissipation only through the container wall, the exact solution
of the design problem is complicated since there is heat release from the
7 rays in logarithmic attenuation identical with their absorption in the
shielding material. To avoid this complication, it is conservatively
assumed that all of the 7 power is released within the inner wall of the
container and travels by conduction to the outside of the shield. The
usual heat-transfer methods can then be employed.
For the cases where a major portion of the heat is to be removed by
latent or sensible heat transfer to a fluid inside the container, a different
method of design is employed. All the (3 power is transferred to the fluid
but the 7 power transfer depends on the 7 absorption properties of the
combined mixture of fluid and heat-generating substances within the
vessel. Self-absorption calculations, using Fig. 10-6, are required. The
design method is best illustrated by the solution of a typical problem.

Example 10-5. A chemical reprocessing plant accumulates waste solution in large

storage tanks at the rate of 1,000 gal of aqueous wash per ton of fuel processed. A
typical storage tank measures 9 ft in diameter and is 20 ft long. The fuel processed
has a specific power rating of 5,000 watts of heat per pound of fuel over a 2-yr irradi¬
ation period. If the average density of the waste is 1.39 g/cm3 and the tank contents
represent 100 days of cooling, calculate (1) the Btu per hour heat evolution within
the solution when the tank is 90 per cent full and (2) the pounds of water evaporated
assuming all the internal heat is used for this process.
Solution. For the calculation of the internal heat liberation, from Fig. 10-7a at
100-day cooling and 2-yr irradiation, read 7.5 X 10~4 /3-y watts/watt of power
(7.5 X 10“4) (5,000) = 3.75 p-y watts/lb fuel. For the calculation of Fe, the fraction
ol 7 power which is absorbed within the solution, from the approximate mass absorp¬
tion coefficient, m/p = 0.05, M = (0.05) (1.39) = 0.0695, M/?0 = (0.0695) (54 X 2.54)
= 9.30. From Fig. 10-6, Fe = l/^Ro = 0.107.

7 power absorbed in solution = (3.75/2) (1 — 0.107) = 1.70

P power absorbed in solution = 3.75/2 = 1.88
Total power liberated in solution = 3.55 watts/lb fuel
Volume of tank = (0.785) (9)2(20) (7.48) = 9,580 gal
Pounds of fuel per gallon of waste = 2,000/1,000 = 2

H?nVnbAyi7d?V0%OffullstOrageCapacity = (9,580)(0.9)(2)(3.55 X 3.415)

^09,000 Btu/hr '

Pounds of water evaporated = |^9^QQ Btu/hr = 215 lb H Ho , ,

970 Btu/lb H .O ~15 lb H2° evaporated per hour

Fig. 10-7. Composition and power emission from irradiated U235 fuel (n\ p
emission. Basis: 1 beta nartlele n qc x/r ,. . ^ . u Iuel- («) Power

h r Esrsr? i«srsr*r -
notedUrme”n7ngbetaC)pteagamml “““T, (6XCept
(2) Ce-1447, I>r-144y; (3) Nb-95W4)%T?m cu,rves 0,1 (c): (1) Te-129y;
If-140y, Ba-1407, Pr-143; (8) c/l'i/; ! «131^; (7)
C<-141y; (13) nu-106T, Ill,-1067. [C<mrLv of H F W , ^ S.r'89; (12)
Nucleonics, 9(5): C-2 (1951); 'seellJrabl/To-Z] F' Hmter md N■ E' Ballou>
448 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10

CRITICALITY

This is the last important concept which must be introduced in order

that the chemical engineer can have confidence in his ability to handle
the hazardous design problems in the nuclear chemical engineering field.
In the beginning of this chapter it was pointed out that the chain reaction
with fission fuel can be controlled or prevented from occurring by proper
design. What constitutes a proper design will be discussed now. The
principles given apply to both chemical process vessel design and nuclear
heat-generating reactors.
An uncontrolled or disastrous fission reaction occurs when an excess of
neutrons, on the average, is produced with each generation of new neu¬
trons formed. There are several basic interrelated steps which can be
taken to prevent excess neutron formation.
1. Surface Leakage of Neutrons. The surface-to-volume ratio is con¬
trolled so that sufficient neutrons escape from the bare surface to avoid
excess accumulation within the neutron-generating volume. The mass
within the neutron-generating volume, generally defined in terms of the
fission element only, becomes a critical mass just at the threshold of excess
neutron accumulation. If the vessel is surrounded or jacketed by low-
atomic-weight substances such as water or concrete for shielding purposes,
carbon, graphite, or beryllium, these reflect or return neutrons to the
fissioning volume and thereby create excess neutrons. This reactor is
known as a reflected reactor and the critical mass of fission fuel and vol¬
ume of the vessel is always lower than for an unreflected reactor.
2. Absorption of Neutrons. All materials within the neutron-generating
volume of the vessel will remove excess neutrons by nonfission capture or
absorption. The degree of effectiveness of removing neutrons is a funda¬
mental property of the atom and is measured in terms of a cross section.
Tables listing absorption cross sections for all the elements can be found
in general reference books listed in the References for this chaptei.
3 Fifed of Moderation. Moderating materials are genera y °\\-
atom in-weight, nuclei which elastically collide with high-energy neutrons
“ow them down to energy levels where absorption ^ ^
greatest. Water is a good moderator and the ^
fuel is very sensitive to the The critical mass may
pvnrossed as atom ratio ot ti/tission element.;
c + fin m* more as the water content increases.
"furtherlution the critical mass will increase without limit owing
to the absorption of neutrons by the excess water pres •

jssr T. SSSSB
CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
449

the vessel, the presence or absence of reflecting materials surrounding the

vessel, and the geometry and construction layout of the vessel and its
neighbors. Figures 10-8 to 10-11 give some of the relationships of these
variables.

Volume, liters
Fig. 10-8. Critical mass and volume of spheres and circular cylinders containing
solutions of U23502F2 and surrounded by water. Straight lines show mass of U235
as function of volume for different concentrations (atomic ratio, H/U235). Dashed
curves intersect straight lines at critical masses for cylinders of indicated diameters.
Envelope for dashed curves (solid curve at left) gives criticality parameters for spheres.
Also shown are two similar curves for unreflected cylinders (no water) and a point
that represents an unreflected critical sphere. [Courtesy of D. Callihan, Nucleonics
14(7): 40 (1956).]

Example 10-6. Estimate the critical mass of U235 and critical dimensions for a
cylindrical vessel of 15 in. internal diameter completely immersed in a water shield.
The vessel will be completely filled with a uranium solution containing an H20:U235
weight ratio of 2.5.
Figure 10-8 will be used to solve this example.

H
JJ235
atom ratio = i2*^5/18) =
= 65
(K35)

Diameter of the cylindrical vessel = 15.0 X 2.54 = 38.0 cm. Interpolating between
O0 and 100 for the H/U»« atom ratio of 65 on the H20 reflected cylinder curve of
38.0 cm gives a critical mass of 4.0 kg of U«« and a critical vessel volume of 10 liters
The vessel height is therefore

10,000
(0.7854) (38)2 “ 8-8 cm
Example 10-7. Find the limiting value of critical
mass and volume for U235 below
which no chain reaction can accidentally start.
450 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10

Fig. 10-9. Critical mass and volume of reflected spheres and equilateral cylinders
(d = h) for U233 in aqueous solution. [Courtesy of l). Callihan, Nucleonics, 14(7): 40
(1956).]

Figure 10-8 will he used to solve this example. A reflected sphere has the lowest
values, so that the minimum values of the solid curve in Fig. 10-8 can be obtained.
Mc is the limiting critical mass of 800 g and Vc is the limiting critical volume of 6.4
liters. These values also appear in Table 10-5.

Table 10-5. Safe Criticality Limits for Aqueous Solutions

of Fission Fuel*

Fission element

System Restricted variable

pj 233 239
U235t

Critical concentration, 11.6 10.9 7.8

Any vessel, any dimension
g/liter
800 588 509
Any vessel, any dimension Critical mass, g
6.3 3.5 5.0
Critical volume, liters
Spherical vessel. 9.6
Diameter, cm 10.7 8.6
4.2 3.4 3.8
in.
12.7 10.1 13.7
Diameter, cm
Cylindrical vessel. 4.0 5.4
in. 5.0
3.5 1.2 4.8
Thickness, cm
Slab-shaped vessel. 0.5 1.9
in. 1.4

Critical mass. Stay below this value. Divide by a safety factor of 2 to allow for

Critical cylinder diameter. Safety is impoj . surrounded by a reflector.

°f - '7"rr ansy,rtyP°ef
t hickness^values w,.. be Lbcritica, when reflected by water.

^="frr^crr^«-a): -(i956>-
t Approximately 90 per cent U»‘, 10 per cent U* .
 NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
451
CHAP. 10]

Fig. 10-10. Critical mass and volume of reflected spheres and cylinders of Pu239 in
aqueous solution. [Courtesy of D. Callihan, Nucleonics, 14(7): 40 (1956).]
452 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10
Table 10-5 gives the design limitations on mass, volume, container
dimensions, and luel concentration, any one of which will prohibit an
accident regardless of other conditions. These values are for aqueous-
type processing plants.
Dilution of U235 with U238 does not greatly affect the critical mass until
the composition becomes greater than 95 per cent U238. At that enrich¬
ment, the minimum mass is 1.9 kg of U235 and the volume of the reflected
vessel is 30 liters. Further increase in U238 concentration increases these
critical values markedly. It is impossible to make a homogeneous H20
solution of natural uranium critical.
When fabrication and handling of metal nuclear fuels is contemplated,
a different type of design curve is required. Moderation of fission neu¬
trons is absent and conditions for fast-neutron fission exists. Critical
values are larger under these conditions (Fig. 10-11).

Nuclear Safety Design1

It is possible to construct a fuel-processing plant or shipping containers
in which all components are so sized that no critical accumulation can
occur regardless of the quantity or concentration of material in process
or the proximity of neutron-reflecting bodies. Design data would be
taken from the critical-dimension data of Table 10-5. If this design is
practiced, an uneconomical plant design will result, as it specifies a large
number of small reactors spaced far apart and all contained in individual
concrete vaults or cells. As another criterion, the mass in the process at
any time can be maintained below the minimum critical mass with all
other design variables economically optimized. This design will undoubt¬
edly lead to very dilute solutions and large-size process equipment.
A practical approach is to avoid uneconomical extremes and yet be
entirely safe. For example, the concentration may be low enough o
permit relaxation of the stringent critical value listed in Table lO-o by use
of the experimental data plotted in Figs. 10-8 to 10-11. As anothei
example, some solutions are automatically protected against ovei concen¬
tration since some alloying agent, such as aluminum, would precipitate
to a large extent before any uranium would, thereby plugging up
equipment and giving adequate warning.

PROCESS DESIGN

Chemical processes in the nuclear field relate to reactor fuels and radio¬
active isotopes (see Fig. 10-12). A classification can -ct ,

f0r Ketzlach, Nuclear Safety_ Considerations in Reprocess,ng Plant Des.gn,

Chem. Eng. Progr., 63(7): 357 (1957).

 NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
453
CHAP. 10]
1. Raw materials separation and preparation of nuclear fuel
2. Nuclear fuel “burning” and heat removal
3. Spent-fuel reprocessing
4. Utilization of fission products
5. Disposal of radioactive wastes

Fission
products
Fig. 10-12. Reactor fuel cycles.(Courtesy of S. Glasstone, “Principles of Nuclear
Reactor Engineeringp. 475, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1955.)

Is icholls and White1 have stated the following essential differences

between conventional chemical processes and those handling radio¬
chemical materials under the listing above:
1. Limitations are imposed by toxic and radiation hazards and also by
criticality considerations.
2. Radioactive materials such as exposed fuel elements have continu¬
ally changing composition because of radioactive decay.

mm) M* NlCh0llS and A' S‘ White> Chem• En9- Pr°9r■ Symposium Ser., 50(13): 129

(19C55h ' NiCh°11S’ PV0C' Int€rn' C°nf' PeaC6fUl US6S °f At°miC Ener9y’ Gen€Va» 9: 453
454 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10
3. 1 he systems are frequently complex and involve elements whose
properties and chemical behavior are little known.
4. Materials used in fuel elements have a very high economic value.
In making a process selection, it is necessary to consider the usual fac¬
tors of (a) simplicity of design and operation, (6) purity of end products,
(c) safety including consideration of toxicity, flammability, chemical sta¬
bility, and reactivity, (d) nonseverity from a corrosion and materials selec¬
tion standpoint, (e) waste-disposal problems, and (/) economic justifi¬
cation. To this list must be added the factors unique to nuclear chemical
processes which include (a) radiation stability of materials of construction
and process reactants and products, (b) radiation safety for personnel
including provision for remote or direct maintenance and decontamination
of all equipment, and (c) processing and disposal of radioactive by-prod¬
ucts or wastes. The fundamentals for handling design problems of this
unique nature have been given in the previous sections on health physics,
shielding, and criticality. The discussion of nuclear chemical processes
which follows will be mainly to orient the reader in this field; detailed
references are listed for those who desire specialized knowledge of one or
more specific processes.

Raw Materials Separation and Preparation of Nuclear Fuels

All naturally occurring nuclear fuel requires concentration from basic
mineral deposits by extractive metallurgical procedures. The bulk of
these deposits contain uranium and thorium in concentrations under 1 per
cent. Preliminary concentration, employing physical ore dressing or
chemical leaching methods, is done near the mine site. Concentrated
ores are then shipped to purification plants where the fuel in the form o
metal or one of its chemical compounds is produced.1-2 In cases where
U235 is required in concentrations greater than that existing in natuia
uranium, it is necessary to prepare the hexafluoride salt and process it m
a multistage gaseous-diffusion plant.’ Use of the fuel in reactors other
than the solution or slurry type requires special fabrication procedures to
produce the shapes needed for maximum heat-transfer duty. These
processes are usually characterized by lack of gamma radiation hazards,
butalpha radiation and the deadly toxicity of
be incorporated in the fuel-fabrication process require ngid health phy ics
monitoring. Gamma radiation hazards will be encountered where

. J. W. Clegg and D. Foley (eds.). “Uranium Ore Processing," Add.son-Wesley

Publishing Company, Reading, Mass., 1958.
2 W. E. Kelley, Nucleonics, 13(11): 68 {IVbh). „ ch 10 McGraw-
3 M. Benedict and T. Pigford, “ Nuclear C hemical Enginee g, P
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 19^-
* Editorial Staff, Nucleonics, 13(9): 54 (1955).
 CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN

partially decontaminated fuel is to be handled by remote fabrication

procedure.

Generation of Process Heat In Nuclear Reactors1*2

The pattern of consumption of conventional energy in the United States
shows that only 20 per cent of the heat is converted to electrical energy
and the balance to industrial heat, individual home space heating, and
transportation. Product manufacturing by industry accounts for about
30 per cent of this nonelectrical energy consumption. The substitution
of nuclear fuel for fossil fuel in this latter area is now prevalent.
Industrial process heat can be classified on the basis of heat require¬
ments.

1. Chemical reaction heat (1500°F or higher)

a. Preheat reactants to operating temperature
b. Supply endothermic reaction heat for such processes as nitrogen fixation from
air, coal gasification, catalytic re-forming of natural gas and petroleum, and
thermal cracking
2. Process steam
a. Low-pressure steam for evaporation and low-temperature heat requirements
(50 to 150 psig and temperatures up to 400°F)
b. High-pressure steam for special industrial process work

Many of the design problems for this type of work depend on an under¬
standing of nuclear reactor design. This subject is beyond the scope of
this text and the reader is referred to several suitable books in the Addi¬
tion Selected References section.

Spent or Irradiated Fuel Reprocessing

I he main objective of processes listed under this heading is to separate

completely the highly radioactive fission products which act as neutron-
absorbmg ashes or poisons from the nuclear fuel so that the latter can be
returned for further burnup. Process selection requires a consideration
of these items:
1. Highly effective removal of fission products with decontamination
factors as high as 10* to 1(P. The fission-product decontamination factor
is defined as the ratio of fission-product activity per unit fuel weight
entering the plant to that leaving the plant. This degree of decontami-
na ion is necessary if direct fabrication methods are used to prepare the
reeve e fuel, i he successful development of remote fabrication methods
uould alleviate the requirement for a high decontamination factor
i. High percentage recovery (99 per cent or better in most cases') of
fission fuel based on its very high replacement cost. 1
'V• Gamso“. ('hem. Eng. Progr., 64(2): 74 (1958).
► tall Report, Nucleonics, 16(2): 62 (1958).
450 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 10

3. Selection of chemical processing materials which are not prone to

irradiation damage and do not have objectionable corrosion properties.
This latter point is very important since servicing, inspection, and replace¬
ment of plant equipment containing high levels of radioactivity is a very
costly and dangerous procedure.
4. Low volume holdup to reduce shielded cell sizes and radiation dam¬
age to solvents as well as to avoid criticality conditions. Continuous
rather than batch processing would favor this situation.
The various processes available for fuel reprocessing are aqueous solvent
extraction, precipitation, ion exchange, fractional distillation, pyrometal-
lurgy, and fluoride volatility.1,2 Most of the commercial development
experience has come from the solvent-extraction method for separation
of uranium, plutonium, and fission products.

Utilization of Fission Products

Once the radioactive fission products are isolated by one of the separa¬
tion processes, the major problem in the nuclear chemical industry must
be faced since radioactivity cannot be immediately destroyed (see Fig.
10-7cfor curie level of fission-product isotopes versus elapsed time after
removal from the neutron source). This source of radiation energy can
be employed in the food-processing industries for sterilization and in the
chemical industries for such processes as hydrogenation, chlorination,
isomerization, and polymerization. Design of radiation facilities to eco¬
nomically employ spent reactor fuel elements, composite or individually
isolated fission products such as cesium 137, is one of the problems lacing
the design engineer in the nuclear field.

Disposal of Radioactive Wastes

Radioactive wastes come directly from nuclear-reactor-fuel reprocessing
plants and from industries employing radioactivity for Pro“ssing uorR
The dominating elements from nuclear reactor fuels are cesiun • .
strontium 90, with the latter the controlling isotope owing to low pe.nus-
siroiiuum , m 9, T! odtrer3 cites an example to
sible concentration values (Table 10-2). ledger cn-■ .'ul
illustrate the .verity of the problem. loth, y~r .«»' <£ “
reactor capacity « a W (rale o,
If this system is operated for 50 years the would

United Nations, New York. (1957).

» E. L. Anderson, Nucleonics, 15(1°). 72, ItH
3 \y \ Rodger, Chem. Eng. Progr., 60(5): 203 (lJo )•
 CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN 457

muni permissible concentration. Furthermore, conimeicial utilization of

the radioactivity of the products for a period of time during their early
life does not in any way change the problem of final disposal.
Since natural decay and dilution processes do not appear feasible, the
only alternative is to reduce the volume of waste to the minimum allow¬
able based on /? and y heat dissipation and store in remote locations
with long-term controlled containment. Methods available for bulk
reduction and storage of liquid and solid wastes are given by Rodger1 and
Lieberman.2
1. Evaporation. This is the most widely used technique. Decon¬
tamination factors range from 104 to 106. Costs range from $0.05 to $0.70
per gallon of starting solution.
2. Calcining. Vaporization to complete dryness by high-temperature
methods minimizes volume requirements and corrosion. One disadvan¬
tage is the poor heat-transfer characteristics of the heat-generating solids.
3. Adsorption and ion exchange. This method is useful for low solids
concentration in liquid waste and for gaseous wastes. If clay is used for
the adsorbent in liquid phase, the vret fresjily adsorbed mass can be cal¬
cined and placed in the ground with insignificant release to the environ¬
ment. Costs are about $0.05 per gallon of starting solution.
4. Incineration. This method is useful on combustible matter but
requires particle separation from flue gas by an inertial-type settler for
larger particles and a high-temperature Fiberglas filter in series. Costs
range from $2.50 to $5 per cubic foot of waste.
5. Baling. Compressive baling methods are sometimes used in con¬
junction with above-ground disposal or burial as final storage.
6. Burial. Abandoned mines, desert areas, and deep wells are sites
wherein health physics monitoring with positive control is possible.
Selection of burial grounds is based on (a) characteristics of the soil to
retain radioactivity, (b) rate of release of waste from the burial area, (c)
the elevation at the area, (4) rate of movement of ground water from’ the
area, (e) effect of release on contamination of ground water, and (f) dis-
tance to users of ground water.
"- Ocean disposal. Concentrated waste is mixed into concrete and the
lesu ing orms are transported to an ocean dumping site This method

mnt “r T °f hl? COSt! b“e 0f ^ shielding Ll^n

anspoitation. A second poor feature is lack of health physics control

pound o'f wastenerS ^ ShiP‘ C°StS range from $0-30 to « Per

8. Tank storage. One of the most reliable methods to date • use of cor
rosimi-resistant materials for tank construction ensures

S. A. Lieberman, Nucleonics, 16(2): 82 (1958)

458 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10
Costs range from $0.50 to $10 per gallon, depending on tank size and
corrosivity.

PLANT DESIGN

Radiochemical plants differ from the conventional type of chemical

plant since no direct maintenance or process control by operating per¬
sonnel can be performed within the immediate site because of the intense
radioactivity when the plant is in operation. It is only possible to enter
the area when the active material has been removed from the equipment

Table 10-6. Design and Service Possibilities for Radiochemical Plants*

Total activity Possibility of entering

Grade Design notes
present in cell cell

> 1,000 curies of No entry at all until No relaxing of design

1. Extremely
7 or high- equipment has been specification possible;
high activity
energy /3 decontaminated all servicing during
operation to be done
from outside shielding
by remote control
Short entry (2-30 min) Slight relaxing of design
2. Very high 7 100-1,000 curies
after extensive decon¬ specification is possible
activity
tamination, assuming if plant is required for
ease of decontamina¬ short-time service only;
tion is made a feature for plant required to
of the design of vessel work for a long life,
Grade 1 design specifi¬
and plant
cation is necessary

Entry possible after Careful use of some con¬

3. High 7 1-100 curiesf
draining plant and a ventional plant items
activity
limited amount of de¬ may be permissible

contamination, par¬
ticularly if some local
shielding is used
Entry may be possible Conventional plant
4. Low 7 < 1 curie f
during operation, par¬ items can be used
activity
ticularly if local shield¬
ing is used
Owing to intense tox¬
Entry possible at any
5. a activity icity, plant should be
level of activity for un¬
only inside “fume cup¬
limited periods (wear¬
board” or “dry-box”
ing protective clothing
type of cell and should
and mask)
be leakproof

cholls, Proc. Intern. Conf. Peaceful l ses

45t These figures are very much dependent on the size of plant and containing cell.
CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN

by drainage and cleaning procedures, also known as decontamination.

Table 10-6 lists the design and service possibilities of radiochemical plants
as a function of curie level. The term cell applies to a completely inte¬
grated and shielded section of the plant in which a typical portion of the
process is carried out (big. 10-13).
This classification is only qualitative and rigid health physics monitor¬
ing must always be carried on after radioactive material first enters the
process equipment. The unique features of plant designs for such con¬
ditions will be discussed next.

Plant Layout
Two basically different types of maintenance can be incorporated in the
plant design. Direct maintenance involves personal contact service on the
equipment in place and requires thorough decontamination, usually a very
slow procedure, before entry into the process area. Where possible,

Concrete wall. ^Sampling gallery

Feed preparation
and storage

e = emergency
exit

t °o
'Offices' Storage ''Clothing change room
Fig 10-13. Plan of a direct-maintenance fuel reprocessing plant. Division ofeouip-
mcnt is according to activity level and function. [Courtesy of H K Jackson d
G. S. Sadowski, Nucleonics, 13(8): 24 (1955).] 3 Jackson and

equipment is isolated in shielded cells so that the entire plant does not
have to be decontaminated. A typical direct-maintenance plant layout
is shown m Fig 10-13. Remote maintenance is the service of equipment
by mechanica1 devices so that repairmen never enter the process area. A
p ant layout for remote maintenance is shown in Fig. 10-14. Mechanical
devices are operated by a person in a shielded control cab of a crane which
travels above the process equipment. Service work done in this manner
460 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10
involves the removal ol faulty equipment by means of quick-opening con¬
nectors and setting in a replacement. The faulty equipment is either dis¬
carded in a burial pit or decontaminated in a special process area, followed
by repair in a normal fashion.
the principal advantage of remote maintenance is positive and safe
repair scheduling. It has several serious disadvantages: (1) design is

Change room Aqueous moke-up

Jl E jh
Shops
X
• '

<
/
E /•
■ l ' "
Pipe and sample gollery Control room
Process equipment cells 'Hot pipe trench

■tVt
\—

Railroad tunnel -

Ventilation
-r equipment

■ Control room

7"
nr h m iicxxirxjirrxiin rTTTD

ntn
TSJ"

Laboratory
hi
T--
Fig. 10-14. Plan of a remote-maintenance fuel reprocessing plant. Shielded crane
with operator runs above the process equipment cells to perform remote maintenance,
(iCourtesy of W. M. Harty, Chem. Eng. Progr. Symposium Ser. 50, p. 118, 1954.)

more difficult, as all layouts require access from above the equipment;
(2) fabrication and construction is costly so that the initial investment is
greater. On the other hand, direct-maintenance plants can be built using
commercially available equipment and standard fabrication techniques.
This reduces the capital cost but the operating charges per pound of mate¬
rial increase since off-stream time is required for decontamination.
 CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN

whereas this is no factor in a remote-maintenance plant. A direct-main¬

tenance plant has the further advantage of more effectively locating equip¬
ment without regard to accessibility from the top of the cell. Thus a
more compact unit cell can be designed with lower shielding costs.
Because any type of maintenance in these plants is costly, design of
equipment should be aimed toward long life with no repairs. Experience
has shown the following to be good practice:
1. Reduce the number of valves to a minimum.
2. Weld all pipe connections.
3. Thoroughly leak-test all equipment and fittings with Freon or other
sensitive leak-detection methods.
4. Make test runs using nonradioactive simulated chemical solutions.

Critical Mass Control Requirements

As emphasized previously, critical mass accumulation must be pre¬
vented by proper process design and plant layout. Lemon and Reid1 give
a design philosophy in which each process vessel is made safe by one of the
following methods:
1. Limited concentration in which the concentration of the solution is
held within the range where a chain reaction is not possible. Concentra¬
tion limitation can sometimes be controlled easily by low solubility of the
alloying elements in aqueous-type processes.
2. Mass limitation, where the quantity of fissionable material allowed
in the essel is kept below the amount that can go critical under any
possible condition.
3. Safe geometry, where the vessel diameter is such that critical condi¬
tions can never be achieved because of high neutron loss. Vessel spacing
is such that interaction between vessels is minimized.
The first two methods require rigid process control except in natural or
slightly enriched reprocessing plants before plutonium partitioning.
Other features of the layout include a calculated pitch on the process cell
floors so that a major spill will not cause the solution depth to exceed
criticality. A steam jet and sump pump with alarm devices are located
in a geometrically safe sump at the low point in the cell area. To avoid
oss of fissionable-fuel material, there should be no gravity connections
between the process tanks and the waste storage area.

Health Physics Requirements

Another unique feature of the nuclear plant layout is the requirement

for special locker and shower facilities. Personnel coming from a ho

Geneva, 9: ^(1955). ^ R"d* ^ Uses Atomic Energy,

462 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 10

required to remove all work clothing, shower, and have a radiation count
measurement taken, particularly of the hands and feet, before leaving the
plant. There should be no direct access from the street or offices to the
process area except through a clothing-change room where radiation film
badges and self-reading pocket dosimeters are issued. Emergency exits,
opening from the inside only, are frequently provided within the process
area in case of fires or explosions.

Equipment Selection
The equipment used in radiochemical plants is, for the most part,
similar to that found in other industrial chemical plants. The equipment
should be selected for minimum holdup, thus reducing shielding require¬
ments and criticality hazards. For example, thin film evaporators, oper¬
ating continuously, should be selected instead of pot-type vessels. T he
method of coupling equipment together and the remote control and han¬
dling features of equipment design may be quite different, especially for
the remote-maintenance type ol plant.
Mechanical devices, such as rotating shafts, are avoided if possible.
Agitation with steam or gas sparging is preferred. Almost all solution
transfers are made with steam jets since this method of transfer is easily
adapted to remote control and is essentially trouble-free. Lack ol accu¬
rate metering and handling of low flows are process disadvantages where
steam jets are used. If it is absolutely necessary to use a pump the tank-
submerged type is preferred for large capacities to avoid shaft leakage.
Canned rotor pumps have been used to advantage. Smaller flows can be
handled with a diaphragm pump employing a remotely located head
within the radioactive process area and the driving fluid pump positioned

Air-operated bellows-sealed valves of special design are used. Metal

be^ws are enclosed in an all-welded housing to prevent solution leakage
in the event of bellows failure.

Materials Selection
The radioactive level in most chemical processing equipment is such as

absorption of radioactivity in the materiais creates

Where viewing systems are Mcess^y,^h ^ ^ trangparent properties

unusual problems because < There is a tendency toward color

of the materials is a prime requisite. 1 here
CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN W4

formation and loss of transparency with increasing radiation dosage. A

list of suitable viewing materials which also act as shielding is:

Material Density, g/cm3

1. Water 1 0
2. 80% ZnBr in water 2.52
3. Nonbrowning lime glass 2 68
4. Corning 8362 glass 3.27
5. X-ray lead glass 4.88
6. Dense lead glass 6 20

An excellent discussion of viewing systems and material requirements is

given by Stephenson.1

Decontamination

Materials in contact with radioactive solids, liquids, or gases will pick

up activity as the result of physical or chemical adsorption. In some
cases it may be impossible to do repair work, even though the radioactive
contents are removed. This is true in the case of direct-maintenance
plants, and materials should be selected for rapid decontamination to
increase the plant on-stream time.
Materials of construction should be smooth and nonporous, nonionic
in nature, with good chemical and heat-resistant properties. A listing
of materials in order of increasing difficulty of decontamination includes
(1) polyethylene, (2) glass, (3) stainless steel, (4) copper, (5) brass, (6)
carbon steel, (7) lead, and (8) concrete. Nearly 100 per cent of the
applied activity is adsorbed on a porous material such as concrete and
cannot be removed. Special plastic paints and coatings which can be
applied to rough surfaces and subsequently peeled off when contaminated
have proved useful in building construction.
Decontamination of process equipment by chemical cleaning requires
corrosion resistance to numerous solutions. A typical cleaning cycle,
which may take somewhere between 3 and 30 days, employs the following
chemical steps:
1. Water agitated by steam sparge
2. 10 per cent dilute HN03
3. 10 per cent citric acid
4. 10 per cent NaOH-2.5 per cent tartaric acid
5. 10 per cent oxalic acid
6. 0.003 M periodic acid
7. 3 per cent sodium fluoride-20 per cent HNO,
The temperature is maintained at 75°C or above for solutions except the

’tsrjsrm**’M -d ■ -
464 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10

last, which is left at room temperature for about 1 hr. Type 347 stainless
steel has proved adequate for this service.

Process Instrumentation and Control

The radiochemical plant, which by necessity must be operated by

remote control, is highly instrumented. In addition to the usual record¬
ing and automatic control instruments for flow rate, liquid level, density,
and temperature, many types of commercially available radiation moni¬
toring instruments are used. All instruments must have a high degree
of precision where measurements are required for concentration control of
criticality. Reliability is improved by use of transistor components in
the instrument electrical circuit.
Most of the process control instruments are connected to the radio¬
active equipment via air purge lines which are positioned higher than the
process vessel to avoid entrance of radioactive solutions into the purge
lines. Both density and liquid level are determined by differential pres¬
sure between two air probes.
Sampling of liquid streams for process control and accountability of fuel
poses unusual problems because of the radioactivity involved. Landry1
describes the numerous ingenious sampling devices which are used. Most
designs depend on a gas lift to recirculate the liquid to a shielded sampling
box where a representative sample is removed.

Ventilation and Gaseous-waste Disposal

The principal requirement of the ventilation system is to keep radio
active gases and dusts which may be present in the process area from
entering the operating-control areas. Two types of gaseous wastes are
encountered: (1) ventilation gases from the process cells and laboratory
hood exhausts and (2) process gases evolved from the vessel^conten s
during chemical processing. The ventilating air is supplied to the p. ocess
area after being washed, heated or cooled, and passed through the no
radioactive areas. The process area is maintained under negative pres-
;i The aTr can be exhausted to a 200- to 300-ft vertical stack by mean
if large motor-driven blowers if the level of radioactive materials in direct

C°Tdie ^p'rocess^ gases 'are "treated differently. AH chemical vessels are

"n“o Subbing or filter-bed »»«»

’ *.. Pr«. «-■ <M- ’•

(1955).
CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN 400

1 micron (m) in diameter at low pressure drop. The gases may be either
discharged directly to a stack or passed through asbestos-fiber-papei fil
ters if the activity of the gases from the Fiberglas filter is too great. The
allowable radioactivity count of the gases discharged to the stack depends
on the maximum permissible concentration of the isotopes present, the
height of the stack, the meteorological conditions in the plant vicinity,
and the available plant exclusion area. The motor-driven blowers for
exhausting the process gases are backed up by steam-turbine drives or
internal-combustion engines in case of electric-power failure.

Plant Location
The factors discussed in Chap. 7 apply equally well to nuclear power,
heat, and processing plants but different factors must be stressed. The
principal factors relating to problems in the nuclear field are (1) raw mate¬
rials, (2) market, (3) transportation, (4) labor, (5) plant requirements,
(6) power, (7) waste disposal, (8) soil structure, (9) climatic conditions,
(10) ordinances: nuisance and zoning, and (11) population density or
degree of isolation. A discussion of these factors for various types of
nuclear plants follows:
1. Concentration of fuels from mineral deposits. The ore-treating
plants are located near the raw materials because of the large tonnages to
be processed for fuel concentration.
2. Conversion of ore concentrates to chemical or metallurgical fuel.
The volume output is small and geographical location is unimportant. A
souice of chemical labor and provision for waste disposal are important
considerations for this plant.
3. Separation of fission from fertile fuel. Gaseous-diffusion plants fall
in this category. Requirements for large blocks of electric power and
adequate cooling water dictate the location of this plant.
4. Spent- or irradiated-fuel reprocessing. The plants handling spent
fuel from homogeneous power reactors where the fuel must be processed
continuously will be integrated at the power reactor site. Those plants
wncli handle solid fuels from heterogeneous reactors must be located in
p aces where waste disposal can be adequately handled. Transportation
is a consideration because the spent fuel must be shipped in shielded
cas its weighing at least 15 times as much as the fuel.1 The total exclu¬
sion area requirements will dictate the plant site within a given geograph-

XtJSJSAT’ Atom“ c°m™

'Ti *7*? “ lh« “*»"> »' the beil,gP kSw
u. b. Dryden, Nucleonics, 14(6): 77 (1956).
466 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [chap. 10

COST ESTIMATIONS

It was shown in the plant layout section of this chapter that radio¬
chemical plants for spent-fuel reprocessing require designs which have no
counterpart in the chemical industry. Shielding, criticality control, and

Table 10-74. Estimating Factors for Radiochemical Plants*

P = process equipment costs, delivered basis

1. Process equipment installed. 1.1P to 1.15P

2. Piping, process building0. 1.5P to 2.9P
3. Instrumentation, process. 0.75P to 1.0P
4. Special shielding and equipmentft. 1.0P to 1.3P
5. Process building". 1.2P to 4.5P
6. Laboratory and administration bldg, complete. . 2.8P to 3.8P
7. Reactor fuel storage bldg, complete". 0.68P to 1.5P
8. Gaseous waste-disposal system'*. 1.3P to 1.4P

9. Liquid waste-disposal system6. 1.8P to 2.8P

10. Waste-disposal building". 0.72P to 1.4P

11. Service building complete. 0.85P to 1.2P

1.0P to 1.6P
12. Site development®.
Sum of items 1 through 12
13. Total installed physical costs.
14. Construction overhead including fee7.
40% to 50% of item 13
Sum of items 13 and 14
15. Total construction costs.
10% to 20% of item 15
16. Engineering.
10% to 50% of items 15 and 16
17. Contingency.
6 mo to 1 yr operating costs
18. Preoperational costs*1.
Sum of items 15, 16, 17, 18
19. Total capital costs*.

* W. G. Stockdale, Chem. Eng., 63(4): 185 (1956).

Factors are for direct-maintenance plants processing enriched spent reacto, fuels.
fpipZ costs include all labor and material for process piping, serv.ce piping, chem-

1Ca‘ Ue^incdudedherelre peculiar to radiochemical plants, i.e. chargers, samplers,

very sensitive to criticality and shielding. disper8al.

" Includes particle and chemical cleanup systems and tal ste M

.—
investment tied up must be carried.

I water supply, roads, fences, guardhouses,

fire lines, etc., but not land costs. manual preparation.

t on construction money, working capital, land

costs, and owner’s expense.

remote h.ndling »re |«W S£

 CHAP. 10] NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN
467

Table 10-7/?. Typical Costs for Radiochemical Plants*

For a direct-maintenance radiochemical processing plant

Material and labor

, Capital cost distribution
Process building with equipment:
Process equipment. $678,731

Pipe, valves, and fittings. 1,734,770

Instruments and controls. 574,988

Electrical (process). 93,766

Special equipment. 761,503

Process building with services.. 2,511,009
$6,354,767
Waste disposal:
Liquid waste collection and disposal. 1,614,596
Gaseous waste collection and disposal. 843,942
Waste-disposal building with services. 858,892
$3,317,430
Administration and laboratory building 2,221,848
Fuel storage building. 908,556
Service building. 693,332
Yard facilities. 940,985
Total labor and material. $14,436,918
Construction overhead and fee. 7,001,956
Engineering, including fee. 3,773,357

Total fixed capital investment. $25,212,231

Operating cost distribution (no amortization included) Per cent

Direct cost:
Direct operating labor.
12.3
Direct supervision.
4.9
Process chemicals and supplies.
9.9
Utilities.
20.3
Maintenance and repair.
17.1
Product control laboratory.
29.0
Process improvement laboratory.
6.0
Engineering department.
0.5

100.0
General plant expense (per cent of direct cost):
Overhead.
11.4
Administrative.
21.4
Health physics.
9.9
SF accountability.
Other. 3.5
11.3

57.5
* ^ . G. Stockdale, Chem. Eng., 63(4): 185 (1956).
468 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10

plants. His method is presented in Table 10-7 together with a typical

cost analysis for a plant size estimated to process around 1 ton/day of
natural or slightly enriched fuel. The upper limit is based on actual plant
construction experience while the lower limit is an anticipated goal result¬
ing from experience and improvement factors. Scale-up should be com¬
puted on a 0.5 exponential rather than the usual 0.6 value described in
Chap. 6 (pp. 205, 222) because of the inherently higher investment in the
small plant due to shielding and remote-handling equipment.
Remote-maintenance plants will have a capitalized cost about 50 per
cent higher than that shown for the direct-maintenance plant. Pyro-
metallurgical or fractional-distillation types of plants are in the low range
of the costs estimated for direct-maintenance plants.
No data are available on cost estimating methods for gaseous-diffusion
plants; ore-concentrating plants can be computed on the same basis as
other extractive metallurgical plants using wet processing. Flow sheets
for all processes are available in the references given in the process design
section of this chapter. Equipment requirements can thus be specified
from these flow sheets as a basis for a cost estimation.

LEGAL PROBLEMS

Plants handling bulk quantities of radiochemical materials must con-

form to regulations similar to those for nuclear reactors. The preliminary
design must be approved by a safeguards committee of the Atomic Energy
Commission and by local and state authorities as well as insurance groups.
The construction and operation requires licensing of both the plant anc i s
operating personnel. The design engineer is advised to first obtain the
latest regulatory information from the Atomic Energy Commission and
the other controlling authorities before starting on the design of a radio-
chemical plant.

PROBLEMS

10-1. Design the chlorination unit of

from688100products-Makeacompara'

“^complete proces sand for a — ££

to handle 5 metric tons per day of spent u f cent slightly

- - - - »• *■ “
power was 2.0 yr.
 NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PLANT DESIGN 469
CHAP. 10]

NOMENCLATURE

Note: Where units are not given, consistent units are to be used.
A atomic weight, g
b exponential attenuation coefficient, also linear build-up
B shielding build-up factor, dimensionless
D dose rate, generally at receptor position
Do dose rate before shield
E energy per particle, Mev
Eav average energy of photons or particles, Mev
H width of flat slab source
I intensity, Mev/cm2-sec
N number of atoms of radioactive element
r roentgen, photon equivalent energy
R distance between center of source and receptor, length
R0 distance from center to outer edge of source, length
S source strength
Sa surface source strength or flux, curies/cm2
Sc source strength, curies
Se source strength, Mev/sec
Sp source strength, photons or particles/sec
Sv volumetric source strength, curies/cm3
t time
h/t half life of radioisotope
W weight of radioactive isotope, grams
x shielding thickness, length
y yield of photons or particles per disintegration
Z height of cylinder

Greek Symbols

a alpha particles
/3 electron particles, negative or positive
7 gamma photons
A incremental operator
0 attenuation angle between source and receptor
X radioactive decay constant = 0.693/t^
m linear absorption coefficient, length
m/p mass absorption coefficient, cm2/g
p density, g/cm3
^ flux, particles or photons/cm2-sec

CONVERSION FACTORS FOR NUCLEAR DESIGN

Length
1 foot
30.48 centimeters
1 inch
2.54 centimeters
Volume

1 cubic foot
28.32 liters
470 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN [CHAP. 10
1 gallon. 231 cubic inches
1 gallon. 3.785 liters

Mass
1 pound. 453.6 grams
1 kilogram 2.2 pounds
1 ton (short). 2,000 pounds
1 ton (metric) 2,200 pounds

Energy
1 watthour. 3.413 Btu
1 megawatt-day (Mwd). 1.0 gram of fission fuel consumed (approx.)
1 megawatt-day. 8.19 X 107 Btu
1 electron volt (ev). 1.603 X 10~12 erg
1 million electron volts (Mev). 1.603 X 10~6 erg
1 million electron volts (Mev). 1.603 X 10“13 watt-sec
1 million electron volts (Mev). 1.520 X 10"16 Btu
1 fission. ~200-Mev energy release

Power
1 watt. 1 joule/sec = 107 ergs/sec
1 watt. 3.413 Btu/hr
1 watt. 3.1 X 1010 fissions/sec
1 Mev/sec. 1.603 X 10-13 watt

Nuclear
1 curie. 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations/sec
1 barn. 10-24 cm2
1 radiation absorbed dose (rad) 100 ergs/g of absorbing matter
1roentgen (r). 83 ergs/g air = 90 ergs/g soft tissue
Avogadro’s number. 6.03 X 1023 molecules/mole
 Additional Selected References

CHAPTER 1
General
1. Barkow, C. W.: The Project Engineer, Chem. Eng. Progr., 52(3): 61 (1956).
2. Genereaux, R. P.: Engineering for Today’s Chemical Plants, Chem. Eng.,
61(4): 182 (1954).
3. Lobo, W. E.: Design for Tomorrow’s Designers, Chem. Eng. Progr., 53(10): 6
(1957).

Computers

4. Berkeley, E. C., and L. Wainwright: “ Computers—1Their Operation and Appli¬

cations,” Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1956.
5. Bentler, J. A., and J. B. Roberts: Electronic Analogs in Reactor Design, Chem.
Eng. Progr., 62(2): 69F (1956).
6. Bibliography on the Use of IBM Machines in Science, Statistics and Education,
International Business Machines Corp., New York, 1956.
7. DeCarlo, C. R.: The Future of Automatic Information Handling in Chemical
Engineering, Chem. Eng. Progr., 51(11): 487 (1955).
8. Johnson, C. L.: “Analog Computer Techniques,” McGraw-Hill Book Com¬
pany, Inc., New York, 1956.
9. McCracken, D. D.: “Digital Computer Programming,” John Wiley & Sons
Inc., New York, 1957. ’
10. McMaster, R C R. L. Merrill, and B. H. List: Analog Systems in Engineering
Design, Prod. Eng., 24(1): 184 (1953). *
11 Reviews on Computers, Mathematics and Statistics, Industrial and Engineer-
ing Chemistry, annual March issue. y

wd'nf Sfrage’ R' W;: The Automatic Computer in the Control and Planning of
Manufacturing Operations, “Advances in Chemical Engineering,” vol. I pp 331-330
Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1956. ,PP-031 330,
15. Symposium: Computers, Chem. Eng. Progr., 62(11): 449-470 (1956)

60(5):'772™P52S,(U1958) ComPutatio'' Petroleum Research, Ind. Eng. Chem.,

471
472 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

15. Williams, T. J., R. C. Johnson, and A. Rose: Computations in the Field of

Engineering Chemistry, J. Assoc. Computing Machinery, 4(4): 393 (1957).

Drawing

16. Berg, R. H.: Handy Way to Scale Drawings for Flow Sheets, Chem. Eng.,
65(16): 174 (1958).
17. Hoelscher, R. P., and C. H. Springer: “Engineering Drawing and Geometry,”
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1956.
18. Zozzora, F.: “Engineering Drawing,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1953.

CHAPTER 2
General

1. Corley, H. M. (ed.)T “Successful Commercial Chemical Development,” John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1954.
2. Harper, J. I. (ed.): “Chemical Engineering in Practice,” Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1954.
3. Miller, R. L., Jr.: Organization for Plant Design, Chem. Eng., 63(7): 185 (1956).

Literature Searching and Reporting

4. “Applied Science and Technology Index” (formerly “Industrial Arts Index”),
The H. W. Wilson Company, New York.
5. “Chemical Abstracts,” American Chemical Society, The Ohio State Univer¬
sity, Columbus, Ohio.
6. Chemical Engineering Notation, Appendix B of this book.
7. “Chemist’s Dictionary,” D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J.,
1.953.
8. Clark, G. L., and G. G. Hawley (eds.): “Encyclopedia of Chemistry, Reinhold
Publishing Corporation, New Aork, 1957.
9 Crane, E. J., A. M. Patterson, and E. B. Marr: “A Guide to the Literature of
Chemistry,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.
10. Dyson, G. M.: “A Short Guide to Chemical Literature,” Longmans, Green &
Co., Ltd., London, 1951.
11. “Engineering Index,” Engineering Index Co., Inc., New \ork
12. Grant, J. (ed.): “Hackh’s Chemical Dictionary,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New Aork, 1946. , rp , ,
13. Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer (eds.): “Encyclopedia of Chemical Technol-
ogy,” Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York.
14. Kobe, K. A.: “Chemical Engineering Reports, ’ Interscience Publishers, Inc.,

NeT5YOMeilon! M. Q.: “Chemical Publications,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Com-

PaT6.INeison!VVJYR.:’“ Writing the Technical Report,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book

Company,^ ^ ^ £ Rose. «condensed Chemical Dictionary,” 5th ed., Romhold

PU' I8.h“'Ictentific Encyclopedia,” 3d ed., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton,

N'J19.19Shera, J. H. (ed.): “Advances in Documentation and Library Science,” vol. 1,

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.
 ADDITIONAL SELECTED REFERENCES 473
20. Stephenson, H. J.: “A Dictionary of Abbreviations,” The Macmillan Com¬
pany, New York, 1943. .
21. Ulman, J. N., Jr.: “Technical Reporting,” Henry Holt and Company, Inc.,
New York, 1952. . . .
22. Zimmerman, O. T., and I. Lavine: “Scientific and Technical Abbreviations,
Signs and Symbols,” Industrial Research Service, Dover, N.H., 1948.

Process Data Sources

23. Adams, D. P.: “An Index to Nomograms,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1950.
24. Atack, F. W. (ed.): “Handbook of Chemical Data,” Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1957.
25. Beilstein: “Handbuch der organischcn Chemie,” Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin.
26. Brewer, L.: Thermodynamic Properties of Oxides and Their Vaporization
Processes, Chem. Revs., 52(1): 1 (1953).
27. Chemical and Engineering Data Series, Ind. Eng. Chem., biannually.
28. Chu, J. C.: “Distillation Equilibrium Data,” Reinhold Publishing Corpora¬
tion, New York, 1950.
29. Cushing, R.: Your Design Reference File, section VII—Physical Data, Chem.
Eng., 64(10): 255 (1957).
30. Davis, D. S.: “Chemical Engineering Nomographs,” McGraw-Hill Book Com¬
pany, Inc., New York, 1944.
31. Doss, M. P.: “Physical Constants of the Principal Hydrocarbons,” The Texas
Company, New York, 1943.
32. Dreisbach, R. R.: “Physical Properties of Chemical Substances,” Dow Chem¬
ical Co., Midland, Mich., 1952.
33. Driesbach, R. R.: “ Pressure-Volume-Temperature Relationships of Organic
Compounds, 3d ed., Handbook Publishers, Inc., Sandusky, Ohio.
34. Egloff, G.: “Physical Constants of Hydrocarbons,” vols. I-IV, Reinhold Pub¬
lishing Corporation, New York, 1947-1953.
35. “Fuel Gases,” American Gas Association, New York, 1941.
36- Gambell, W. R.: Process Data, Chem. Eng., 64(2): 235, (3): 271, (4): 273, (5):
263, (6): 243, (7): 263, (8): 256, (9): 267, (10): 283, (12): 261 (1957); 66(1): 159' (3):
137, (5): 147, (7): 146, (9): 143, (11): 125, (13): 113, (17): 121 (1958).
37. Gmelin, “Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie,” Verlag Chemie, Berlin.
38. Hildebrand, J. H., and R. L. Scott: “The Solubility of Nonelectrolytes,” 3d
ed., Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York 1950

Rl].3®; p°t!T’ C Dr,(ed',): “H:lndb00k °f Chemistry and Physics,” Chemical

Rubber I ublishing Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

D.c!'w52rSley’ L H': “Az00tr0pic Data’” American Chemical Society, Washington,

Pies4 Part°T8eMa?erf l’ Vr WatS0"-,and R- A- RaSatz: “Chemical Process Princi-

1954. 1 M and Energy Balances’” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,

42. Hougen O. A., and K. M. Watson: “Chemical Process Principles part IT

Thermodynamms, part HI-Kinetics and Catalysis,” John Wiley & Sot? Inc ! New

ResSrch^utrtcfrw^t^Bo?? rNa,i°nal Academy of Sciences and National

men, ivicuraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York

tions ” rr?’ LnhoMPublttT' ^ “E-yclopediaof Chem,cal Reac-

- /, nemhold I ublishing Corporation, New York, 1946-1958,
474 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

45. Kammemeyer, K., and J. O. Osburn: “Process Calculations,” Prentice-Hall,

Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1956.
46. Kobe, K. A., and R. E. Lynn: The Critical Properties and Elements and Com¬
pounds, Chem. Revs., 52(1): 117 (1953).
47. Lange, N. A. (ed.): “Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,” Handbook Pub¬
lishers, Inc., Sandusky, Ohio.
48. “Liquid Metals Handbook,” 2d ed., AEC-Dept. of Navy, 1954.
49. “Liquid Metals Handbook, Sodium-NaK Supplement,” TID 5227, AEC-
Dept. of Navy, 1955.
50. Maxwell, J. B.: “Data Book on Hydrocarbons,” D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1950.
51. Mellan, I.: “Source Book of Industrial Solvents,” Reinhold Publishing Cor¬
poration, New York, 1957-1959.
52. Perry, J. H. (ed.): “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New' York, 1950.
53. Rossini, F. D., et al.: “Selected Values of Physical and Thermodynamic Prop¬
erties of Hydrocarbons and Related Compounds,” API Carnegie Press, Pittsburgh,
Pa., 1953. ... T. . , r
54 Sakiadis, B. C., and J. Coates: Thermal Conductivities of Liquids, Louisiana
State Univ., Eng. Expt. Station Bulls., Baton Rouge, La.
55. “Selected Values of Chemical Compounds,” Manufacturing Chemists Asso¬
ciation Project, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. TIT
56 Seidell A.: “Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds, vols I,
and supplements, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc, Princeton, N.J, 1941 to date. „
57 8^ D. R., and G. C. Sinke: “Thermodynamic Properties of the Elements,
American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C, 1958. „ ,
58. “Tables of Chemical Kinetics—Homogeneous Reactions, Natl. Bur. Stan
ards Circ. 510, Washington, D.C, 1951.

Pilot Plants
59. Clark, E. L.: Pilot Plants in Process Technology, ('hem. Eng., 65(8). 155, (11).

1196015Fieming(,2R. (IdO: “Scale-up in Practice.” Reinhold Publishing Corporation,

New ^ ork, 1958. j it c* Pofprsnn • Selecting the Kind and

fi, Fraeen, N., G. H. Weisemann, and K. C. ieterson. Selecting me

Grotlm^^D.^Mode^ Abroach ^Pilot-plant Design, CW **, 63(6): 239

<1956)' T . . I! r and M. W. Thring: “Pilot Plant and Scale-up Methods in

Ch7tiCJo^an*,n^.rG^.,‘‘Chem^cai~PilotMdant^lh'IarRce^”^Iiiterscien(^0pubhshers, Inc.,

Ne'65YSympo^um: Pilot Plant Design and Construction, Ind. En„. Chem., 41: 20,1

(194696 - Symposium: Collection of Engineering Data on a Small Scale, /-. *»■

60(^^instrumentation for Pilot Plants, ind. E«,

(1953).

Atmi.t.od. a, I,-, MW - *- E™“" **

48(1): 3 (1952).
 ADDITIONAL SELECTED REFERENCES

69. Braidech, M. M.: Safety in Chemical Plant Operations, Chem. Eng. Progr.,
47(12): 595 (1951). ,
70. Guelich, J.: “Chemical Safety Supervision,” Reinhold Publishing Corpora¬
tion, New York, 1956.
71. Kieweg, H.: Safety and Outdoor Construction, Chem. Eng. Progr., 47(7): 341
(1951).
72. Miner, H. L.: Management Viewpoints on Plant Safety, Chem. Eng. Progr.,
47(12): 597 (1951).
73. Safety Workbook, Ind. Eng. Chem., monthly feature.

Statistics

74. Cochran, W. G., and G. M. Cox: “Experimental Designs,” 2d ed., John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.
75. Kempthorne, O.: “The Design and Analysis of Experiments,” John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1952.
76. Lange, H. B.: Investigating Chemical Plant Process Variables, Chem. Eng.
Progr., 53(6): 304 (1957).
77. Statistics Workbook, Ind. Eng. Chem., monthly feature.
78. Youden, W. J.: “Statistical Methods for Chemists,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1951.

Legal Aspects

79. Buckles, R. A.: “Ideas, Inventions, and Patents,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1957.
80. Canfield, D. T., and J. H. Bowman: “Business, Legal, and Ethical Phases of
Engineering,” 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954.
81. Crooks, Robert: Review Patent Fundamentals, Chem. Eng., 65(4): 121 (1958).
82. Dunham, C. W ., and R. D. \oung: “Contracts, Specifications and Law for
Engineers,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958.

CHAPTER 3

The sources listed below furnish process information from the chemical, petroleum
and metallurgical fields. This information is usually in the form of qualitative block
type or equipment flow sheets which can serve as starting points for a process and
plant design problem. The student should make a thorough literature survey to
understand all the chemistry and engineering aspects of the process design problem
(see Reference Sources in Chap. 2). p

Composite Flow-sheet Books

biannually starting in 1950. P ’ GW ' ork> 1958> Published

Individual Flow-sheet Sources—Magazines

3. Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc New Yorlc

New York A“ Institute of Chemical EnSeers,

D.C.*• IndUSlnal ^ Engineerin» Chemi^ American Chemical Society, Washington,

476 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

6. Oil and Gas Journal, Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa, Okla.

7. Petroleum Refiner, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex.
8. Chemical and Process Engineering, Leonard-Hill Limited, London.
9. Chemical Processing, Putnam Publishing Co., Chicago.

Individual Flow-sheet Sources—Books

10. Faith, W. L., D. B. Keyes, and R. Clark: “Industrial Chemicals,” 2d ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.
11. Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer (eds.): “ Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,”
Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1944-1957.
12. Shreve, R. N.: “Chemical Process Industries,” 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1956.
13. Riegel, E. R.: “Industrial Chemistry,” 5th ed., Reinhold Publishing Corpo¬
ration, New York, 1949.

Process Cycles

14. Naguv, M. F.: Material Balances in Complex and Multi-stage Recycles, Chem.
Eng. Progr., 53(6): 297 (1957).

CHAPTER 4

Materials of Construction
1. ASTM Standards on Materials, American Society for Testing Materials,
Philadelphia, Pa.
2. Chemicals and Materials Technical Review, Chem. Eng., annually, September
issue.
3. Corrosion of Engineering Materials, Corrosion, monthly.
4. DuMond, T. C. (ed.): “Engineering Materials Manual,” Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1951.
5. Engineering Materials Reviews, Chemical & Process Engineering, monthly.
6 Engineering Materials Reviews, 47aterials and Methods, monthly.
7. Greathouse, G. A., and C. J. Wessel (eds.): “Deterioration of Materials,”
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1954. .
8. Lee, J. A.: “Materials of Construction for Chemical Process Industries,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950. „... „ .
9. Mantell, C. L. (ed.): “Engineering Materials Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book

COni0.aM’aterialsIof8Construction Reviews, Industrial Engineering Chemistry, annu-

al'y j p Mm" r) 1>' F., and J. B. Seastone (eds.):“ Handbook of Engineering Materials,

Report1^Materials of Construction, Chemical Engineering, biannually, even

yCa 13.ISodeITyeof1Sthe'Plastics Industry, Inc.: “Plastics Engineering Handbook,”

Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1954
14. Uhlig, H. H. (ed.): “Corrosion Handbook,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New

York, 1948.

Equipment Design and Selection

15. Carmichael, C. (ed.): “Kent, Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook-Design an
Production,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.
 ADDITIONAL SELECTED REFERENCES 477
16. “Compressed Air and Gas Institute—Compressed Air Handbook,” 2d ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954.
17. Cremer, H. W. (ed.): “Chemical Engineering Practice,” 12 vols., Academic
Press, Inc., New York, 1956 to date.
18. Cushing, R.: Your Design Reference File, Chem. Eng., 64: (1957)-(3) : 257-260
(tanks, reactors, mixers and agitators, materials handling); (4): 271-276 (piping);
(5): 267-273 (pumps, water supply, power); (7): 247-253 (compressors, jet ejector and
eductors, design and cost estimating); (8): 267-272 (heating, ventilating, and air con¬
ditioning) ; (9): 277-282 (heat transfer, heat exchangers, chemical engineering, kinet¬
ics); (10): 255-262 (materials of construction, corrosion, paints and coatings, physical
data); (11): 257-264 (separation processes, distillation, evaporation, absorption, drying,
air pollution, dust collection, entrainment separators); (12): 275-280 (instrumentation,
refrigeration, structural engineering, illumination).
19. Davidson, R. L.: “Successful Process Plant Practices,” McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1958.
20. Equipment and Design Workbook, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,
monthly feature.
21. Eshbach, O. W. (ed.): “Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals,” 2d ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1952.
22. Hicks, T.: “Pump Selection and Application,” McGraw-Hill Book Company
Inc., New York, 1957.
23. “Liquid Metals Handbook,” 2d ed., AEC-Dept. of Navy, 1954.
24. “Liquid Metals Handbook, Sodium-NaK Supplement,” TID 5227 AEC-
Dept. of Navy, 1955.
25. Marks, L. S. (ed.): “Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook,” 5th ed., McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
26. Nelson, W. L.: “Petroleum Refinery Engineering,” 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1958.
27. Nielsen, C. H. (ed.): “Distillation in Practice,” Reinhold Publishing Corpo¬
ration, New York, 1956. F
28 Reviews on Unit Operation, Unit Processes and Chemical Engineering Funda¬
mentals, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, annual March issvie.

36:2102 a958)MOdelS ^ EqU‘Pment Design APProach> Chem. Eng. News,

30. Staniar, W. (ed ): “Plant Engineering Handbook,” 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., New York, 1959.

1293a956)mPOSiUm: 1>r°CeSS Equipment Standardization, Chem. Eng. Progr., 62(4):

°' Equipment f°r 0perati“8 and Mai“^ance, Cent.

„ CHAPTER 6
General

Inc.New YorkJ'l950.“LayOUt Plan”ing Technic>"es-” McGraw-Hill Book Company,

John Will^&^onsJnc^New Yort^S 1 ' <Plant Lay°Ut: PlanninS and Practice,”

Interscience Publishers, iZ^Net^r^ms^ Techn°logy>” voL 10- PP- 737-743,

design, Chem. Enl, 63(10) / 19<f (1956)'1' CUt RePa‘r and C°sts with Alert Layout
478 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

5. Smith, W. P.: How Good Is Your Layout? Modern Materials Handling, 9(5):
121 (1954).

Scale Models

6. Bowen, H. J.: Scale Models, Chem. Eng., 61(8): 176 (1954).

7. Bussard, \Y.: It Pays to Build Design Models, Petrol. Processing, 12(4): 90
(1957).
8. Cannon, R.: Models Simplify and Cut Costs on Big Revamp Job, Petrol. Proc¬
essing, 12(8): 48 (1957).
9. Davidson, R. L.: Can You Save Design Hours with Photo Blueprints? Petrol.
Processing, 10(3): 348 (1955).
10. Kershaw, H.: Design Models Are Here to Stay, Petrol. Processing, 12(5): 222
(1957).
11. Kershaw, H., and A. F. Hollowed: Models—A New Maintenance Tool, Petrol.
Refiner, 37(1): 133 (1958).
12. Michel, A. E.: Use of Models in Design and Construction, Chem. Eng. Progr.,
54(3): 86 (1958).
13 Paton, B. L.: Do Models Pay Out? Petrol. Refiner, 35(11): 161 (1956).
14. Troy, W. N.: Models Can Cut Your Piping Costs, Petrol. Processing, 9(2): 224

^ 15! Tucker, T. S.: How Photo-drawings Work with Models, Petrol. Processing,

12(4): 94 (1957).

CHAPTER 6

General References
1. Aries, R. S., and R. D. Newton: “Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation,”
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1956. , Rnn.u Pross
2. Grant, E. L.: “Principles of Engineering Economy, 3d ed„ The Ronald 1

C°TIHa[fpX JY:r“bhemical Process Economics,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New

^^.Hur, J. J.: “Chemical Process Economics in Practice,” Reinhold Publishing

COrP5raOsburnNejW o“td K Kammermeyer: “Money and the Chemical Engineer,”

Prentice-Hall; “a^-es^andbook,” McGraw-Hill Book Com-

Pany7 metWMY0Sk’: «Hant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers,”

McGraw-Hill Book Com-

Pany9 ’Thue^en, RG.-Engmeering Economy,” 2d ed„ Prent.ce-Hall, Inc, Engle-

wood Cliffs, N.J., !957. Lavine: “Chemical Engineering Costs,” Industrial

10. Zimmerman, O. I., anci 1. ^VU1

Research Service, Do'rer’ N'H'’,,!|50t vine (eds): Chemical Engineering Cost Quar-

“ch s“ Dover’ N-H'

RTL-'Zt 0, a—
issue.
 additional selected references
479

13. Barnet, W. I.: Bibliography of Investment and Operating Costs for Chemical
and Petroleum Plants, U.S. Bureau of Mines, October, 1949.
14. “Chemical Economics Handbook,” Stanford Research Institute, 1 alo Alto,

Calif, (quarterlyreports). . ck/io\- i«7 CQ581

15. Cost File for Preconstruction Estimating, Chem. Eng., 65(1-). 187 (1958)
(starts with this issue). . ,
16. Cost Workbook, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, monthly feature.
17. Cushing, R.: Your Design Reference File, section IV Design and Cost Esti¬
mating, Chem. Eng., 64(7): 247 (1957). .
18. Symposium: Economic Evaluation, Chern. Eng. Progr., 62: 399 (1956).
19. Weaver, J. B.: Chemical Cost and Profitability Estimation Reviews, Chem.
Eng., 61(10): 185 (1954), 62(6): 247 (1955); Ind. Eng. Chem., 48: 934 (1956), 49: 936
(1957), 60: 753 (1958).

Plant and Process Economics

20. Ashton, H. W., and G. T. Meiklejohn: Cost Estimating in Process Develop¬
ment, Soc. Chern. Ind., 32: 27 (1950).
21. Bauman, H. C.: Estimating Costs of Plant Auxiliaries, Chern. Eng. Progr.,
61(1): 44-J (1955).
22. Beattie, R. D., and J. E. Vivian: Cost Estimation Glossary, Chern. Eng.,
60(1): 172 (1953).
23. Bottomley, H.: Definitive Cost Estimating, Petrol. Refiner, 32(10): 110 (1953).
24. Bottomley, H.: How to Prepare Cost Estimates, Petrol. Refiner, 32(9): 211
(1953).
25. Butler, C. A., Jr.: Keep Cost Estimates Realistic, Chem. Eng., 62(1): 171
(1955).
26. Chilton, C. H.: Cost Estimating Simplified, Chem. Eng., 58(6): 108 (1951).
27. Chilton, C. H.: Six-tenths Factor Applies to Complete Plant, Chern. Eng.,
67(4): 112 (1950).
28. Chilton, C. H.: What Is Cost Engineering? Chern. Eng., 64(7): 237 (1957).
29. Chilton, C. H.: What Price Process Plants? Chem. Eng., 68(5): 164 (1951).
30. Cleveland, R.: Simple Approach to Cost Estimating, Prod. Eng., 24(7): 171
(1953).
31. Duff, B. S.: Economics of Ammonia Manufacture, Chem. Eng. Progr , 61(1)-
125 (1955).
32. Dybdal, E. C.: Engineering and Economic Evaluation of Projects, Chern. Eng
Progr., 46(1): 57 (1950).
33. Ferencz, P.: Statistical Analysis of Cost Estimates, Chern. Eng. News 29*
4158 (1951).
34. Gilmore, J. F.: Short-cut Estimating of Processes, Petrol. Refiner, 32(10): 97
(1953).
35. Guthmann, W. S., and P. R. Inman: Cost Estimating in a Multipurpose Plant
Ind. Eng. Chern., 44: 2832 (1952).

32(10)- wTf 1953)J' P': Ec0,1°mic Analysis in Petroleum Refining, Petrol. Refiner,

(10M02 U953)’ B" ^ al" EC°n0miC Analysis in Chemical Plants, Petrol. Refiner, 32

38. Jelen, F. C : Watch Your Cost Analysis, Chem. Eng., 63(6): 247 (1956).

64.10): mg(1947)'.: ^ Uelatl0nshlps in Preliminary Cost Estimates, Chem. Eng.,

64(9):' EnBineering ApPr°ach l° Preliminary Cost Estimates, Chem. Eng.,

480 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

41. Lang, H. J.: Simplified Approach to Preliminary Cost Estimates, Chem. Eng.,
55(6): 112 (1948).
42. Lynn, L., and J. R. McKlveen: Simplify Your Cost Estimates by Nomographs,
Chem. Eng., 60(4): 193 (1953).
43. Page, E. C.: Equipment for Small-scale Chlorination Plants, Cost Eng., 3(1):
9; 3(2): 55; 3(3): 85 (1958).
44. Rohrdanz, R. C.: Design for Low Construction Costs, Chem. Eng., 65(6): 133
(1958).
45. Samaniego, J. A., and C. R. Nelson: Cost Estimation in the Development of a
New Process, Chem. Eng. Progr., 62(11): 471 (1956).
46. Schweyer, H. E.: How Inventory Costs Affect Your Process Economics, Chem.
Eng., 60(10): 188 (1953).
47. Smith, C. A.: Cost Indexes, Cost Eng., 2(4): 110 (1957).
48. Smith, R. B., and T. Dresser: Economic Consideration in Process Design,
Chem. Eng. Progr., 51(12): 544 (1955).
49. Stahl, R., and J. E. Kasch: Chemical Engineering Economics, Chem. Eng.,
58(2): 270 (1951).
50. Symposia: Economic Evaluation, Chem. Eng. Progr., 52(10): 399 (1956).
51. Timpe, T. W.: Optimum Design Capacity, Chem. Eng. Progr., 64(1): 57
(1958).
52. Van Noy, C. W., et ah: Guide for Making Cost Estimates for Chemical Type
Operations, U.S. Bureau of Mines, November, 1949.
53. Wells, A. J., and S. A. Senger: Predesign Cost Estimates, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
43:2309 (1951).
54. Wessel, H. R.: How to Estimate Costs in a Hurry, Chem. Eng., 60(1): lb8

55 Wilcoxon, B. H.: Unit Cost of Some Complete Plants, Chem. Eng., 54(5): 112

(1947).

General Equipment Costs

56. Behrens, J. R.: Estimating Installations of Chemical Equipment, Chem. Eng.,

641 57. Bliss, h!: Data for Equipment Cost Estimates, Chem. Eng., 54(5): 126; 54(6):

10t>58Chilton C. H.: Cost Data Correlated, Chem. Eng., 66(6): 97

59. Hap pel, J., et al. Equipment Costs and Other Items in Engmeenng Econom-

1CS’(SAfHappct’ J63rt2al.fktimating Chemical Engineering Equipment Costs, Chem.

6 Jamlvisevits,4 lh: Preliminary Estimating by Selective Unit Costs, Ind. Eng.

Ch72' Kiltif H^! C- S. Cameron, and A. P. Carter: Installed Equipment Costs per
Unit of Production Capacity, Chem. Eng., 60(11): 192 (1953).
63. Molaison, H. J„ et al,. Chemical Equipment Costs OUtoX, vol.^8, ,

AU6411MPola1isonSHt J8,;ePt T.’'S'^Equipment Costs, Chem. Eng., 67(4): 1,0

‘‘"“I' Reys, J, Equipment Costs of Graphite Equipment, Chem. Eng., 66,4): 137

(1966.'Williams, It.: Standardizing Cost Data on Process Equipment, Chem. Eng.,

54(6): 102 (1947).

 ADDITIONAL SELECTED REFERENCES 1

67. Zimmerman, 0. T., and I. Lavine: General Equipment Cost Data, Chem. Eng.
Costs Quart., 3(1): 21 (1953), 4(1): 4 (1954); Cost Eng., 2(4): 113 (1957).

Gas Handling
68. Densler, R.: Blower and Fan Costs, Chem. Eng., 69(10): 130 (1952).
69. Gerow, G. P.: High Vacuum Equipment, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 2(4): 80
(1952).
70. Jorgensun, R.: Fans, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(4): 84 (1955).
71. Katell, S., and J. P. McGee: Air Compressor Costs, Cost Eng., 2(1): 5 (1957).
72. Nelson, W. O.: Gas Moving Equipment, Oil Gas J., vol. 48: Compressors,
p. 223, June 23; Blowers, p. 91, June 30; Steam Jet Ejectors, p. 377, Nov. 17, 1949.
73. Tallman, J. C.: Ejectors Show Low First Cost, Chem. Eng., 60(1): 176 (1953).
74. Reha, T. R., and J. S. Quill: Gas Turbines and Centrifugal Compressors, Oil
Gas J., 61: 113 (Feb. 9, 1953).
75. Zimmerman, O. T., and I. Lavine: Inert Gas Generators, Chem. Eng. Costs
Quart., 3(1): 18 (1953).

Solids Handling

76. Arcand, H. J.: Chemical Feeders, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(4): 97 (1956).
77. Arcand, H. J.: Lime Slakers and Silica Activators, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart.,
6(4): 102 (1956).
78. Fox, L. E.: Estimate of Cost of Screw Conveyers, Chem. Eng., 56(11): 128
(1949).
79. Hudson, W. B.: Cutting Costs—Materials Handling, Chem. Eng., 56(10): 102
(1949).

Pumps

80. Cramer, G. W.: Stainless Steel Centrifugal Pumps, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart.,
3(4): 117 (1953).
81. Kluna, B. B.: Packless Pumps, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 2(4): 88 (1957).
82. Lundeen, R. V., and W. G. Clark: Cost of Installing Centrifugal Pumps
Chem. Eng., 62(8): 189 (1955).
83. Zimmerman, O. T., and I. Lavine: Cost of Stainless Steel Centrifugal Pumps,
Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 3(4): 117 (1953).

Size Reduction

84. Fattu, D. S.: Crushing and Grinding Costs, Cost Eng., 3(1): 15 (1958).

2(4)8510^°(S1952' R J^ Ent°later Impact Mil1 and Aspirator, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart.,

86. Mulcahy, P. H.: Reitz Disintegrators, Cost Eng , 2(2) • 49 (1957)

(195%';S:'50 (195®;.26 RedUCti°n ^ ^ ^ ^ 6<4>: ™

Mixing

88. Carlson, G. A.: Continuous Mixers, Cost Eng., 3(2): 44 (1958)

(1958). CarlS°n’ A" Horizontal R^bon Type Batch Blenders, Cost Eng., 3(1): 4

90. Diltz, J. L.: Mixing Equipment, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(2): 42 (1956)

5(3): 65 TiZ'. C° Fl0miX Continuous Miam, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart.,

92. Lewis, G. E.: Your Guide to Mixer Costs, Chem. Eng., 60(1): 191 (1953).
482 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

93. Petrey, J. K.: Patterson Kelley Twin Shell Blendors, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart.,
6(3): 60 (1955).
94. Zimmerman, O. T., and I. Lavine: Propeller Type Agitators, Chem. Eng. Costs
Quart., 3(3): 74 (1953).

Separations

95. Apt, J., Jr.: Dorfan Impingo Filter, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(3): 75 (1955).
96. Chalmers, J. M., L. R. Elledge, and H. F. Porter: Filters, Chem. Eng., 62(6):
191 (1955).
97. Dellavalle, J. M.: Dust Collector Costs, Chem. Eng., 60(11): 177 (1953).
98. Dermody, J. L.: Cost of Colloidal Separators, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 4(3):
82 (1954).
99. Fleming, M. C.: Thickeners and Clarifiers, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 1(4): 53
(1951).
100. Flood, J. E.: Centrifugals, Chem. Eng., 62(6): 217 (1955).
101. Gery, W. B.: Thickeners, Chem. Eng., 62(6): 228 (1955).
102. Kracklauer, F. W.: Liquid Pressure Filters, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(3): 65
(1956).
103. Kriegel, P.: Filter Presses, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(2): 36 (1955).
104. Nelson, W. L.: Petrochemical Filter Press Costs, Oil Gas J., 48: 81 (June 2,
1949).
105. Samfield, M.: Dust Collecting Equipment, Cost Eng., 2(1): 106 (1957).
106. Shera, W. S.: Vibrating Screens, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(3). 94 (1954).
107. Smith, J. C.: Cost and Performance of Centrifugals, Chem. Eng., 69(4): 140

^ io8. Stasting, E. P.: Electrostatic Precipitators, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(2): 32

(19109. Zimmerman, O. T., and I. Lavine: Hersey Reverse-jet Dust Filter, Chem. Eng.
Costs Quart., 4(1): 9 (1954).

Heat Transfer
110. Bridges, F. L.: Platecoil Heat Transfer Units, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 3(3):

“in^Degler, H. E.: Cooling Towers and Air-cooled Exchangers, Oil Gas J., 60: 70

(SepC ^ w E . Condenser Costs, Chem. Eng., 62(3): 116 (1955).

113. MicheU, A. M.: Shell and Tube Exchangers, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 3(2). 38

(1n4.' Nelson, W. L.: Exchangers, Oil Gas J ,47: HJ 1953)

11 5 Rubin F L . Heat Exchanger Costs, Chem. Eng., 60( 10) 202 l . • >•> •
\\t: Zimmerman, O. T„ and X. Lavine: Cost of Salt-heating Umts, Chem. Eng. Costs

Quart., 3(4): 111 (1953).

Dn“ g, L. R, Stedman Packed Coh.mns, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 3(3): 84

(Tl8' Donovan, J, Cost Estimation of Fabricated Plate Equipment, Chem. Eng.

SSSp in Picking the Right W-n.

(Apr. 14, 1949), 48: 339 (June 28, 1949).

 additional selected references
483

Drying
121 Crites, G. J.: Vacuum Drying, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(1): 4 (195G).
122. ’ Lapple, W. C., W. E. Clark, and E. C. Dybdal: Drying Design and C osts,
Chem. Eng., 62(8): 189 (1955).
123. Maquire, J. F.: Atms. Drum Dryers and Makers, ( hem. Eng. Costs Quart.,

124. Murray, F. V., Jr.: Spray Drying Equipment, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(4):
89 (1956).
125. Russell, R. S.: Dryers and Drying Costs, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 6(4): 96
(1955).
126. Zimmerman, 0. T., and I. Lavine: Adsorptive Dryers, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart.,
3(1): 9 (1953).

Evaporation
127. Kohlins, W. D., and H. P. Englander: Cost Factors in Evaporator Design,
Chem. Eng. Progr., 52(2): 45 (1956).
128. Williams, G. C.: Report on Evaporator Costs, Chem. Eng., 60(4): 156 (1953).

Reactors, Vessels, Tanks

129. Boberg, I. E., and W. R. Fickett: Relative Costs of Alternate Types of Reactor
Vessel Construction, Petrol. Processing, 8(5): 690 (1953).
130. Clark, W. G.: Tank Foundations, Cost Eng., 1(1): 12 (1956).
131. Cottrell, C. E.: Estimation of Vessel Costs, Chem. Eng., 60(2): 143 (1953).
132. How, H.: Short Cut Estimation of Welded Process Vessels, Chem. Eng., 55(1):
122 (1948).
133. Nelson, W. L.: Oil Gas J., vol. 47, vessels, p. 113, Dec. 16, p. 81, Dec. 23; tank,
p. 123, Nov. 18, p. 133, Nov. 25, 1948.
134. Plummer, F. L.: Field Erected Storage Tanks, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 2(3):
53 (1952).
135. Zimmerman, O. T., and I. Lavine: Haveg Equipment, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart
2(4): 89 (1952).
136. Zimmerman, O. T., and I. Lavine: Mixing Tanks, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart
3(3): 83 (1953).
137. Zimmerman, O. T., and I. Lavine: Cost of Cast Iron Process Vessels, Chem.
Eng. Costs Quart., 3(4): 97 (1953).
138. Zimmerman, O. T., and I. Lavine: Wood Tanks, Cost Eng., 2(1): 20 (1957).

Piping, Control, and Instrumentation

(See Chap. 9.)

Building and Construction

(See Chap. 8.)

Capital Costs

C°nSiderati0nS f°r °aPital C°st Es«™«on,

33(0)°:' G" and J' J' MerrU1: Capital Costs Considerations, Petrol. Refiner,

14K Jelen, F C!.: Next Time Use Capitalized Costs, Chem. Eng., 61(2): 199 (1954)
1 .o' y.'T' ” | ake l ic Most of Capital Ratios, Chem. Eng., 61(4): 175 (1954).
* a° nCy’ ‘ Outline of Capital Cost Estimating, Cost Eng., 1(1): 27 (1956).
484 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

144. Neidig, C. P.: Is Capital Really Tight in the Process Industries? Chem. Eng.
Progr., 62: 269 (1956).
145. Nichols, W. T.: Capital Cost Estimating, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43: 2295 (1951).
146. Schweyer, H. E.: Capital Ratios Analyzed, Chem. Eng., 69(1): 164 (1952).
147. Symposium: Capital Cost Estimation, Chem. Eng. Progr., 62: 171 (1956).
148. Tiel, R. J.: Importance of Complete and Accurate Cost Estimates, Chem. Eng.
Progr., 52(5): 187 (1956).

Labor and Operation

149. Bechtel, V. R.: Inflation in Production and Operating Costs, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
43: 2307 (1951).
150. Cusack, B. L.: Human Engineering and Direct Labor Costs, Chem. Eng. Progr.,
63(10): 471 (1957).
151. Gropper, F.: Direct Labor Costs and Chemical Plants, Chem. Eng. Progr.,
53(10): 464 (1957).
152. Nelson, W. L.: Refinery Labor, Oil Gas J., 48: 97 (1949).
153. Newton, R. D., and R. S. Aries: Preliminary Estimating of Operating Costs,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 43: 2309 (1951).
154. Sweet, E. It.: Preparation of Operating Cost Estimates, Chem. Eng. Progr.,
62(5): 174 (1956).
155. Wessel, H. E.: New Graph Correlates Operating Labor Data for Chemical
Processes, Chem. Eng., 69(7): 209 (1952).
156. Wobus, R. S.: Estimating Direct Operating Labor for New Processes, Chem.
Eng. Progr., 63(12): 581 (1957).

Maintenance, Repairs, and Engineering Costs

157. Ahliness, R. L.: Schedule Your Maintenance for Minimum Cost, Chem. Eng.,
60(5): 236 (1953).
158. Cziner, R. M.: How to Control Maintenance Costs, Petrol. Refiner, 33(1): 106
(1954).
159. Darling, L. A.: Maintenance Organization and Operation in Chemical Plants,
Chem. Eng. Progr., 48(1): 57 (1952).
160. Darling, L. A., and H. A. Bogle: Productivity in Chemical Plant Maintenance,
Chem. Eng. Progr., 50(3): 164 (1954). ^ ^
161. Glauz, R. L.: Estimating Maintenance Costs in New Plants, ( hem. Eng. I rogi.,

51(3): 122 (1955). / N _

162. Leonard, J. L.: Maintenance Costs, Chem. Eng., 58(10): 145 (1951); 69(4): 150
(1952); 61(2): 206 (1954).
163. O’Donnell, J. P.: New Correlation of Engineering and Other Indirect Costs,
Chem. Eng., 60(l/: 188, (4): 156 (1953). . ^ J „
164. Pierce, D. E., and W. I. McNeill: Control of Costs in 1 roduction, Chem. Eng.

Progr., 50(11/: 552 (1954).

1(>5. Saycr, J. S.: DuPont’s Practice with Maintenance Data, Chem. Eng. 1 rogr.,

61(1G6. Schwab,5L., anti B. G. Earnheart: Cut Repair Time and Costs with Alert

Design, Chem. Eng., 63(10): 190 (1956). 620)V 173

167. Stratmeyer, It. J.: Your Key to Maintenance Savings, Chem. Eng., 62(9).

" m.' Whitehead, S.: Chemical Plant Maintenance, Chem. Eng 69(8): 167 (1952).
109. Woolfenden, L. B„ and R. C. Thiede: Designing for Maintenance, Chem. bng.

Progr., 48: 115 (1952).

 additional selected references
485

Utilities

(See Chap. 9 also.) . ... . ™ „

170. Bauman, H. C.: Estimating Costs of Process Plant Auxiliaries, Chem. Eng.

Progr., 61(1): 45J (1955). ni v

171 Carlise, V. J.: Some Economic Factors in Waste Water Treatment, Chem. Eng.
Progr., 46(7): 328 (1950).
172. Clayton, C. C.: Steam-jet Refrigerating Systems, Cost Eng., 2(2): 42 (1957).
173. Hertz, D. B.: What Does Water Cost? Chem. Inds., 66(4): 512 (1950).
174^ Jacobs, H. L.: Waste Treatment—Recovery and Disposal, Chem. Eng., 62(4):
185 (1955).
175. Nordell, E.: Water Treatment, Chem. Eng., 62(10): 175 (1955).
176. Streicher, L., et al.: Demineralization of Water, Ind. Eng. Chem., 46: 2394

(1953).

Depreciation, Interest, Taxes

177. Cannon, D. T.: Depreciation Policy Changes, Chem. Eng., 66(15): 70 (1958).
178. Digest of State Laws Relating to Taxes and Revenue, U.S. Dept, of Commerce,
Bureau of Census, Washington, D.C., 1954.
179. Hartogenis, A. M., and H. D. Allen: Evaluate Your Depreciation Charges,
Chem. Eng., 61(2): 195 (1954).
180. Jelen, F. C.: Consider Income Tax in Cost Analysis, Chem. Eng., 64(9): 271
(1957).
181. Lawrence, A. E.: Depreciation and Amortization, Chem. Eng. Progr., 51: 227
(1955).
182. Marston, A., R. Winfrey, and J. C. Hempstead: “Engineering Valuation and
Depreciation,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1953.
183. Weaver, J. B., and R. J. Reilly: Interest Rate of Return Evaluation, Chem.
Eng. Progr., 62(10): 405 (1956).

Packaging, Shipping

184. LaPointe, J. R.: Freight Costs for Equipment, Chem. Eng., 60(4): 213 (1953).
185. Nelson, W. L.: Oil Gas J., vol. 52, ocean shipping, p. 137, Feb. 9, p. 113,
Sept. 7; shipping viscous materials, p. 108, June 29, pipeline transportation rates, p.
351, Sept. 21, 1953.
186. Smith, M. A.: Getting at Your Handling Costs, Chem. Eng., 62(2): 193 (1955).
187. Smith, S. P.: If You Ship Process Products, Chem. Eng., 60(3): 222 (1953).
188. Strong, A. K.: Economics of Shipping in Larger Loads, Chem. Eng., 62(8): 178
(1955).
189. Tighe, F. C.: Rail, Motor, and Water Transportation of Chemicals, Chem. Enq
News, 31: 752, 3538, 4916 (1953).
190. Uncles, R. F., and T. L. Carter: Watch Those Hidden Packaging Costs, Chem
Eng., 60(8): 185 (1953). 1 *

Sales, Research, Administration

191. Ericsson, R. L., and L. E. Johnson: Costs in Developing Market Know-how

lnd. Eng. Chem., 47: 992 (1955). ’

43A (1956)rdy’ W' L': Research ancl Development Funds, Ind. Eng. Chem., 48(8):

193. Ladd, H. D.: Economics of Chemical Selling,

Chem. Eng. News, 30: 4938
(1952).
486 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

194. Research Allocations in Industry, Chem. Eng. News, 34: 2236 (1956).
195. Zabel, H. W.: The Exclusion Chart, Chem. Eng. Progr., 52(5): 183 (1956).
Economic Evaluation
196. Aries, R. S.: Venture Profitability in Economic Balance, Chem. Eng. Progr.,
46(3): 115 (1950).
197. Fagley, W. L., and G. W. Blum: Calculate Payout Time for Your Investment,
Chem. Eng., 57(7): 116 (1950).
198. Finalyson, K.* Rate Economic Factors by Importance, Chem. Eng., 65(1): 151
(1958).
199. Happel, J.: New Approach to Payout Calculations, Chem. Eng., 58(10): 146
(1951).
200 Hicks, S. S., and L. R. Steffen: Cost Estimation and Decision Making, Chem.
Eng. Progr., 52(5): 191 (1956).
201. Jelen, F. C.: Capital Costs for Comparison of Alternatives, Chem. Eng. Progr.,
52(10): 413 (1956).
202. Jelen, F. C.: Combined Effect of Rate of Return, Income Tax and Inflation,
Chem. Eng., 66(2): 123 (1958).
203. Krase, N. W.: Criteria for Discontinuing Operating Investments, Chem. Eng.
Progr., 62: 495 (1956).
204. Newton, R. D., and R. S. Aries: Break-even Charts, Chem. Eng., 68(2): 148
(1951).
205. Roth, R. J.: Break-even Charts for the Chemical Process Industries, Chem.
Eng. News, 30: 5437 (1952).
206. Sandal, M., Jr.: Re-evaluate Your Capital Investment, Chem. Eng., 64(11):
231 (1957).
207. Schuette, W. A.: Break-even Charts, Prod. Eng., 24(8): 170 (1°53)_
208. Schwartzkopf, O.: Efficiency Doesn't Always Pay, Chem. Eng., 69(8): 140
(1953).
209. Sherwood, P. W.: How to Prepare Preliminary Cost Evaluation Reports,
Petrol. Refiner, 31(6): 126 (1952).
210 Yen Eck, F. M.: Venture Capital Risk vs. Opportunity, Chem. Eng., 59(2):
192 (1952).
Appropriation Request, Chem. Eng. Progr., 62 : 402 (1956)
211. Wagner, H. R.: The

CHAPTER 7
it Location
Plant
1 Aries, R. S.: “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed, pp. 1719-1730,

McGraw-Hdl Book of Chemicai Technology,” vol. 10, pp. 744-/53,

riant, r— 10(10):

158740Bierwert, D. V., and F. A. Krone: How to Find Best Site for a New Plant,

CTm5; tailty/w. Atrial Hygiene Considerations in Plant Location and

Design, Chem. Eng. ATews, 29: 1108 (1051). 33; 5021 (1955).

£ & <*— "ry’Chem'En0'

Progr., 61(2): 81F (1955).
 ADDITIONAL SELECTED REFERENCES

8. Hurley, N. P.: Atomic Vulnerability in the Chemical Process Industry, C hem.

Eng. News, 33: 3654 (1955).
9. Perry, J. H. (ed.): “Chemical Business Handbook, pp. 2-76, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New \ork, 1954.
10. Smith, S. P.: The Selection of a Plant Site, Chem. Eng. Progr., 51(3): 134 (1955).
11. Symposium: Chemical Plant Location, Chem. Eng. Progr., 46(5): 285-322
(1949).

Market Research
12. Chaddock, R. S. (ed.): “Chemical Market Research in Practice,” Reinhold
Publishing Corporation, New 5 ork, 1956.
13. Strickland, J. R., and J. E. R. Carrier: Consumers—the Chemical Industries,
Future, Chem. Eng. Progr., 54(1): 65 (1958).

Water
14. Gilliland, E. R.: Chemical Engineering in Augmenting Water Resources, Ind.
Eng. Chem., 47(12): 2410 (1955).
15. Nordell, E.: Water Sources and Treatment, Chem. Eng., 62(9): 183, (10): 175
(1955).
16. Symposium: Re-use of Water by Industry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 48(12): 2145-2171
(1956).
17. Wright, R. L.: Let Nature Cool Your Recycle Process Water, Chem. Eng.
Progr., 54(2): 99 (1958).

Waste Disposal
(See Chap. 10 also.)
18. Air Pollution and Waste Treatment Workbook, Ind. Eng. Chem., monthly.
19. Blum, G. W., and O. C. Thompson: Engineering Tools and Techniques for
Cleaner Air, Chem. Eng. Progr., 52(8): 332 (1956).
20. Gurnham, C. F.: “Principles of Industrial Waste Treatment,” John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1955.
21. Hood, D. W., B. Stevenson, and L. M. Jeffrey: Deep Sea Disposal of Industrial
Wastes, Ind. Eng. Chem., 50(6): 885 (1958).
22. How to Cope with Water Pollution Problem, Chem. Eng., 65(14): 129 (1958).
23. Jacobs, H. L.: Survey of Waste Treatment Methods, Chem. Eng 62(4)* 184
(1955).

24. Rudolfs, W. (ed.): “Industrial Wastes—Their Treatment and Disposal”

Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1953.
25. Symposium: Industrial Waste Treatment, Chem. Eng. Progr., 46(7): 321-343
(1950).

26. Zimmerman, F. J.: New Waste Disposal Process, Chem. Eng., 65(17): 117
V1«iOo) •

CHAPTER 8
General

1. Austin, C. T.: Check Your Design Jobs, Chem. Eng., 67(6): 137 (1950).

pany/lnc N’ew'York, 2d ed > McGraw-Hiil Book Com-

69(10); mW(1952)A': What SiZC FOUndations for Youl- Stil‘s and Towers? Chem. Eng.,
488 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

4. Coleman, H. S. (ed.)'. “Laboratory Design,” Reinhold Publishing Corporation,

New York, 1951.
5. Cushing, R.: Your Design Reference File, Section V—Heating, Ventilating
and Air Conditioning, Chem. Eng., 64(8): 267 (1957).
6. Cushing, R.: Your Design Reference File, Section IX—Structural Engineering
and Illumination, Chem. Eng., 64(12): 275 (1957).
7. Dunham, C. W.: “Planning Industrial Structures,” McGraw-Hill Book Com¬
pany, Inc., New York, 1948.
8. Harris, E. C.: Elements of Structural Engineering, The Ronald Press Company,
New York, 1954.
9. How to Plan Your 195X Plant, Factory Management and Maintenance, 112(6):
A2 (1954).
10. Kemp, H. S., L. T. Mullen, and A. P. Guess: “Construction of Acid Recovery
Units—Indoors or Outdoors,” Chem. Eng. Progr., 47(7): 339 (1951).
11. Kieweg, H.: Safety and Outdoor Construction, Chem. Eng. Progr., 47(7): 341

(1951).
12. Kidder, F. E., and H. Parker : “ Architects’ and Builders’ Handbook, 18th ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New \ork.
13. Lin, T. Y.: “Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures,” John Wiley & Sons,

Inc., New York, 1955.

14. Marshall, V. O.: Foundation Design Handbook for Stacks and Towers, Petrol.
Refiner, 37(5): supplement 1-16 (1958).
15. Merritt, F. S. (ed.): “Handbook of Building Construction, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958. . .......
16. Parker, H., and J. W. MacGuire: “Simplified Site Engineering for Architects
and Builders,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1954
17. Perry, C. W.: Integration of Engineering Skills in Chemical I lant C on.stiac¬

tion, Chem. Eng. Progr., 50(8): 382 (1954). Methods ” McGraw-

18. Peurifoy, R. L.: “Construction Planning, Equipment and Methods, McGrau

Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1956. „ & g Inc

19. Seelye, E. E.: “Foundations: Design and 1 ractice, John V ih> A b *,

New York, 1956. ..... . ,A /iart\

£ , Theory,*’ 4th e,, dohn WUey

& S22S WmiLmsWCYDr|Can1d C. E. Cults: “Structural Design in Reinforced Concrete,”

and the Weather, C, **

Progr., 47(6): 277 (1951).

Construction Economics

Si"; "iifii™.,™ Construction C«« in Ci.cn,,,.I r,,~, I".""",

Ind. Eng. Chem., 43.2302 (1951). ,• Qhem Eng. Progr., 50(8): 379 (1954).

*>• ? »r? c s*.«: '»“>*'■«»»..««—

28. Groseclose, C. E.. gosc vah p
densing Systems, Ref rig. Eng., • ^ 2(2): 55 (1957).
II “w, P.:EB: Howto Evaluate Economy of Construction Materials, Chem.

Eng., 60(1): 204 (1953).

 ADDITIONAL SELECTED REFERENCES 489

31. Lawrence, J. C.: Cost Indices for Construction, Ind. Eng. Chem., 46(8). 65A
(1954).
32. Means, R. S.: Building Construction Cost Data, Duxbury, Mass, (annual).
33. Minevitch, J. R., G. B. Knight, S. E. Root, and H. E. Boraks: Chemical Plant
Construction Cost, Indoors vs. Outdoors, Chem. Eng. Progr., 47<8): 385 (1951).
34. Peurifoy, R. L.: “Estimating Construction Costs,” McGraw-Hill Book Com¬
pany, Inc., New York, 1953.
35. Rohrdanz, R. C.: Design for Low Construction Costs, Chem. Eng., 66(6): 133
(1958).
36. Weather Forecasts Save Construction Dollars, Chem. Eng., 61(3): 124 (1954).
37. What Is Lowest Cost, One Story Building? Factory Management and Main¬
tenance, 112(4): 98 (1954).

CHAPTER 9
Piping—General

1. Bigham, J. E.: Pressure Relief Devices, Chem. Eng., 66(3): 133, (7): 143 (1958).
2. Bluniberg, H. S.: Steam Piping Materials for High Temperature Service,
Materials and Methods, 45(3): 126 (1957).
3. Crocker, S. (ed.): “Piping Handbook,” 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1954.
4. Cushing, R.: Your Design Reference File, sec. II, Piping, Chem. Eng., 64(4):
271 (1957).
5. Elliott, P. M.: Thermoplastic Materials for Pipe, Corrosion, 13(10): 49 (1957).
6. Heiss, J. F., and H. C. Bromer: Cut Out Trial-and-Error in Series-Parallel
Pipe Flow Design, Chem. Eng., 68(6): 112 (1951).
t. Littleton, C. T.: “Industrial Piping,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1951.
8. Kennedy, W. L., and C. C. Stueve: Sizing Crude-oil Pipe Lines, Oil Gas J.
62: 183, 264 (Sept. 21, 1953).
9. Lowenstein, J. G.: Calculate Adequate Rupture Disk Sizes, Chem. Ena 66(1) •
157 (1958).
10. McLaughlin, C. B.: Piping Materials for Chemical Processes, Heating, Piping
and Air Conditioning, 23(10): 85 (1951).
11. Merrimen, J. C.: Mechanical Tubing, Materials & Methods, 46(7): 127 (1957)
12 Norton, F. H.: “Refractories,” 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc
New York, 1949.
13. Olive, T. R.: Process Piping, Chem. Eng., 60(12): 187 (1953).
14. Picardi, E. A.: How to Apply Method of Slope Deflection to Thermal Stress
Analysis of 1 lping, Petrol. Processing, 8(3): 368 (1953).
15. Piping Special Report, Petrol. Refiner, 37(3): 136-161 (1958).

31 in' 1959)’ R * ThermaI Insulatl0n f°r Industrial Requirements, Petrol. Refiner,

37(1): A': De3ign Y0Ur Piping 40 Cut Maintenance Costs, Petrol. Refiner

Piping—Economics

17 (l«55B)aCh’ N' G': Fabricatin« Costs °f St“' Piping. Chem. Bn,. Costs Quart., 6(1

1421(919M))yard’ R' A': PiCk °ff Ec°nomic initiation Thickness, Chem. Eng., 67«

Chem. EZ^OW^rnTmi). HaPPe': ECOn°miC Kpe Sizing lirought UP ‘0 Dai

490 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

21. Dickson, R. A.: Pipe Cost Estimation, Chem. Eng., 67(1): 123 (1950).
22. Downs, G. F., and G. R. Tait: Selecting Pipeline Diameter for Minimum
Investment, Oil Gas J., 52: 210 (Nov. 16, 1953).
23. Hardy, W. L.: Economical Piping Can Be Made of Stainless Steel, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 48(6): 79A (1955).
24. Mattiza, D. S.: Piping and Electrical Work, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart., 3(1): 19
(1953).
25. Marvis, N. B.: Economics of Increasing Capacity of Pipe Line Systems, Oil
Gas J., 60: 118 (May 17, 1951).
26. Nelson, W. L.: Oil Gas J., vol. 48, clay and cement pipe, p. 99, Mar. 3; tubes
and bends, p. 243, Apr. 21; pumps, p. 103, May 5; pump materials and drives, p. 121,
May 12; piping and tubing, p. 109, Aug. 14; pipe line construction, p. 159, Aug. 18;
refinery valves, p. 143, Aug. 25; fittings and flanges, p. 71, Sept. 1; piping, p. 137,

^^^Symposium: Special Report on Costs, Petrol. Refiner, 37(6): 127-170 (1958).

28. Zimmerman, O. T., and 1. Lavine: Cost of Pipe and Nipples, Chem. Eng. Costs
Quart., 5(3): 78 (1955).

Instrumentation and Control General

29. Automatic Plants, Chem. Eng. News, 35: 42 (1957). .

30. Ceaglske, N. H.: “Automatic Process Control for Chemical Engineers, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1956. „
31 Considine, D. M. (ed.): “Process Instruments and Controls Handbook,
Mr>Graw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New \ork, 1957.
32. Cushing, R.: Your Design Reference File, section IX-InstrumentaUon, Chem.

En336E« Rp!: “Industrial Instrumentation,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc,

NC 34Y<Eckman°' D. P.: “Principles of Industrial Process Control,” John Wiley k

^Ik'HolfbolJw" GM“Automatic Control: Principles and Practice,” Reinhold

H^boXw0’G?"—fntefor Measurement and Control,” Remho,d

i « Atrial and Engineering Chemistry, monthly

feat38e Johnson, B. F, Automatic P™cess Control,” Advances in Chemical Engmeer-

inSi9VNon;n?aketj9’NArtrins;™uent Engineer in Process Design, In*. Eng.

ChZ'. P-ess Control and Automation, atrial and Engineer mg

Chemistry March issue Instruments for Measurement and Control,”

41. Rhodes, i. -ar York 1941.
Mt2.aIuHsMoBn!0Jk H^Applicat'ions of Electronic Process Control Instrumentat.cn,

Chem Enq. Progr., 62(11)* 485 (1956). Chem 46(7): 1371 (1954).

i 532s E—rrs. « w £» —.—-

"Ttmr— —M **"■ 97'“'
(1952).
 ADDITIONAL SELECTED REFERENCES 491

46. Wade, W. F., and E. N. Kemler: Automatic Control Bibliography, Summary

Reports, Spring Park, Minn., 1955.

Instrumentation and Control—Economics

47. Considine, D. M., and J. J. Kennedy: Instrument Cost Estimation, Chem. Eng.
Costs Quart., 4(2): 32 (1954).
48. Hull, J. C., and D. Tricebok: Cost of Rotameters, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart.,
4(3): 68 (1954).
49. Warren, A. S., and V. A. Pards: Instrument Costs, Cost Eng., 2(1): 10 (1957).

Power Systems—General

50. Knowlton, A. E. (ed.): “Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers,” 9th ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1957.
51. Marks, L. S. (ed.): “Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook,” 5th ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
52. Pender, H. (ed.): “Electrical Engineers’ Handbook,” 4th ed., John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.
53. Salisbury, J. K. (ed.): “Kent, Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook—Power,”
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.

Power Systems—Economics

54. Bauman, H. C.: Estimating Costs of Process Plant Auxiliaries, Chem. Eng.
Progr., 51(1): 45J (1955).
55. Bayerlein, R. W.: Engines for Cheap Power, Chem. Eng., 60(7): 118 (1953).
56. Durham, E.: Cost of Steam Generating Equipment, Chem. Eng. Costs Quart.,
4(2): 41 (1954).
57. Fernside, T. A., and F. C. Cheney: Fast Estimate for Power Plant Costs,
Chem. Eng., 60(6): 239 (1953).
58. Katell, S., and T. A. Joyce: How to Allocate Process Steam Costs, Chem. Eng.,
65(5): 152 (1952).
59. Knowlton, A. E.: Steam Station Cost Survey, Elec. World, 133: 94 (Apr 24
1950). ’
60. McCabe, J. C.: Higher C osts Spark Advances in Process Steam and Power
Chem. Eng., 57(5): 121 (1950).
61. Pierce, D. E.: How to Control Costs of Kilowatts, Chem. Eng., 60(1): 195
(1953).
62. Wilson, W. B.: Should \our Plant Produce Power? Chem. Eng., 60(3): 235
(1953).

CHAPTER 10
General References

M *• Be“e.f't> ,“•> and Thomas piffford: “Nuclear Chemical Engineering,”

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1957.

York!'1957ni'la’ ^ “NUClear EnSinee™'K.” McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New

3. Gladstone, S.: “Principles of Nuclear Reactor Engineering,” D. Van Nostrand

sr/sr ■*■*" e"‘™h--»*. «•<*»-™

Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1955 iNostrand

b-
ments, Government Printing Office, Washington, D C Supermtendent °f D°<>u-
492 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

6. “Technical Progress Reviews,” AEC quarterly publication on reactor fuel

processing, technology, and materials, Superintendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
7. Proceedings of International Conferences on the Peaceful Use of Atomic Energy,
United Nations Publication, New York, 1956, 1959.
8. “Progress in Nuclear Energy,” Series I-VIII, Pergamon Press, New York,
1956-1958. In particular, Series III, Process Chemistry; Series IV, Technology and
Engineering.
9. Etherington, Harold (ed.): “Nuclear Engineering Handbook,” McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958. A comprehensive coverage of nuclear
engineering.
10. “Chemical Processing and Equipment,” U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New \ork, 1955.
11. Nuclear Science and Engineering, magazine published periodically by Academic
Press, New York City. ~
12. Nucleonics, monthly magazine published by McGraw-Hill 1 ublishing Com¬
pany, Inc., New \ork.
13. Feature articles and symposia, Chemical Engineering, Chemical Engineering
Progress, and Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

Chemical Plant Design

14. Basel, L., and J. Koslov: Pyrometallurgical Reprocessing Plant, Nucleonics,

“‘Ts^Bresee' J.: Damaging Effects ot Radiation on Chemical Materials, Nucleonics,

14< 10. ^ruce^F. R.: Chemical Processing Aqueous Blanket and Fuel from Thermal
Breeder Reactors, Chem. Eng. Progr., 62(.l). 347 (l.Dt) ... 77 64(7)' 202
17. Bruce, F. R.: Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing by 1965, Chem. Eng., t^

(ly518. Dryden, C. E, and J. M. Frame: Batch versus Continuous Processing, Chem.

EniReview of Chemical Processes from Geneva Conference

19. Editors ot JVucuo Survey of Fuel Separation Processes (2)

(3) Solvent Extraction Processes; (4) Typical Plant 1 roc-

Reactors, CHern. Eng., 63(3): .9,

(192<i).' Hill, O. F„ and V. R. Cooper: Scale-up Problems in the Plutonium Separations

Program, Ind. Enff. Chem., 60(4)^ 599 (1958)^ R iremonta for Pulse Generations

S.'sai KS SKSK K- r™
«„«> u a. j. v,»»■—

05
r
Nicholls, C. M.: Criteria for Selection oi ^ 1
... B—« —
tion Processes, Chem. Eng. Progr 62-78S D ent of Radiochemical Proc-
26. Nicholls, C. M., and A. S. White, lhe ^
esses, Chem. Eng. Prog, SymVonum Sen**, £« < / > ' Review> Chem. Eng. Prog,,
27. Nuclear Engineering—A Chemical l. 6

60: 217-220 (1954).

 ADDITIONAL SELECTED REFERENCES 493

28. Ohlgren, H. A., J. G. Lewis, and M. Weech: Reprocessing Reactor Fuels,

Nucleonics, 13(3): 18-21 (1955).
29. Reid, D. G., and K. K. Kennedy: Direct Maintenance Fuel Reprocessing 1 lant
Is Practical, Chem. Eng. Progr., 52(9): 394 (195G).
30. Rohrmann, C.: Processing Engineering at the Hanford Separation Plants,
Nucleonics, 14(6): 66 (1956).
31. Sadowski, G.: Decontamination of Processing Plants, Nucleonics, 15(3): 68
(1957).
32. Technical Information Service, AEC: A Bibliography of Selected AEG Reports
of Interest to Industry, part 2, Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, TID 3050.
33. Unique Uranium Reprocessing Plant, Chem. Eng., 63(1): 120 (1956).
34. Where Maintenance Is Really Tough, Chem. Eng., 61(6): 230 (1954).

Safety
35. Braidech, M. M.: The Problem of Insuring Nuclear Installations, Chem. Eng.
Progr., 51(11): 513 (1955).
36. Broido, A.: Hazard Defined, Nucleonics, 13(3): 82 (1955).
37. Eisenbud, M., H. Blatz, and E. V. Barry: How Important Is Surface Contami¬
nation? Nucleonics, 12(8): 12 (1954).
38. Graham, R. H. (AEC): U.S. Reactor Operating History 1943-1954, Nucleonics,
13(10): 42 (1955).
39. Hurwitz, H., Jr.: Safeguard Considerations for Nuclear Power Plants, Nucle¬
onics, 12(3): 57 (1954).
40. Kinsman, S. (ed.): “ Radiological Health Handbook,” Radiological Health
Training Section, Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1955.
41. McCullough, C. R.: Reactor Safety, Nucleonics, 15(9): 134 (1957).
42. McCullough, C. R.: “Safety Aspects of Nuclear Reactors,” D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1957.
43. McCullough, C. R.: “The Safety of Nuclear Reactors,” Geneva, P/853,
United Nations, New York.
44. Mesler, R. S., and L. C. Widdoes: Evaluating Reactor Hazards from Airborne
Fission Products, Nucleonics, 12(9): 39 (1954).
45. Taylor, L. S.: Can We Legislate Ourselves into Radiation Safety? Nucleonics
13(3): 17 (1955).
46. “International Dose Handbook,” National Bureau of Standards Handbook
59, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Shielding

47. Chappell, D.: Gamma Ray Attenuation, Nucleonics, 14(1): 40 (1956).

ChaPPell> D-: Gamma Ray Streaming through a Duct, Nucleonics, 15(7): 65

49. Davis, H. S.: How to Choose and Place Mixes for

High Density Concrete
Reactor Shields, Nucleonics, 13(6): 60 (1955).
50. Dib, G.: How Flow Patterns Affect Shield Design,
Nucleonics, 14(11): 154
(1956).

, ,°lrrnf)berg’ CT\J” Radiation Shields and Shielding: A Bibliography of Unclassi

fied AEC Report Literature, TID 2032, September, 1952. 1 * Unclassi-
co j/mo’y - Gamma Ray Attenuation, Nucleonics, 11(8): 8' 11(9)* 55 (iQW
27 5^ ° J- an“ R- C' McCall: G“ Ray BacLcat«eri„g!^S):

56 (5i955)ane’ J': H°W t0 Design Reactor Shields at Lowest Cost, Nucleonics, 13(6):
494 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

55. Lansing, N. F.: Determining the Geometry of Thermal Shields, Nucleonics

13(6): 58 (1955).
56. Moteff, J.: Tenth-value Thicknesses for Gamma-ray Absorption, Nucleonics
13(7): 24 (1955).
57. Nucleonics Staff: Portable Radiation-shielding Materials, Nucleonics, 13(5):
84 (1955).
58. Stephenson, R.: Neutron Shielding, AECD-3272.

Waste Disposal
59. Barnet, M. Iv., P. M. Hamilton, and F. C. Mead, Jr.: Use of Sequential Fac¬
torial Designs in the Establishment of Optimum Conditions for a Decontamination
Process, Mound Labs, MLM-921.
60. Burns, R. E., and M. J. Stedwell: Volume Reduction of Radioactive Waste by
Carrier Precipitation, Chem. Eng. Progr., 53(2): 93-F (1957).
61. Clouse, R. J., J. Dykstra, and B. H. Thompson: Uranium Recovery from
Aqueous Wastes, Chem. Eng. Progr., 53(2): 65-F (1957).
62. Fairbourne, S. F., D. G. Reid, and B. R. Kramer: Experience of Handling Low
Level Active Liquid Wastes at Idaho Chemical Processing Plant, AEC-IDO-14334,
1955.
63. Ginell, W. S., J. J. Martin, and L. P. Hatch: Ultimate Disposal of Radioactive
Wastes, Nucleonics, 12(12): 14 (1954).
64. Glueckauf, E.: “Long Term Aspect of Fission Product Disposal,” Proc. Intern.
Conf. Peaceful Uses Atomic Energy, Geneva, 9: 3 (1956).
65. Hatch, L. P., J. J. Martin, and W. S. Ginell: Ultimate Disposal of Radioactive
Wastes, BNL-1781, 1954.
66. Hatch, L. P., and W. H. Regan, Jr.: Concentrating Fission Products, Nucle¬
onics, 13(12): 27 (1955).
67. Hittman, F., and B. Manowitz: Progress Report on Waste Development
Project. Description of Calciner Pilot Plant, BNL-323, 1954.
68. Kunin, R., and F. McGarvey: Ion Exchange, Ind. Eng. Chem., 47(3): 565
(1955). . ,
69. Leary, J. A., R. A. Clark, and It. P. Hammond: Design and Performance of
Effluent Plant for Radioactive Wastes, AECU-2818 (Los Alamos, Jan. 20, 1954),
Nucleonics, 12(7): 64 (1954). . „r IV .
70. Manowitz, B., and L. P. Hatch: Processes for High Level Waste Disposal,
Chem. Eng. Progr. Symposium Series, 60(12): 144 (1954).
71 Manowitz, B.: Treatment and Disposal of WTastes in Nuclear lechnol g>,
•< Advances in Chemical Engineering,” vol. II, pp. 82-115, Academic Press, New York,

19°72. Miller, H. S, F. Fahnoe, and W. R. Peterson: Survey of Radioactive Waste

Disposal Practices, Nucleonics, 12(1): 68 (1954). „
73. “ Radioactive Waste Disposal in the Ocean,” Natl Bar. Sla^r^ndbook 58'
74 Ituddv J M.: Radioactive Liquid W aste Control, AE -> ‘ ,
It Shannon, R. L, Radioactive Waste Disposal-A Bibliography of Unclassified

LitTbatW;™W4R19D°'w. Weiser, and L. F. Marek: Concentration of Radioactive

Wastes. Electromigration through Ion Exchange Membranes, Ind. Eng. Che -

47<77:. WUs^E. E.: Design Consideration of Storage Tanks for Radioactive Waste,

Chem. Eng Progr 53(3): 151 Management and Disposal of Radio¬

active ^
 ADDITIONAL SELECTED REFERENCES

79. Zeitlin, H.: Economics of Waste Disposal, Nucleonics, 16(1): 58 (1957);

Ocean Disposal of Radioactive Waste, Nucleonics, 12(12): 54 (1954).

Aerosols
80 Dennis R., C. A. Johnson, M. W. First, and L. Silverman: Performance of
Commercial Dust Collectors, Contract At (30-l)-841 (NYO-1588), Harvard School
of Public Health.
81. Leary, J. A., R. A. Clark, R. P. Hammond, and C. S. Leopold: Aerosol Collec¬
tion by Wetted Fiberglas Media, AECU-3072 (Los Alamos).
82. Strehlow, R. A.: Univ. Illinois Eng. Expt. Sta., Bibliography on Aerosols,
SO-1003, 1951.

Fission-product Utilization

83. Bray, D., and C. Leyse: Food Irradiation Reactor, Nucleonics, 15(7): 77 (1957).
84. Francis, W., and L. Marsden: Gamma Ray Dose and Heating from Spent
MTR Fuel Elements, Nucleonics, 16(4): 80 (1957).
85. Guernsey, E., and R. Ball: Reactor Irradiation for Meat, Nucleonics, 16(7): 80
(1957).
86. Henley, E. J.: The Chemical Potential of Waste Fission Products, Chem. Eng.
Progr. Symposium Series, 60(13): 66 (1955).
87. Henley, E. R., and N. F. Barr: Ionizing Radiation Applied to Processing
Industries, “Advances in Chemical Engineering,” vol. I, pp. 370-441, Academic
Press, New York, 1956.
88. Manowitz, B., and D. Richman: Economic Future of Fission Products for
Radiation Power, Nucleonics, 14(6): 98 (1956).
89. Martin, J. J.: Where We Stand in Radiation Processing, Chem. Eng. Progr.,
64(2): 66 (1958).
90. Staff Article: Radiation Processing of Petroleum, Chem. Eng. Progr., 63(7):
118 (1957).
91. 5 oung, C. A.: Utilization of Gross Fission Products'—A Bibliography of
Unclassified Report Literature, TID-3046, 1954.
 APPENDIX A

Design Project Procedures

In the teaching of process and plant design there is concern for the
development of a proper attitude of mind. The student may be well-
grounded in all the fundamental science and engineering subjects he has
studied, but he lacks experience in applying this knowledge to complex
problems always encountered in any integrated chemical process develop¬
ment program.
In process design the basic teaching philosophy should be one of giving
the student relatively free rein and the complete responsibility for progress
and accomplishment. The students may have the option of selecting
their own problem or the instructor may do this. The students should
then decide on the method of approach, analyze the facts and situations,
plan and carry out laboratory and calculation work, select equipment,
make economic studies, and display initiative throughout.
The role of the instructor in this type of course should be that of a
consultant and guide. The course may not necessarily emphasize any
new scientific or engineering principles, but it should present ample oppor¬
tunity to apply that which is already known. The student should be
treated as if he already were a technically trained man “on the job,” as
if he had been adequately educated and had the essential ability to assume
the entire responsibility for his success in a chemical engineering career.

Selecting the Projects

Projects may be selected in a number of tvays, depending on the faeili-

i“,'’rr,””“'.<A1ChE s«“* *—> ™.»-

497
498 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

1. The instructor may select a typical process or give the students the
option to do so. The entire class is then organized into research, develop¬
ment, and engineering design departments successively as the project
proceeds.
2. The instructor or students may select a chemical product and the
class is divided preferentially into groups of three to six students. Each
group takes one of the several processes for making the product and fol¬
lows through the entire research, development, design, and cost estimating
stages.
3. Each student is given the opportunity to submit several chemical
manufacturing processes which he would like to study. Class discussion
of each student’s process ensues and one or more processes are chosen by
the class for individual, small group, or entire class effort.

Search of Literature for Process Details

A search of the literature for authoritative references is undertaken.
This is a library search, the work being portioned out among the students
to the journals and textbooks, technical trade literature, and sources of
information; conferences with other professors or instructors of the college
are avoided. They are cautioned to record all information on the various
methods by which the chemical commodity can be made, listing lefer-
ences, raw materials, conditions of preparation, and products. A review
of all handbooks, trade information, and critical tables is then prepared
on the chemical and physical properties of each chemical involved m t le
process selected. Market price curves for each commodity are then pre-
pared using a large time span, if possible. Production figures are also
required on the raw materials, products and by-products, location oi
present plants, and where competition can be expected. Profit margins

""projecting the Development Work. All the data obtained are placed
JZZ bLd «nd tabulated, „ .bat the el«„ cau
presented. Discussion of the various methods follows. I he data mu
be correlated in a report emphasizing the need for
he carried out, including a plan of the development phase horn the stand
point of experiments, basic information desired, fundamental inform
needed and costs. Statistical planning of experiments can be put m
practice if the process is sufficiently complex.

Small-scale Experimentation

The next step should be acquisition of ^“1 should"epteVe

ratory studies. In this laboratory W0J' for thc urpose of acquiring
commodity according to t e process se , and physical data
necessary data for plant design. All thermal,
 APPENDIX A 499

not available from literature reviews must be acquired. A material

balance should be made. In order to obtain yield and other general
data on process reactions studied, the students should follow this order of
procedure:

1. Probable costs (yield and reaction study on 1-lb batch)

2. Materials and equipment requirements
Observations essential are:
a. Type of reaction
b. Quality of product
c. Quantity of product
d. General solubility
e. Separation characteristics
/. Heat considerations
g. General operations required

Development Laboratory Experimentation

Following the laboratory- or beaker-scale experimentation when the

students are satisfied as to feasibility of the preparation and have enabled
themselves to acquire sufficient information to undertake a large-batch
operation (5 to 10 lb), a small-scale-process laboratory study should
then be undertaken. Attention should be paid to the engineering con¬
siderations involved in the production of the commodity. In order to
obtain engineering data essential for the pilot plant investigation of the
commodity selected, the following considerations may be important:

1. Procedure essentials
2. Raw material characteristics
3. Chemical flow sheet
4. Corrosion characteristics
5. Effect of impurities
6. Heat considerations
7. Unit operations required
8. Material handling
9. Storage
10. Engineering flow sheet

Projecting the Engineering

Although no laboratory data have yet been acquired, it is desirable for

the class to make a report setting up a pattern of design for the engineering
division on insufficient data. This pattern will be brought out later after
con rmation has been obtained from the development report by the devel¬
opment laboratories; the engineering pattern will be modified later accord¬
ing to the requirements and changes resulting from this interim study It
is well to emphasize at this point that the engineering division requires a

startine'the C°mP'ete enormous task> “d much time can be saved by

starting the engineering immediately upon the choice of a project and by
500 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

reporting changes to the engineering division as they develop. As a

guide for determining what phases or items need to be considered by
engineering, the following points are listed:

1. Comprehensive market surveys or locations

2. Plant sites
3. Fuel and water sources
4. Transportation facilities
5. Material supplies
6. Labor supplies
7. Laws and codes
8. Working up of process flow sheets
9. Working up design flow sheets
10. Tentative specifications of machinery
11. Tentative specifications of materials
12. Power systems
13. Calculation of heat balances
14. Calculation of material balances
15. Preliminary sizing and designing of vessels, exchanges, and process units
16. Drawing of preliminary plant layout
17. Drawing of preliminary equipment layout
18. Preparation of preliminary cost estimates

Development Laboratory Work

The students then are required to go into a development laboratory for
actual experimentation work to get them acquainted with materials, mate¬
rials handling, and translation of laboratory procedure into equipment,
and to learn how to take exact plant data. They will also learn that there
are a number of points that can be best obtained later through pilot plant
operation; therefore, one objective of the development laboratory can be
a pilot plant design.

The Pilot Plant Phase

Although time usually does not permit the actual setup and operation of
a pilot plant, there must still not be omitted the report containing the
pilot plant design and operations instructions. A pilot plant check list is
given herewith:
Pilot Plant Check List

1. Flow relations:
a. Chemical flow diagrams
b. Breakdown into unit operations
c. Engineering equipment flow diagrams
d. Material and energy balances
2. aterials: . . ,
Raw materials, availability, substitute raw materials, costs
Impurities in raw materials and in products
Corrosion, erosion, dust, fumes
 APPENDIX A 501

d. Solvents
e. Wastes and recovery
3. Equipment and operation:
a. Selection of equipment, elimination of obviously unsuitable equipment, or
proof of applicability of standard or special types of equipment or machines
such as pumps, bottles, evaporators
b. Cost of operation
c. Control specification
d. Material of construction
e. Heat transfer
/. Mass transfer
g. Peak loads
h. Utility requirements
i. Maintenance costs
j. Instrumentation
4. Materials handling:
a. Proper methods of handling around the plant
b. Intermediate storage
c. Industrial hazards (corrosion, fire, erosion, safety, health, pollution, fumes,
explosions)
d. Public nuisances
e. Storage
5. Labor:
a. Manpower requirements
b. Supervision
c. Control specifications from operator’s viewpoint
d. Process simplification from operator’s viewpoint
e. Safety from operator s viewpoint; safety requirements
/. Saving of time and labor

The student must understand the importance of pilot plant studies.

W hen the Process finally comes out of the pilot plant, it should have been
so thoroughly checked, verified, and proved that one has a practical work¬
ing plan. 1 he tentative figures that served as a preliminary basis of the
process engineers will then be replaced by final and exact specifications.
Definite yields and conclusive figures on all operations will be established
and the most efficient process will result.

thi?:,,U:i‘raf,deKlrr,1S;arl0t ?lant that wiU 0perate with assurance

that all the risks, both technical and economic, in the full-scale commer¬
cial plant have been minimized or, preferably, eliminated. It is essential
m the pilot plant to determine whether improvements or changes must be
made while it is yet relatively inexpensive to do so before finally estab!
lishing and fixing the design of the commercial plant. 3 '

Individual Equipment Assignments

The decision on individual assignments is host morL \

i» »rd„ that th, <!,„«« „t ability ‘of oaoh ,“dt , olft™

- “Ih “■ °'“P « '•iZSZZZ'ZZ

502 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

nation of operations. The intimate contact that the instructor has had
previously with the individual student here aids in getting the most out
of each student and a leveling-off of the work based upon unequal abilities
of the members of the class. Material and thermal balancing of the entire
project is carried out in open discussion, each student contributing that
portion of the balance included in his assignment. Then calculations as
to sizes and capacities are undertaken and explained. Before designs are
put on paper, the individual assignments are handled mathematically;
the size, capacity, number, and operational ideas relative to each unit are
considered. These become specifications for the equipment. The infor¬
mation is presented on specification forms of the type given in Table 4-2.
Preconstruction cost estimating can be initiated at this point.
Scale Models in Plant Design. Each man who makes the design cal¬
culations and who understands the complete functioning of his unit makes
a model of his assignment. Scale models are an essential aid. How far
to go in this is a matter of preference; some type of scale modeling will
necessarily be used and the care and time will depend upon the instructor
and the students. Some few students devote much outside time to model¬
ing their units; others have a hard time scale-modeling railroads, such
simple lines as yards, unloaders, or scales. Their ability to create these
“tinker-toy” models and to present their cases must be taken into con¬
sideration by the instructor. A three-dimensional model is made with
cardboard, plywood, or any applicable material as illustrated in Fig. 5-4.
After the models of the principal equipment pieces are completed, the
class assembles in a large open area where a plot plan can be laid out.
Each student steps forward according to the flow diagram and places his
equipment where he feels it will function best, presenting the points in
favor of his decision. After much discussion and rearrangement, with
due consideration to warehousing, shipping, and servicing, class agree¬
ment is finally reached.
As a final check, operating instructions are prepared and checked out on
the model arrangement to pick up any flaws in equipment functioning.
Over-all plan and elevation drawings can then be made with the aid ot e
model, followed by individual specifications for each individually assigne

unit.

Commercial Unit Design

The final step in the study should be the coordination of ah chemical
and engineering data obtained and their translation into a definite organ
”ed“, A.L must b. had t. trad, UttmLu. for »"**“W»
izitsU unit; nnd nerformance snouia oe
and specific pieces of equipment. Capacities and Pw c t
 APPENDIX A
503

picture of the possibilities of different layouts. After arriving at the

most desirable layout, actual drawing of the plan and elevation of the
assembly should be undertaken, followed by a detailed preconstruction
cost estimate. In order to design a commercial unit, including housing
for the production of the specified commodity, the following considera-
tions may be important:

1. Specifications of equipment
2. Specifications of materials
3. Selection of commercial equipment
4. Plan
5. Elevation
6. Location of plant
7. Operating instruction for labor
8. Selection of personnel
9. Preconstruction costing
10. Economic evaluation

Notebooks
Notebooks must be kept with a daily log of all observations and data.
Each page should have a title and date, and at the end of each period a
brief resume must be written of the day’s work, signed by initials of the
worker and someone who was with him in the laboratory. Notebooks
should be deposited with the instructors.

Reports

Weekly reports to the class are essential, and weekly written reports
should be made. The student should receive practice in presentation.
Calculations and reasons for making certain decisions should be presented
concisely to the class for criticism. 1 he discussions should be informal.

Final Compilation

At the end of the year a complete report should be turned in which

includes all calculations, flow sheets, material and energy balances,
equipment specifications, preconstruction cost estimation figures, and
economic evaluations. A carefully executed series of drawings, including
plot plans, equipment layout, and elevation drawings may also be sub¬
mitted if time permits.
 APPENDIX B

Letter Symbols
for Chemical Engineering:*
O O

Letter Symbols for Principal Concepts

Listing is alphabetical by concept within each category. Illustrative units or defi¬
nitions are supplied where appropriate.

Symbol Unit or definition

1. General Concepts

Acceleration a (ft/sec)/sec
Of gravity 9 (ft/sec)/sec
Base of natural logarithms e
Coefficient C
Difference, finite A
Differential operator d
Partial d
Efficiency V
Energy, dimension of E Btu; (ft) (lb force)
Enthalpy H Btu
Entropy S Btu/°R
Force F lb force
Function 4>, x
R To distinguish, use Ro
Gas constant, universal

* Adopted by American Standards Association as ASA—Y10.12, 1955. See M

Souders, Jr., Chem. Eng. Progr., 62(6): 255 (1956).
504
 APPENDIX B
505

Symbol Unit or definition

G, F G = H - TS, Btu
Gibbs free energy
Q Btu
Heat
Helmholtz free energy A A = U - TS, Btu

Internal energy U Btu

Mass, dimension of m lb
Mechanical equivalent of heat J (ft) (lb force)/Btu
Moment of inertia / (ft)4
Newton law of motion, conversion
Or gc = ma/F, (lb)(ft)/(sec)2(lb force)
factor in
Number
In general N
Of moles n
Pressure V lb force/sq ft; atm
Quantity, in general Q
Ratio, in general R
Resistance R
Shear stress T lb force/sq ft
Temperature
Dimension of d
Absolute T °K (Kelvin); °R (Rankine)
In general T, t °C; °F
Temperature difference, logarithmic
mean 0 °F
Time
Dimension of T sec
In general t, T sec; hr
Work w Btu

2. Geometrical Concepts

Linear dimension
Breadth b ft
Diameter D ft
Distance along path s, X ft
Height above datum plane Z ft
Height equivalent H ft Use subscript p for equilibrium
stage and t for transfer unit
Hydraulic radius th ft; sq ft/ft
Lateral distance from datum plane Y ft
Length, distance or dimension of L ft
Longitudinal distance from datum
plane X ft
Mean free path X cm; ft
Radius r ft
Thickness
In general B ft
Of film Bf ft
Wavelength X cm; ft
506 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Symbol Unit or definition

Area
In general A sq ft
Cross section S sq ft
Fraction free cross section a
Projected AP sq ft
Surface
Per unit mass A y,, 5 sq ft/lb
Per unit volume Av, a sq ft/cu ft
Volume
In general V cu ft
Fraction voids e
Humid volume VH cu ft/lb dry air
Angle a, e, 4>
In x,y plane a
In y,z plane 4>
In z,x plane e
Solid angle
Other
Particle-shape factor <t>x

3. Intensive Properties

Absorptivity for radiation a

Activity a
Activity coefficient, molal basis 7
Coefficient of expansion
Linear a (ft/ft)/°F
Volumetric P (cu ft/cu ft)/°F
Compressibility factor Z z - pV/RT

Density P lb/cu ft
Diffusivity
Molecular, volumetric Dr, 5 cu ft/(hr) (ft); sq ft/
a a = k/cp, sq ft/hr
Thermal
Emissivity ratio for radiation e
H Btu/lb mole
Enthalpy, per mole
S Btu/(lb mole)(°R)
Entropy, per mole
f lb force/sq ft; atm
Fugacity
G, F Btu/lb mole
Gibbs free energy, per mole
A Btu/lb mole
Helmholtz free energy, per mole
cs Btu/(lb dry air)(°F)
Humid heat
U Btu/lb mole
Internal energy, per mole
X Btu/lb
Latent heat, phase change
M lb
Molecular weight
Reflectivity for radiation p
c Btu/(lb)(°F)
Specific heat
Cp Btu/(lb)(°F)
At constant pressure
Cv
Btu/(lb)(°F)
At constant volume
 appendix b
507

—
Symbol Unit or definition

Specific heats, ratio of 7

<r lb force/ft
Surface tension
k Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(°F/ft)
Thermal conductivity
Transmissivity of radiation T
p* lb force/sq ft; atm
Vapor pressure
Viscosity
Absolute or coefficient of M lb/(sec)(ft)
Kinematic v, p/p sq ft/sec
Volume, per mole V cu ft/lb mole

4. Symbols for Concentrations

Absorption factor A A = L/K*V

Concentration, mass or moles per
unit volume c lb/cu ft; lb moles/cu ft
Fraction
Cumulative beyond a given size 4>
By volume xv
By weight
Humidity H, Yh lb/lb dry air
At saturation HS) Y* lb/lb dry air
At wet-bulb temperature H U', 1 U‘ lb/lb dry air
At adiabatic saturation temperature H(lf Ya lb/lb dry air
Mass concentration of particles Cp lb/cu ft
Moisture content
Total water to bone-dry stock XT lb/lb dry stock
Equilibrium water to bone-dry
stock X* lb/lb dry stock
Free water to bone-dry stock X lb/lb dry stock
Mole or mass fraction
In heavy or extract phase X
In light or raffinate phase y
Mole or mass ratio
In heavy or extract phase X
In light or raffinate phase Y
Number concentration of particles Ti p Number/cu ft
Phase equilibrium ratio K* K* = y*/x
Relative distribution of two
components
Between two phases in equilibrium a a = Ki*/Kj*
Between successive stages 0 &n = (yi/yj)n/(xj/xi)n+1
Relative humidity H n, 11 n
Slope of equilibrium curve m m = d i) * /dx
Stripping factor S S = K*V/L
508 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Symbol Unit or definition

5. Symbols for Rate Concepts

Quantity per unit time, in general

Angular velocity CO

Feed rate F lb/hr; lb moles/hr

Frequency f,Nf
Friction velocity u* u* = (gcTwp)112, ft/sec
Heat transfer rate <?
Btu/hr
Heavy or extract phase rate L lb/hr; lb moles/hr
Heavy or extract product rate B lb/hr; lb moles/hr
Light or raffinate phase rate V lb /hr; lb moles/hr
Light or raffinate product rate D lb/hr; lb moles/hr
Mass rate of flow w lb/sec; lb/hr
Molal rate of transfer N lb moles/hr
Power P (ft) (lb force)/sec
Revolutions per unit time n
Velocity
In general u ft/sec
Instantaneous, local
Longitudinal (x) component of u ft/sec
Lateral (y) component of V ft/sec
Normal (z) component of w ft/sec
Volumetric rate of flow <Z
cu ft/sec; cu ft/hr
Quantity per unit time, unit area
Emissive power, total W Btu/(hr) (sq ft)
G G = w/S, lb/(sec) (sq ft)
Mass velocity, average
G, G lb/(hr) (sq ft)
Vapor or light phase
L, L lb/(hr) (sq ft)
Liquid or heavy phase
I Btu/(hr)(sq ft)
Radiation, intensity of
Velocity
Nominal, basis total cross section
vs ft/sec
of packed vessel
V, V (cu ft/sec)/sq ft; ft/sec
Volumetric average
Quantity per unit time, unit volume
Quantity reacted per unit time,
NR (moles/sec)/cu ft
reactor volume
A (cu ft/sec)/cu ft
Space velocity, volumetric
Quantity per unit time, unit area, unit
k
driving force, in general
&E sq ft/hr
Eddy diffusivity
VE
sq ft/hr
Eddy viscosity sq ft/hr
OLE
Eddy thermal diffusivity
Heat transfer coefficient Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(°F)
Individual Btu/(hr) (sq ft)(°F)
Over-all
 APPEx\DIX b
509

Mass transfer coefficient

Individual
Gas film
Liquid film
Over-all
Symbol

*
^G

K
! Unit or definition

lb moles/(hr)(sq ft) (driving force)

To define driving force, use sub¬
script:
c for lb moles/cu ft
p for atm
Gas film basis Kq
x for mole fraction
Liquid film basis Kl
Stefan-Boltzmann constant 0.173 X 10-8 Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(°R)4

6. Dimensionless Numbers Used in Chemical Engineering

h / p l\ 1/3 1/3

Condensation number No
k \ a;/ ;
QcP, gcpp
Euler number N Eu G2
pa2’
gcpD(Apf)
Fanning friction factor f 2G2(AL)
kt at
Fourier number NFo or
cpL2 L2
u2 u2
Froude number NFr
gL
cLG LV
Graetz number Ngz or
k a
L3p20gAt L^gAt
Grashof number NGr or
2/3
A
Heat transfer factor JH
cG (?) or (N st)(N pr)213

k a
Lewis number NLe
cPD, °‘ Dv
kc( p \2/3
Mass transfer factor JM
u \pDv)
hL hD
Nusselt number Ntfu
k ’ k
Peclet number Lucp Lu DV
NPe
k °r V’ a
Cp v
Prandtl number N pr T or
k a
Prandtl velocity ratio u
U+
u*

Reynolds number Lup DG

Nju
’
M P
Reynolds number, local ru*p
y+
M
Schmidt number M
Nsc
pDv
510 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Symbol Unit or definition

Sherwood number Nsh ~ or jM(NRe)(Nsc)ll>

Stanton number h h
Nat
cpu’ cG
L3p2g\
Vapor condensation number NCv
kpAt
Lu2p DG2
Weber number ATWe
lJco ’ (Jcpa

Concept Remarks Superscript Subscript

7. Modifying Signs for Principal Symbols

Average value Written over symbol — (Bar)

Dimensionless form Follows symbol + (Plus)
Equilibrium value Follows symbol * (Asterisk)
Fluctuating component Usually applied to / (Prime)
local velocity
Initial or reference value Follows symbol 0 (zero)
/ (Prime)
Modified form Follows symbol
n (Double prime)

Partial molal quantity Written over small — (Bar)

capitals
t (Prime) 1, 2, 3, etc.
Sequence in time or space Follows symbol
// (Double prime)
o (Degree)
Standard state Follows symbol
First derivative with
respect to time Written over symbol • (Dot)
Second derivative with
respect to time Written over symbol (Double dot)

Alphabetical Index by Symbol

Primary concept Subscript concept

Acoustic
a Acceleration
Adiabatic
Activity
Arithmetic
Area, alternative for
Surface per unit volume

Absolute
A Absorption factor
Area basis
Area Component A
Helmholtz free energy

Baffle
b Breadth
Base
 APPENDIX B
511

Subscript concept
Primary concept

Heavy-product rate Black body

B
Boiling point
Thickness
Component B

Concentration, mass or moles per unit volume Concentration basis

c
Contraction
Specific heat, heat capacity Conversion factor
Critical
Cutoff size

C Coefficient Component C

d Differential operator Discharge

Disperse
Drop
Dry

D Diameter Component D
Diffusivity Distillate
Light or raffinate product rate

e Base of natural logarithms Effective

Exit

E Energy Component E
Dimension of Eddy
In general Entrainment

f Frequency Film
Friction factor, Fanning Fluid
Fugacity Frequency
Friction

F Feed rate Feed

Force
Gibbs free energy

g Acceleration of gravity Gauge

Gravity
Vapor

G Gibbs free energy Vapor

Mass velocity Vapor film basis
In general
Of vapor

h Individual coefficient of heat transfer Heat

Heated
512 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Primary concept Subscript concept

H Enthalpy Heat basis

Height equivalent Humidity
Humidity Hydraulic

i Generalized component
Interface
Internal or inner

I Intensity of radiation
Moment of inertia

j Transfer factor Generalized component

J Mechanical equivalent of heat

k Mass transfer coefficient, individual

Quantity per unit time, unit area, unit driving
force, in general
Thermal conductivity

K Mass transfer coefficient, over-all

Phase concentration ratio

Liquid
L Heavy or extract phase rate
Liquid-film basis
Length
Mass velocity of liquid or heavy phase

Mass
m Mass
Mean
Dimension of
In general
Slope of equilibrium curve

Mass basis
M Molecular weight
Molecular

Generalized stage number

n Number concentration
Normal
Number of moles
Revolutions per unit time

N Molal rate
Number, in general
Initial
Outer

Over-all
0
 appendix b
513

Subscript concept
Primary concept

Constant pressure
p Pressure
Particle
Plate or stages
Pressure basis
Projected

P Power

q Quantity per unit time, in general Rate basis

Rate of heat flow
Rate of volumetric flow

Q Heat
Quantity, in general

r Radius Radius or radial

Reduced

R Gas constant Radiation

Ratio, in general Reactor volume basis
Reflux ratio Relative value
Resistance

s Distance along path Saturation

Specific surface Shape
Stress
Surface basis

S Cross section Cross-section basis

Entropy Solid
Stripping factor Solvent

t Temperature Tangential
Time Terminal
Transfer unit or units

T Absolute temperature
Constant temperature
Temperature, in general Total

u Longitudinal component of local velocity Upper

Velocity, in general
t Heat transfer coefficient, over-all
Internal energy

v Lateral component of local velocity

Constant volume
Nominal velocity
Velocity basis
Specific volume
Volumetric
514 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Primary concept Subscript concept

V Light or raffinate phase rate

Volume, in general
Volumetric average velocity

w Mass flow rate Mass basis

Normal component of local velocity Wet bulb

W Work
Total emissive power

Distance along path Mole fraction basis

x
Fraction
Mole or mass fraction in heavy or extract phase

Longitudinal distance from datum plane Mole ratio basis

X
Mole or mass ratio in heavy or extract phase

Mole or mass fraction in light or raffinate phase

y
Y Humidity
Lateral distance from datum plane
Mass or mole ratio in light or raffinate phase

z Compressibility factor

z Height above datum plane

a Absorptivity for radiation

Angle
Angle in x,y plane
Coefficient of linear expansion
Relative distribution of two components between
two phases at equilibrium
Thermal diffusivity

Coefficient of volumetric expansion

0
Relative distribution of two components between
successive stages

Activity coefficient, molal basis

7
Ratio of specific heats

Differential operator, partial

d
Film basis
5 Diffusivity, volumetric

A Difference, finite
 APPENDIX B
515

Primary concept Subscript concept

e Emissivity ratio for radiation

Fraction voids

■q Efficiency

0 Angle
Angle in z,x plane
Temperature, dimension of

6 Log mean temperature difference

X Latent heat of phase change

Mean free path
Wavelength

A Volumetric space velocity

n Viscosity, absolute At constant viscosity

v Viscosity, kinematic

p Density Density basis

Reflectivity for radiation

<r Fraction free cross section

Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Surface tension

t Shear stress
Time, alternative for
Transmissivity for radiation

</> Angle
Angle in y,z plane
Fraction cumulative, larger than a given size
Function
Particle factor

X Function

\p Function

« Angular frequency
Angular velocity
Solid angle
 APPENDIX C

Table of Equivalents

Chemical Equivalent. The atomic weight divided by the valence.

Heat Capacity. Specific heat is the number of Btu’s required to raise
1 lb of material 1°F. The molal heat capacity is the product of the spe¬
cific heat and the molecular weight. Kopp’s law: molal heat capacity of
solid compounds is the sum of the atomic heat capacities of the constituent
atoms The atomic heat capacities may be taken as follows: C = 1.8:
H = 2 3 B = 2 7;Si = 3.8; O = 4.0; P = 5.4; F = 5.4; all others = 6.2.
Example’: that of CaC03 = 6.2 + 1.8 + 3 X 4 = 20.0 Btu/°F. Law of
Dulong and Petit: atomic heat capacity of solid elementary substances
= 6.2; exceptions—C, B, P, and Si as above.
Heat of Vaporiaztion. Btu required to vaporize 1 lb of a substance.
Molal heat of vaporization = heat of vaporization multiplied by the
molecular weight. The molal heats of vaporization of similar liquids are

^HumidHy!^ Absolute humidity is the pounds of water per pound of

bone-dry air.
Mass Velocity. G = pV.
Moisture Per Cent
wt of water X 100
Dry basis = ^^“j^^Idr^material
wt of water X 100
Wet basis = bone-dry wt -h wt of water
516
 APPENDIX C 517

Units
Electrical. (For direct current only) E = RI. Power in watts = I2R.
Energy in watthours = E1T when T is time in hours. 96,540 amp-sec
= 1 faraday, which will theoretically deposit or libel ate one chemical
equivalent at an electrode.
Energy, Work, Heat. 1 Btu = 252 cal = 778 ft-lb = 0.293 watthr.
1 Pcu = 1.8 Btu = 454 cal. 1 hp-hr = 746 watthr = 2545 Btu =
1,980,000 ft-lb. 1 cal per gram, gram atom, or gram mol = 1 Pcu/lb,
lb atom, or lb mol = 1.8 Btu/lb, lb atom, or lb mol.
Hydrometers
Liquids lighter than water: Liquids heavier than water:

140 145
Degrees Baume - 130 Degrees Baume =145
sp gr sp gr
141.5 sp gr - 1
Gravity API = 131.5 Degrees Twaddell =
sp gr 0.005

Linear. 1 in. = 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm.

Mol or Mole. Molecular weight of a substance expressed in units of
weight.
Power. Rate of doing work: 1 hp = 746 watts = 33,000 ft-lb/min =
42.4 Btu/min.
Pressure. 1 atm = 29.92 in. Hg = 760 mm. Hg = 14.7 psi = 33.9 ft
of water = 1,033 g/cm2.
Temperature. 1°C or K (Kelvin) = 1.8°F or R (Rankine) = 0.8°Re
(Reaumur). Freezing point of water = 0°C = 273°K = 32°F = 460 +
32 or 492°R = 0°Re. 0°F = 460°R,
Viscosity. 100 centipoises = 1 poise = 1 g/sec-cm = 0.0672 lb/sec-ft.
Kinematic viscosity = p//x.
Volume. 1 ft3 = 7.48 gal. 1 gal = 231 in.3 = 3,785 cm3.
Weight. 1 lb = 453.6 g = 7,000 grains avoirdupois.

General Information

Centrifugal Force. F = 0.000341 WRN2 lb.

Combustion. These major combustion reactions are all reversible:

C + 02 = C02 + 97,000 cal

C02 + C = 2CO — 39,000 cal
2C + 02 = 2CO + 58,000 cal
+ 02 = 2C02 -f- 136,000 cal
“II2 ~b 02 = 2H20 T" 136,000 cal
H20 H- C = CO + H2 - 39,300 cal
2H20 + C = C02 + 2H2 - 39,600 cal
CO + H20 = C02 + H2 - 300 cal
518 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

The equilibrium of the gases above the bed of a gas producer is 0.096L =

when L is depth ol active tuel bed and volumes of gases are 111

terms of 100 volumes of dry gas.

Evaporation. The pounds of water evaporated in evaporators per
pound of steam is approximately 0.85n, where n is the number of effects.
Flow of Fluids. Venturi meter; a/(u2)2 — (Ri)2 = 0.98 ^2gAH.
With a sharp-edged orifice use 0.61 instead of 0.98.
Pitot tube; u = \/2gAH.
Flow of Heat. By conduction Q/6 = UATA.
1
The over-all coefficient U =
U
k\A i
+ + etc.

When heat flows through a fluid film, substitute l/h for L/k, as h is the
film coefficient. The value of h for low-pressure condensing steam is often
taken as 2,000. The equation for water flowing in turbulent motion in
horizontal pipes (t in °F) is
0.00486(1 + 0.0100(G0-8)
1)0-2

Volume per cent = mol per cent = pressure per cent, A

Gas Laws.
pound mol of any gas occupies 359 ft3 at 32°F and 1 atm (S 1 P).

y _ y P±L
1 2 1 P,1
The apparent molecular weight of air may be taken as 29.
 Name Index

For additional names see pages 471-495

Persons Danatos, S., 405

Davies, O. L., 18
Anderson, E. L., 456
DeOng, E. It., 286
Anderson, W. T., 153
Des Jardins, P. It., 143
Anderson, Y., 414
Dolman, R. E., 147
Aries, It. S., 100, 195, 228, 233, 257, 336
Donovan, J. R., 41
Driesbach, It. R., 45
Dryden, C. E., 100, 465
Badger, W. L., 126
Duggan, J. J., 31, 32
Balderston, J. L., 439
Dunham, C. W., 318
Ballou, N. E., 446, 447
Dybdal, E. C., 224
Barrow, M. H., 100, 150
Bartkus, E. P., viii
Beattie, R. 1)., 23
Benedict, M., 454
Foley, D., 454
Benenati, It., 131
French, T. E., 6, 363-365
Bowman, J. H., 94
Friedman, S. J., 122
Braca, R. M., 148, 149, 387
Friend, L., 19
Brandt, A. D., 329
Brucher, G. J., 439
Bryant, G. A., 338, 339
Buell, W. H., 254 Gamson, B. W., 132, 455
Bullinger, C. E., 253 Garrett, D. E., 119, 390, 391
Butler, W. T., viii, 75 Geankoplis, C. J., viii
Genereaux, It. P., viii, 350
Githens, It. E., Jr., 115
Callihan, D., 449-451 Glasstone, S., 453
Canfield, D. T., 94 Goodgame, T. H., 23
Chappell, D. G., 436, 439 Gordon, D., 15
Chilton, C. H., 193-197, 222, 227, 229 Gore, W. L., 18
231, 235
Gradishar, F. L., 43
Chope, H. R., viii
Grant, E. L., 253
Clark, W. G., 398
Graves, G. A., 451
Clegg, J. W. 454
Groggins, P. H., 99
Colburn, A. P., 119, 350
Grummer, M., 131
519
520 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Hall, G. A., Jr., 404-408

Nichols, W. T., 192, 193
Happel, J., 90, 100, 148, 149, 387 Norton, C. L., 381-385
Harty, W. M., 400
Hempstead, J. C., 256
Henderson, J. G., 152 O’Donnell, J. P., 40
Hesse, H. C., 150 Olive, T. It., viii, 105, 405
Higgins, S. P., Jr., 409 O’Rourke, C. E., 307
Hirschberg, H. S., 269 Osburn, J. O., 90
Humbla, S., 414 Othmer, D. L., 127
Hunter, H. F., 446, 447 Otto, F. C., 389
Hur, J. J., 256 Oxley, J. H., viii

Ireland, J. D., viii

Paffenbarger, R., viii
Parker, H., 393
Jackson, H. K., 459 Parkinson, R. W., viii, 319
Jordan, W. A., 390, 391 Paxton, H. C., 451
Perry, J. H. (ed.), viii, 30, 86, 100, 106,
109, 142, 145, 147, 155, 160, 185, 309,
Kammermeyer, K., 90 321, 325-330, 332, 342, 344, 349-352,
Karr, A. E., 117 355, 363, 365, 367, 368, 404, 415, 419,
Katz, D. L., 355 420, 424
Kelley, W. E., 454 Peters, M. S., 90, 100
Kern, D. Q., 115 Pierce, D. E., 239
Ivetzlach, N., 452 Pigford, R. L., 119
Kidder, F. E., 393 Pigford, T., 454
Kiddoo, G., 195 Pollchik, M., 131
Kirkpatrick, S. D., viii Pontius, E., viii
Koffolt, J. H., viii Powell, S. T., 274
Kropf, V. J., 140

Rase, H. F., 100, 150

Landry, J. W., 464 Reid, D. G., 461
Lange, H. J., 193, 195, 207 Riegel, E. It., 100, 101
Laurent, M., 23 Rockwell, T., 445
Lavine, I., 100, 101 Rodger, W. A., 456, 457
Lemon, R. P., 461 Rodgers, R. D., 322
Leonard, J. D., 239-242 Romeo, A. P., 72, 73
Leva, M., 127, 131 Rosenbaum, G. P., 119
Lieberman, S. A., 457 Rubin, F. L., 116
Lindsey, E., 124 Rushton, J. H., 150
Ludwig, E. E., 94-99

Sadowski, G. S., 459

McAdams, W. H., 115 Sarchett, B. R., 350
MacLean, G., 133-135 Sax, N. I., 33, 34, 329
Mantell, C. L., 85 Schiebel, E. G., 117
Marshal, W. R., Jr., 122 Schweyer, H. E., 90
Marston, A., 256 Sege, G., 118
Martin, J. C., 256 Shafer, R. J., viii
Melinat, C. H., 269 Sherwood, T. K., 119
Molstad, M., 121 Shockey, A. F., 94-99
Sittig, M., 127
Smith, C. A., 204
Nelson, W. L., 68, 201
Smith, J, C., 101, 111, 113
Newton, R. D., 100, 195, 228, 233, 257,
Smith, S., 366
336 Souders, M., Jr., 504
Nicholls, C. M., 453, 458
 NAME INDEX
521
American Library Association, 269
Spitzglass, J. M., 353
American Oil Co., 308
Steele, A. B., 32
American Petroleum Institute (A1 I), 31,
Stephenson, R. M., 463
135, 342
Stevens, R. W., 201
American Society of Mechanical Engi¬
Stockdale, W. G., 466, 467
neers (ASME), 31, 114, 150, 342,
Sweeney, R. J., 372, 374
358-362, 366
Sylvander, N. E., 355
American Society of Testing Materials
Syverson, A., viii
(ASTM), 31, 292, 305, 306, 316, 330,
342-345, 351, 421
American Standards Association (ASA),
Taylor, J. J., 439
31, 71, 324, 342-344, 354-366, 390,
Thomas, R., 380
Thompson, A. R., 121 421, 504
American Water Works Association
Treybal, R. E., 117
Troy, W. N., 356 (AWWA), 345
Turner, W. C., viii, 380 Artisan Metal Products, Inc., 170
Associated Factory Mutual Insurance
Companies, 31
Urquhart, L. C., 307 Association of Iron and Steel Engineers
(AISE), 421
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 33,
Valentine, K. S., 133-135 445, 465, 468
Vierck, C. J., 6, 363-365
Vilbrandt, F. C., 21, 100
Von Lossberg, L. C., 274 Baker, Perkins, Inc., 171
Barnstead Still and Demineralizer Co.,
164
Walosewick, F. E., 366 Battelle Memorial Institute, viii
Warzell, F. M., viii Bethlehem Steel Co., 278
Weintraub, N., 131 Blaw Knox Co., viii, 181, 182, 366
Wert, H. A., 366 Bureau of Explosives, 31
Wessel, H. E., 221, 225, 234 Bureau of Labor, 31, 204
White, A. S., 453
Williams, R., Jr., 205
Winfrey, R., 256 Carbide and Carbon Chemical Corp.,
Winter, G., 307 277, 278
Woodfield, F. W., 118 Celanese Corporation, 277
Central Soya, Inc., 310
Chemical Engineering, 3, 15, 31, 38, 40,
Zimmerman, O. T., 100, 101 41, 72, 94, 99-101, 105, 111, 113,
115-118, 124, 127, 140, 141, 143,
Organizations and Publications 147-149, 152, 192-197, 200, 201, 205,
207, 221, 222, 225-227, 229, 231, 234,
Acme Coppersmithing and Machine Co., 235, 240, 254, 277, 338, 339, 372, 374,
172, 173 380-385, 387-391, 398, 405, 466
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Chemical and Engineering News, 38, 226
454 252
Aluminum Company of America, 272 Chemical Engineering Progress, 19, 23, 38
American Concrete Institute (ACI), 305 117, 118, 131, 132, 224-239, 262, 274,
American Institute of Chemical Engi¬ 452, 453, 455, 456, 460
neers (AIChE), 16, 38, 114, 497 Chemical Industries, 18, 234
American Institute of Electrical Engi¬ Chemical Week, 38, 226, 262
neers (AIEE), 421
Compass Instrument and Optical Co., 70
American Institute of Steel Construction
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
(AISC), 317 (CRSI), 305
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) Cost Engineering, 101, 204
342, 345
Crane Co., 366, 374
522 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Diamond Alkali Co., 278 McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., viii,

Dow Chemical Co., 45 6, 85, 90, 94, 117, 119, 127, 195’,
Dresser-Ideco Co., 312 225, 228, 253, 256, 307, 318, 322,
du Pont de Nemours, E. I., & Company, 336, 363-366, 386, 404-409, 423,
iv 445, 454, 463
{See also Perry, J. H.)
McMillen Feed Co., 310
Eastern Industries, 163, 167, 169, 171, Manufacturing Chemists Association
173, 174, 176 (MCA), 31, 32, 269
Edison Electric Institute (EEI), 232, 421 Manufacturing Standardization Society
Engineering News Record, 198, 200, 220, of Valves and Fittings Industry, 342
336 Milton Roy Co., 166-169
Mixing Equipment Co., 168

Federal Power Commission, 232, 269

Federal Security Agency, 269 National Association of Manufacturers
Federal Trade Commission, 269 (NAM), 269
Foxboro Co., 413 National Board of Fire Underwriters
(NBFU), 31, 150, 421
National Bureau of Casualty and Surety
Underwriters, 150
General Electric Co., viii, 423
National Bureau of Standards (NBS),
Gump, B. J., Co., 173
421
National Carbon Co., 166
National Committee on Radiation Pro¬
Hafner Publishing Company, 18 tection and Measurement, 430, 432
Handbook Publishing Co., 155 National Distillers Corp., 278
Hardinge Co., 108 National Electrical Manufacturers Asso¬
Harman, F. W., and Associates, 183 ciation (NEMA), 138, 421
National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA), 31, 135, 326, 329, 330
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 21, National Industrial Conference Board,
38, 119, 121, 153, 226, 262, 350 269
Industrial Models Associates, 183 National Safety Council (NSC), 421
Industrial Nucleonics, viii National Security Resources Board, 282
Industrial Rayon Co., 278 Nucleonics, 436, 439, 447, 449-451, 454,
Industrial Research Service, 100, 101 455, 457, 459, 465
Instrument Society of America (ISA),
74-81, 409
International Commission on Radiologi¬
Ohio State University, viii, 319
cal Units, 429, 430
Oil and Gas Journal, 38, 68, 201
Interscience Publishers, Inc., 18
Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC),
31, 33, 136, 269
Payne, E. M., Studios, 413
Petroleum Engineer, 38
Jeffrey Manufacturing Co., 7-10 Petroleum Processing, 38, 225, 356
Petroleum Refiner, 38, 366
Pfaudler Co., 87, 164-170, 174
Kellogg, M. W., Company, viii, 69-71, Phillips Petroleum Co., viii
308, 366, 370, 372 Portland Cement Association (PCA), 306
Ivennecott Copper Corp., 75 Prentice-Hall, Inc., 90

Lancaster Iron Works, 163, 167-170, 172,

Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 10, 33,
175, 176 36, 127, 131, 152, 256, 286, 329
Lukens Steel Co., 88, 89
 NAME INDEX
523
United States, Bureaus, Weather, 294,
Republic Flow Meter Co., 353
Ronald Press Company, 253 325
Chamber of Commerce, 283
Coastal and Geodetic Survey, 269
Sanitary Engineering Center, 434 Departments, Agriculture, 38
Shell Development Co., 117 Commerce, 269
Solvay Process Co., 18 Defense, 31
Standard Oil Co. of Ohio, 413 Interior, 269
Stokes Machine Co., 172, 173 Employment Service, 281
Geological Survey, 269
Patent Office, 35, 38
Tennessee Valley Authority, 273 Public Roads Administration, 269
Tube Turns, Inc., 342, 36G, 367, 369 Superintendent of Documents, 342
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Asso¬ Tariff Commission, 38
ciation, 114 United States Navy, Bureau of Ships, 342
University of Chicago Press, 287

Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc. (UL),

31, 421 Van Nostrand, D., Company, Inc., 150,
Union Carbide Co., 278 453
United Nations Publications, 453, 456, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, viii, 17, 43
458, 461, 464 Vogt Machine Co., 171
United Scale Models, Inc., 183 Vulcan-Cincinnati, Inc., 414
United States, Bureaus, Census, 38
Internal Revenue, 38, 243-247
Labor, 31, 237, 238, 269, 281 Warren, S. D., Co., 413
Mines, 38 Wiley, John, & Sons, Inc., 90, 100, 150,
Reclamation, 279 329, 366, 370, 372, 393
Standards, 31 Worthington Corp., 163, 168, 175
 Subject Index

Administration cost references, 485, 486 Buildings, air conditioning of, 329
Aerosols and nuclear plant design, 495 cost of, 335-339
AIChE letter symbols, 504-515 custom-designed, 311, 336
Air conditioning, 329 design principles for, 313-334
Alloys, stainless, 86, 88, 89, 345 electrical design symbols for, 328, 422,
Aluminum pipe, 346 423
relative cost of, 89 fire code classification of, 316
Amplifiers, instrument, 407 fire protection for, 326
ASA letter symbols, 504-515 flooring, 321, 322
Atomic (see Nuclear engineering prob- heating of, 332
blems; Nuclear plants; Nuclear height classification of, 313
power) humidity control in, 332
Automatic control, principles of, 405-411 illumination for, 327
of processes, 405-408 materials of construction for, 316
systems diagram, 404, 406 mill, 317, 318
Automation, chemical plant, 402 multistory, 314, 318, 337-339
personnel and service facilities in, 333,
334
Batch processing, 41 prefabricated, 311, 312, 336
Benzene hexachloride (BHC), chemical reinforced-concrete, 319-321
process for, 43-46 roof classification of, 315
economic evaluation of, 258-262 roofs for, 323, 326
equipment design calculations, 152-163 safety designs for, 30, 326
equipment specifications, 163-176 single-story, 314, 317-318, 337-339
operating schedule, 47-50 types of, 310
plant layout for, 187, 188 ventilation principles for, 329-332
process description, 42 walls for, 321
Beta (/3) radiation from isotopes, 432 By-products, cost accounting for, 223
power release from spent U fuel, 445- 224, 226
447
Birmingham wire gage (BWG), 344
Blenders (see Mixers)
Brass alloy pipe, 346
Capital investment, cost references 221
Break-even chart, 256 483, 484
Build-up, radiation shielding, 435
fixed, cost estimates for, 191-222
525
526 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Capital investment, fixed, quick esti¬ Controllers, process, 404-408

mation method for, 195, 222 Conversion factors, 469, 470, 516-518
per annual ton, 196, 197 Conveyors, cost of, 200-203
recovery methods for, 249 description of, 104, 105
total, quick estimation method for, 222 Copper, pipe, 346
working, 221 relative cost of, 89
Carbon pipe, 348 Cost estimation, accuracy of, 192, 193
Cast-iron pipe, 344, 345 for capital investment, 192-195
Centrifuges, cost of, 198 diameter-inch method for piping, 398
description of, 111-113 preprocess design, 40
Ceramic pipe, 347 Cost indices, 198-205
Chemical engineer, role of, 1 Bureau of Labor, 205
Chemical engineering publications, 37, 38 Engineering News-Record (ENR), 198
Chemical processes, nuclear heat for, 455 Marshall-Stevens (MS), 200
Cladding, economics of, 88-90 Nelson refining, 201
Climate as factor in plant location, 280 Costs, administration, 249
Closed-loop theory, 403, 404 auxiliaries, 194
Codes, electrical systems, 421 building, 335-339
fire, for building design, 326 buildings and site development, 194,
National Electric (NEC), 425 217, 218
piping, 341, 342, 390, 391 centrifuges, 198
unfired pressure vessels (ASME), 150 compressed gas, 228, 233
Cold springing of piping, 370 contacting columns, 219
Commercial plant, scheduling for, 25, 41 conveyor, 200-203
Compressed gas costs, 228, 233 crystallizer, 203
Compressors, cost of, 144, 213 depreciation, 243-249
description of, 141-144 dryer, 204
Computers, 12-14 electric equipment, 194-212
applications for, 13 electric power, 228, 232
for heat-exchanger calculations, 115 electrical installation, 215
references for, 471, 472 engineering and construction, 194, 217,
types of, 13, 14 220
Concrete, definition of, 305, 306 equipment (see Equipment costs)
design principles for, 307 evaporator, 205
precast piles of, 299 as factors in design, 29, 30
reinforced, 307 filters, 206
beams and columns, 320 fluidization process equipment, 132,
design references for, 305, 307 199, 218
form work, 320 fuel, 228, 230
heat-transfer equipment, 116, 117/207
prestressed design, 320
instrumentation, 194, 209, 415-417
strength of, 306
Concrete flooring, 320, 321 insulation, 386-388
Concrete foundations, 296-307 labor, direct, 236
Construction cost references, 336, 488, indirect, 236
maintenance and repairs, 236, 239-242
489
Construction materials (see Materials of manufacturing, 222-224
distribution of, 225
construction)
marketing, 249
Contacting columns, costs, 219
materials of construction, 89
description of, 117, 118
mixer, 208-211
design methods for, 118
nuclear chemical plants, 466, 4(>7
Continuous processing, 41
outdoor vs. indoor plants, 339
Contracts, legal, 36
piping, 398-402
Control, of fire hazards, 31
process, 194, 208, 215
of pilot plants, 22
piping materials, 398-400
proportional, 409-411
plant site, 334
(See also Automatic control; Process
pump, 215
control)
 SUBJECT INDEX 527

Costs, raw material, 225, 226 Crystallizers, description of, 119-122

reactors, 137, 216, 217 Curie, definition of, 433, 470
references, 192-205, 221-240, 252—254, Curie level, of irradiated U fuel, 451
478-486 of radioactive waste, 456
administration, 485 Cycles selection in process design, 41
capital, 221, 483, 484
construction, 336, 338, 488, 489
depreciation, 247, 485
distillation, 482 Data, process, references for, 473-476
drying, 483 Decontamination of nuclear plants, 463
economic evaluation, 256, 486 Depreciation, cost references, 247, 485
engineering services, 484 definition of, 239
evaporation, 483 equipment, allowances for, 244-247
gas handling, 481 methods of determining, 243-249
general equipment, 200, 201, 204, declining balance, 248
205, 207, 480 double, 248
general review and summary, 478, present worth, 249
479 sinking fund, 249
heat transfer, 482 sum-of-digits, 248
instrumentation, 491 unit of production, 249
labor, 234, 238, 484 Derivative control, 409-411
maintenance and repairs, 239,240, Design, bases for, 5
484 of critical nuclear systems, 448-452
mixing, 481, 482 definition of, 1
nuclear chemical plants, 466, 467 equipment, 6-11, 150
operating, 484 in equipment selection, 4
packaging, 485 information on, for electrical systems,
piping, 398, 489, 490 421
power systems, 231, 491 of mechanical equipment, 150
process control, 491 need for, 2
pumps, 481 patents for, 35
reactors, 483 of piping, 340-402
research, 485, 486 piping stresses, 365-370
sales, 485, 486 process (see Process design)
separations processes, 482 of radiation shielding, 435-447
shipping, 485 relation to sales, 3
size reduction, 481 structural, 291
solids handling, 481 references, 317, 318, 487, 488
tanks, 483 Diagrams, flow (see Flow sheets)
taxes., 252, 485
1 )istillation cost references, 482
utilities, 228, 485 Dose units, radiation, 428, 429
vessels, 483
Drafting procedures, instruments in, 11
refrigeration, 232, 233
reproduction methods in, 12
safety, 30
scales used, 12
sales, 249
Drawings, construction and installation
size-reduction equipment, 216 11
steam, 228
equipment design and, 6-11
summary of product, 250
piping, 357-365
tank, 137, 216-218
for plant design, 5, 11
thickeners, 219
plant layout, 11
utility, 226, 228
in process design, 5, 6
water, 279
references for, 6, 358-365, 472
( ritical mass of nuclear fuel, 448-452
461 Dryers, classification of, 122, 123
cost references for, 204, 483
Criticality, nuclear systems, 448-452
description of, 122-124
Crystallization by salting out, 121, 122 spray, 124
Crystallizers, cost of, 203
Dust collectors, cost of, 199
528 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Earnings, new or net, 251 Equipment, selection of, 27, 81, 84 90-
Economic analysis, 250-257 176
Economic evaluation, 189-262 size-reduction (see Size-reduction
factors in, 189-191 equipment)
references, 256, 486 specifications, comparison of, 94-99
report of, 257 summary sheet for, 91
Economic optimization references, 90 writing of, 93
Economics, of clad steels, 88-90 standard vs. special, 92-93
of construction projects, 336, 338, 466, symbols for flow sheets, 68-71
467, 488, 489 table of references, 100
definitions of, 28 Equipment costs, estimation of, 195
of piping projects, 398, 489, 490 installation, 207, 214
plant location, 268, 289 insulation, 209
plant and process, references to, 192, methods of comparison of, 205-207
193, 195, 479, 480 “six-tenths’’ factor for, 205
of power systems, 491 table of references, 99, 100
Electric equipment, costs, 194, 212 (See also Costs)
demand charges, 141 Equipment design, development of, 150
installation cost of, 215 drawings for, 6-11
motors, classification of, 138, 140 Evaporators, classification of, 125-126
description of, 137-139 comparison of specifications for, 94-
power factor of, 140 99
power supply, description of, 139 cost of, 205, 483
Electrical hazards, 425, 426 description of, 124
Electrical symbols, 328, 422, 423 Excavation and grading, 295
Electrical systems, codes for, 421 Expansion joints, piping, 368
design of, 420-426 Explosive limits, 329
distribution in, 421-425
equipment protection for, 424
grounding of, 426 Feeders, solids, description of, 105-106
hazards of, 425, 426 Filters, cost of, 206
NEC area classifications, 425 description of, 108-110
safety practices in, 425, 426 Fire brick, 381-383
symbols for, 328, 422 Fire code for building design, 326
Fire hazards, prevention and control, 31
Electrical units, 517
Electricity, cost of, 228-232 Fire protection for buildings, 326
Emergency power systems, 420 Fire station control, 283
Fission-product utilization, references for,
Energy of nuclear particles, 430—435
Energy balance, flow sheets for, 67 495
preparation of, 67-69 Fission products, 456
Engineering, cost references, 484 Fixed charges, 223-249
Flooring, building, 321, 322
report forms, 257
Flow diagrams (see Flow sheets)
ENR cost index, 198-200, 220
Flow sheets, auxiliary process, 81
Equipment, costs (see Equipment costs)
discussion of, 27
description of, 100
energy balance, 67—69
design of, 4
equipment, 48, 49, 65-73
mechanical, 150
instrumentation, 74-81
electrical, 421-425
material balance, 64-66
fabrication of, 150
piping, 356
flow sheets for, 48, 49, 65, 73
qualitative block-type, 46, 47
foundations, 300-305
references for, 40, 68, 73, 475, 476
glass-lined, 86, St
Fluid flow, formulas for, 518
for nuclear plants, 462
Fluid velocities in piping, 350-353
references, 94, 100, 101, 105, 111, • Fluidization process equipment, basic
119, 121, 124, 127, 131, 132, 135,
operation of, 128-130
136, 141, 150 cost of, 132, 199, 218
safety designs for, 30
 SUBJECT INDEX
529
Heat evolution in radiation shields, 445-
Fluidization processes, applications for,
447
130
Heat exchange process, automatic con¬
description of, 127-132
design methods for, 130-132 trol of, 405-408
Flux, radiation, 430, 431 Heat transfer, cost references, 482
Footings, 296 in fluidized beds, 132
Foundations, 295—307 formulas for, 518
Heat-transfer equipment, condensers, 114
•cost of, 337
dynamic loading and, 300 costs, 116, 117, 207
footings for, 296 design procedures for, 115
machinery and equipment, 300-305 exchangers, 144
mats, 297, 298 specification sheets, 116, 117
piles for, 297-300 Heating of buildings, 332
Frequency response in process control High-pressure process control systems,
systems, 409 414, 415
Frost line, 293, 294 Humidity, definitions of, 516
Fuel, 271 Humidity control in buildings, 332
costs, 228, 230
nuclear, 427, 448-456
critical mass, 448-452 Illumination for buildings, 327
Income, sales, 251
Income tax, 252
Gamma (y) radiation, absorption coeffi¬ Information sources, design, 36-39
cients, 435, 436 Installation costs for equipment, 207,
from isotopes, 432 214
maximum permissible flux for, 431, Instrumentation, 402-417
433 amplifiers for, 407
maximum permissible intensity for, elements of, 404
431, 433 error detection elements, 405-407
shielding, 435-447 flow sheet symbols, 74-81
Gas-handling cost references, 481 identification code for, 74, 75
Gases, dispersal from nuclear plants, 464 ISA symbols, 74-82
storage tanks for, 136 nuclear plant, 464
Glass-lined equipment, 86, 87 in pilot plants, 22
Glass pipe, 347 references, 404-406, 409, 414, 464, 490
for nuclear chemical plants, 463 relation to outdoor plants, 309
Graphic panels, 412, 413 relay controllers, 408
Graphite pipe, 348 Insulation, 375-389
Grounding of electric systems, 426 characteristics of, 376-380
costs, 209
economic selection of, 386-388
Half life (<^), isotopic, 433 factors for selection of, 384, 385
Hazards, chemical, 33 pipe applications, 385-388
handbook of, 33 refrigeration, 388, 389
electrical, 32 types available, 381-385
electrical design for, 425, 426 Intensity, radiation, 430, 431
fire, 31 Interest charges, 251
health, 34
Investment, return on, 253, 254
mechanical, 32
Ion exchange in nuclear fuel separations
radiation, 34 455, 456
ventilation control, 33
Isotopes, chemical processes for, 452-458
Health physics, biological effects in, 428 half life of, 433
MPE values for, 430, 432
radiation from spent U fuel, 446
nuclear, 428-435, 461, 462
radioactive, 431-435
in nuclear plant control, 461, 462
radiation dose units for, 428, 429
Heat capacity, definitions of, 516
Job evaluation, 234
530 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Labor, cost references, 234, 238, 484 Materials-handling equipment, descrip¬

costs, 236-238 tion of, 103
as factor in plant location, 281 selection of, 103-106
for piping installation, 400-402 Mats, foundation, 297, 298
requirements for chemical plants, 234, Maximum permissible concentration
235 (MPC), 430, 432
safety precautions for, 33 Maximum permissible exposure (MPE),
wages and material index (Bureau of 430
Labor), 204 Mechanical separation equipment, 106-
Layout, piping, 355-357, 364, 371 113
plant (see Plant layout) classification of, 106
Lead pipe, 347 for solids, from gases, 106, 107
relative cost of, 89 costs, 199
Legal contracts, 36 from liquids, 108-113
Legal problems in nuclear design, 468 centrifuges, 111-113
Legal references, 475 filters, 108-110
Lighting of buildings, 327 thickeners, 111
Lindane (y-BHC), economic evaluation from solids, 107
of, 258-262 Metal cutting, 151
process description, 42 Mixers, cost of, 208-211
site location of plant, 286-290 description of, 132-135
Liquid metals, references, 477 power consumption of, 134, 135
Liquids, regulations for storage, 31, 135 selection of, 135
storage tanks for, 135, 136 Mixing, cost references for, 481-482
Models (see Scale models)
Moderators, nuclear system, 448
Machinery, foundations for, 300, 301 Modes, process control, derivative, 409-
Maintenance, costs, 236, 239-242, 484 411
nuclear plant, 459-461 on-off, 409, 410
Management expenses, 249 proportional, 409-411
Manufacturing costs, 222-225 Motors, electric, 137-139
Market research references, 487 NEMA standards, 138
Marketing expenses, 249
Markets, 26, 270, 271
National Electric Code (NEC) area
Marshall-Stevens (MS) cost index, 200,
classification, 425
220 Nelson refinery construction index, 201
Mass-transfer equipment, description of,
Nickel alloys, piping, 346
117-127
relative cost of, 89
Master plot plans, 178
Nomenclature for nuclear design, 469
Material balance preparation, 46, 51-66
Nominal pipe size (NPS), 344
Materials of construction, for buildings,
Nomographs, for radiation shielding,
316
436-441
clad steels, 88-90
Nonmetallic piping, 347, 348
costs, 89 Nuclear engineering problems, biological
glass-lined steel, 87
radiation effects, 428
laboratory testing of, 85, 86
chemical plant design, 427-470
for nuclear plants, 462, 463 references for, 452—458, 461, 463
piping, 345-349
467, 492
for pumps, 147 safety in, 428, 452
references to, 85, 86, 100, 4/6
conversion factors, 469, 470
relative prices of, 89 criticality design, 448-452
selection of, final, 86, 89, 90 for plutonium, 450-452
plan for, 85 for uranium, 449-452
preliminary, 85, 86 fuel, 427, 448—456
for process equipment, 84-90 fuel reprocessing, 455, 456
Materials-handling equipment, cost ot,
general references, 491
200-203
 SUBJECT INDEX 531

Nuclear engineering problems, health Pipe, seamless, 343

physics, 428-435, 461, 462 steel, 345
legal problems, 468 Transite, 348
plant costs, 466, 467 Piping, codes for, 341, 342
plant design, 458-465 cold springing in stress relief, 370
plant equipment, 462 cost estimating, 398-402
plant location, 465 cost references, 398, 489, 490
plant maintenance, 461 design problems in, 340
raw materials, 453, 454 drainage, 390-398
reactions, 427, 428 capacity, 392
shielding of 7 rays, 435, 447 codes, 390
Nuclear plants, decontamination of, 463 design, 396-398
process control, 464 hardware, 394-396
process design, 452-458 testing, 396
process heat, 455 drawings, 357-365
ventilation, 464 erection and testing of, 375
Nuclear power, 419 fabrication methods, 342
flexibility design, 368-370
flow sheets, 356
On-off control, 409, 410 fluid velocities in, 350-353
Operating cost references, 484 hardware, 355
Optimization, economic, references for, installation of, 370-375
90 labor factors in, 400-402
Ordinances, chemical plant, 282 insulation, 375-389
Outdoor plants, design features of, 307— (See also Insulation)
309 layout, 355-357, 364, 371
relative cost of, 339 underground, 374
material costs, 398-400
materials, 345-349
Packaging, relation to manufacturing nominal pipe size (NPS), 344
costs, 223, 224, 250 overhead design for, 371-374
Painting, piping color codes, 390-391 preinsulated, 389
relation to illumination, 327 pressure relief devices for, 354, 355
Patents, infringement of, 35 references, 342, 343, 350, 353, 355, 356,
in research and development, 35 358-367, 369, 372, 380-391
Pay-out time, 251, 254, 255 schedule numbers, 344
Piles, foundation, 297-300 selection of, 342-355
Pilot plants, 20-24 size selection, 351-352
cost of, 24 sized by internal diameters, 349-351
instrumentation and control for, 23 steam, 352-354
personnel for, 21, 22 stress design, 365-370
planning for, 21 fluid pressure, 366
references to, 21, 23, 474 material, 366
scale-up factors, 22, 23 thermal, 366-368
Pipe, aluminum, 89, 346 supports, 371-373
brass alloy, 346
symbols, 358-362
carbon, 348
Plant capacity, break-even chart for, 256
cast, 344, 345
Plant design, nuclear, 458-470
ceramic, 347
Plant layout, building plans for, 185-186
ferrous, 345
description of, 27
glass, 347
equipment location in, 183, 184
graphite, 348
factors in planning, 177
lead, 347
methods, 178, 502
nonferrous, 346
nuclear, 459
nonmetallic, 347, 348
plant expansion factors in, 185
plastic, 348
principles of, 183-187
rubber, 348
railroads and roads for, 186
532 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Plant layout, references, 477, 478 Process design, teaching methods for,
safety considerations in, 184 497-503
storage location in, 183 Process development, organization for,
two-dimensional, 178-181 17, 18
Plant location, 28, 265-290 references for, 15, 21, 23, 472
economics of, 268 requirements for, 19
nuclear, 465 research for, 16
references, 269, 486, 487 steps in, iv, 16
sources of information for, 269 Process equipment (see Equipment)
summary of factors in, 266, 267 Process steam piping, 352-354
weighted-score method for, 288 Process steam power, 418
Plant site topography, 295 Processing, batch, 41
Plastic pipe, 348 continuous, 41
Plot plans, unit area and master, 178 Product cost summary, 250
Plutonium, critical mass and volume, Profit, 253
449-452 Profitability evaluation, 253-257
Project, present-worth method, 255
Power, definitions of, 517
electric generation of, 419, 420 Proportional control, 409-411
Publications, chemical engineering, 37, 38
costs, 228, 232
as factor in plant location, 272 Pumps, centrifugal, 145, 146
industry requirements for, 231 cost references for, 215, 481
description of, 144-149
emergency systems, 420
diaphragm, 145
nuclear, 419
efficiency of, 148, 149
references, 231, 419, 421, 491
materials of construction for, 147
requirements for chemical plants, 418
reciprocating, 144, 145
sources of, 271
rotary gear, 146
steam, 272
selection of, 147—149
Power systems, 418—426
Present worth, 255
Pressure-relief systems, 354, 355
Radiation activity from spent U fuel, 44G
Pressure vessels, ASME code for, 150
Radiation dose units, 428, 429
Price indices, types of, 198-205, 220
Radiation flux, 430, 431
Process auxiliaries, control systems,
Radiation intensity, 430, 431
402-418 „ _ Radiation shielding, 435-447
instrumentation, 404-411, 416, 417
Radioactivity in wastes, 285
piping, 340-402 Radiological Health Handbook, 434
power systems, 418-426 Raw materials, costs, 226
Process control, 402-417 supply vs. location, 269
center, 411, 413 eactors, cost referencesjor, 483
criteria for, 403 description of, 135-137
dynamic response, 409 efractories, thermal properties of,
electronic systems, 414
381-385
instrumentation costs for, 4 efrigeration, costs, 232, 233
modes, 409 insulation, 388, 389
for nuclear plants, 464 egulations, shipping ICC,
pneumatic systems, 405-408 414 Enforced concrete, buildings, 319 42
references, 404-406, 409, 414, 464, 4.10 design references, 305, 30.
relay systems for, 408 Lepair costs, 236, 239-242, 48
systems design, 414, 415 Leport writing, references for, 4/-, 4/
systems example, 405-411 Leports, design course, o03
Process cycles, references to, 40,41, writing of, 25.
Process data sources, 43 47, • cost references, 485, -±»o
Process design, cost estimation for, 40
nuclear, 452—458 expenses of, 249
procedures, 40-72 market, 26, 487
projects, 262 patents in, 35
selection of cycles, 41
 SUBJECT INDEX
533

Steam, costs, 228

Research, process, 16
industry requirements for, 229
requirements for, 19
process, 418
Roentgen (unit), 428, 429
Steel, relative cost of, 89
Rubber pipe, 348
structural, building design for, 316—319
Steel beams, 317
Safety, considerations of, 30-35 Steel piling, 299, 300
costs, 30 Steel pipe, 345
design for, in buildings, 30, 326 Steel tank supports, 301
in process equipment, 30 Storage regulations for liquids, 31, 135
and electrical systems design, 425, 426 Stress, piping, 365-370
information sources, 30, 31 Structural design, 291
and labor relations, 33 references, 487, 488, 317, 318
in nuclear systems design, 428, 452 Structures, 307-339
and plant layout, 184 enclosed, 309-339
references, 31-33, 474, 475 unenclosed, 307-309, 339
to nuclear plant design, 449-452, 493 Subsurface evaluation, 292-295
ventilation standards, 329, 330 Symbols, drainage piping, 397
Sales, cost references, 485, 486 electrical, 328, 422
income from, 251 ISA instrumentation, 74-82
relation to design, 3 letter, AIChE and ASA, 504-515
Scale models, 181, 183 piping, 358-362
materials for, 183
piping layout with, 356
in plant design, 5 • Tanks, cost of, 137, 216-218
references to, 478 foundation supports for, 301-305
types of, 181-183 storage, 135-137
Semicommercial plant, uses for, 24 wooden, 216, 305
Separations processes, cost references, Tantalum pipe, 347
482 Taxes, corporation, 281

1 Shielding, a and /3 radiation, 435

7 radiation, 435-447

heat evolution in shields, 445

cost references for, 252, 485
income, 252
local, 249
references, 436, 439, 445, 493 social security, 249
fl Shift schedules, types of, 41, 42 Teaching methods for process and plant
Shipping, cost references, 485 design, 497-503
relation to manufacturing costs, 223, Temperature, control of, for buildings,
224, 250 332
Shipping regulations (ICC), 136 effects of, in piping design, 366-368
Site location, 265, 281-284 measurement of, 405-407
Site preparation, 291-295 water, 276, 277
cost of, 334, 335 Thermal conductivity of insulating
references, 487, 488 materials, 376-385
Size-reduction equipment, costs, 216, 481 Thermal insulation (see Insulation)
description of, 101 Thickeners, cost of, 219
selection of, 101, 102 description of, 111
Soil, bearing load of, 293 Thorium, nuclear fuel cycles with, 453
} # Soil testing, 292 Tile, piping, 392
Solids handling, cost references, 481 Topography of plant site, 295
^Specifications, heat exchanger, 116, 117 Transite pipe, 348
for process equipment, 91-99, 116, 117 Transportation, of gases, 137, 142-144
Spray dryers, 124 of liquids, 136, 137
Stainless-steel alloys, 86, 88, 89, 345 and plant location, 270
Standards, heat exchanger, 114
motors and generators (NEMA code)
138
Unit area plot plans, 178
Statistics references, 18, 475
Units, engineering, 517, 518
534 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Uranium, cooling of spent fuel, 445-447 .Water, conservation of, 277, 278
critical mass and volume, 449-452 costs, 228, 279
nuclear fuel cycle, 453 dams and reservoirs, 278
Utilities, cost of, 226, 228, 485 industry requirements for, 227, 274
lake sources, 278
legal restrictions for, 279, 280
Ventilation, building, 329-331 quality of, 275
hazard control by, 33 references, 227, 274, 487
nuclear plant, 464 sea, 278
Vessels, cost references for, 483 source of supply, 273
fabrication of, 151 temperatures of, 276, 277
Welding, 151
of steel pipe, 342
Waste disposal, 284-286 Wood tank, costs, 216
of nuclear plant gases, 464 supports for, 305
radioactive, 285, 456
references, 456, 457, 487, 494, 495
types of plant wastes, 284 Zoning regulations, 282
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