1

INTERFERENCE
Introduction:
When two or more waves having same frequency and constant phase difference
superimpose to each other, the intensity/amplitude of light should be modified. The
modification of intensity/amplitude of light due to the superposition of waves is called
interference.
When the resultant amplitude is sum of the amplitudes of two waves, the interference
is called as constructive interference. When the resultant amplitude is equal to the difference
of two amplitudes the interference is called as destructive interference.
The image that appears on the screen is a set of light and dark bands called
interference fringes. The pattern the fringes form is called an interference pattern.
Conditions for interference:
1. The two sources should be coherent.
2. The two sources must emit continuous waves of the same wavelength and same
frequency.
3. The distance between two sources (d) is small.
4. The distance between the sources and screen (D) should be large.
5. To view the interference fringes, the background should be dark.
6. The amplitude of interfering waves should be equal.
7. The sources must be narrow i.e., they must be extremely small.
8. The sources should be monochromatic.
Principle of superposition:
When two or more waves travel simultaneouly in a medium, the resulatant
displacement at any point is due to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to individul
waves. This is the principle of superposition.
Consider two waves having same freqency and constant phase difference  travelling
in the same direction.
Let us assume y1 and y2 be the displacements of two individual waves at at any instant
‘t’, then
y1 = a sin t

y2 = b sin(t + )

According to principle of superposition, the resultant displacement

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics
 2

y = y1 + y2 …… (1)
y = a sin t + b sin(t + )
y = a sin t + b sin t cos + b cost sin 

y = (a + b cos) sin t + b cost sin  ……. (2)

Let a + b cos = R cos …… (3)
b sin  = R sin …… (4)
Where R is the resultant amplitude and θ is the resultant phase.
squaring and adding equation (3) and (4), we get
(R cos )2 + (R sin )2 = (a + b cos)2 + (bsin  ) 2

R2 cos2  + R2 sin2  = a2 + b2 cos2  + 2ab cos + b2 sin2 

R2 (cos2  + sin2  ) = a2 + b2 (cos2  + sin2 ) + 2ab cos

R2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos …… (5)

From equation (2),
y = R sin t cos + R cost sin
y = R sin(t +  )

Here R = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos

From equations (3) and (4),
R sin b sin
=
R cos a + b cos
b sin 
tan =
a + b cos

 b sin  
 = tan−1   ……. (6)
 a + b cos 
The resultant amplitude depends upon the amplitude of individual waves and phase
difference between two waves.
From equation (5), if  =0, then

R2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
R2 = (a + b)2

By the definition of intensity, I = R2

 I = (a + b)2 …… (7)

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics
 3

The condition of maximum intensity  = 2n (where n=0, 1, 2…)

The condition for minimum intensity  = (2n 1) (where n=0, 1, 2…)
Case i: When the resultant amplitude is sum of the amplitudes of two waves, the interference
is called as constructive interference.
I = (a + a)2

I = (2a)2

I = 4a 2 (Maximum intensity)
Case ii: When the resultant amplitude is equal to the difference of two amplitudes the
interference is called as destructive interference.
I = (a − a)2
I = 0 (Minimum intensity)
2
phase difference () =  path difference ( )


path difference ( ) =  phase difference ()
2
Interference in plane parallel films due to the reflected light:
The colors of thin films, soap bubbles and oil slicks can be explained as due to the
phenomenon of interference by reflection. In all these cases the formation of interference
pattern is by the division of amplitude.
In thin film interference is due to superposition of light deflected from the top and
bottom surfaces of the film. In both reflected as well as transmitted light one can observe
interference.
Consider two plane parallel surfaces PQ and P'Q' are separated by a distance t. The
refractive index of the medium between the surfaces is assumed as μ.
Let a ray of light OA be incident on the surface PQ at A, then some part of the light is
reflected into the same medium as AR ray. The remaining part is transmitted into the medium
and is reflected at the lower surface P'Q' at C, meets the upper surface at D and emerges as
DR' ray.
The path difference between the reflected rays AR and DR'
= path (AC+CD) in medium – path AB in air
= μ (AC+CD) – AB (for air μ = 1) …… (1)

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics
 4

CE
From Δ AEC, cos r =
AC
CE
 AC =
cos r
t
 AC = …… (2) ( CE = t)
cos r
The ΔAEC and ΔCED are similar
t + t
AC+ CD = cos r
cos r
2t
AC+ CD = ……. (3)
cos r
AB
From ΔABD, sin i =
AD
 AB = ADsin i …… (4)
sin i
According to Snell’s law, the refractive index  =
sin r
 sin i =  sin r ….. (5)
Substitute equation (5) in equation (4)
AB = AD sin r ….. (6)
AE
From ΔAEC, tan r =
CE
 AE = CE tan r
 AE = t tan r …… (7)

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics
 5

 AD = AE + ED
 AD = 2t tan r …… (8)
Substitute equation (8) in equation (6)
 AB = 2t  tan r   sin r
sin r
AB = 2t    sin r
cos r
2t sin2 r
AB = ….. (9)
cos r
2t
− 2t sin r
2
Therefore the path difference  =
cos r cos r
2 t
= 1− sin2 r 
cos r  
2t
= cos2 r
cos r
 = 2t cos r …… (10)
Since the ray AR is reflected at the air medium (rarer- denser) interface, it undergoes
a phase change of π or path increases of λ/2.
Hence the path difference between the reflected rays AR and DR' is

2t cos r − …… (11)
2

Conditions of maxima and minima in reflected light:

1. Condition for bright band:
The film will appear bright if the path difference

2t cos r − = n
2

2t cos r = (2n +1) Where n=0, 1, 2, 3 ……
2
2. Condition for dark band:
The film will appear dark if the path difference
 
2t cos r − = (2n −1)
2 2
2t cos r = n

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics
 6

3. If the film thickness is extremely small when compared to λ then 2μt cosr can be
neglected and then the net path difference is λ/2. Hence destructive interference will
occur and the film will appear dark.
Conditions of maxima and minima in transmitted light:
If the transmitted system there is no additional phase change since the reflection at D
occurs at the denser-rarer interface.
1. Condition for bright band:
The film appear bright if the path difference
2t cos r = n Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ……
2. Condition for dark band:
The film appear dark if the path difference

2t cos r = (2n +1) Where n=0, 1, 2, 3 ……
2
3. If the film thickness is extremely small when compared to λ then 2μt cosr can be
neglected. This means that the two beams have zero path difference and hence
interfere constructively. Hence the film appears bright.
When the results of both reflected and transmitted systems are compared it is clear
that when reflected system produces bright fringe, the transmitted system produces dark
fringe and vice-versa. This shows that the interference patterns in the reflected and
transmitted systems are complementary to each other.

Newton’s Rings:
When a plano-convex lens of long focal length with its convex surface is placed on a
plane glass plate. At the point of contact where the lens touches the glass plate the thickness
of the air film is zero and when moved gradually towards the edge of the lens, the thickness
of the air film is increases. If a monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally and the film
is viewed in reflected light, alternate dark and bright concentric circular rings are observed
around the point of contact. This phenomenon was first observed by Newton, the rings are
called Newton’s rings.
Experimental arrangements:
A plano-convex lens L of large radius of curvature and is placed on a plane glass
plate. The light from monochromatic source is incident on a glass plate, which is placed at an
angle of 45° with vertical. The glass plate reflects normally a part of incident light towards

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics
 7

the air film enclosed by the lens L and the glass plate P. A part of the incident light is
reflected by the curved surface of the lens L and remaining is transmitted which is reflected
back from the plane surface of the glass plate P. These two reflected rays (P 1 and P2) are
interfering and produce an interference pattern in the form of bright and dark circular rings.
These rings can be viewed in a microscope M focused on the film.

Theory:

Let LOL' be the lens placed on a glass plate AB.

Let R be the radius of curvature of lens and r be the radius of Newton’s ring
corresponding to the constant film thickness t.
The rings are observed in the reflected light, an additional path λ/2 is introduced.
The effective path difference between the rays

 = 2t cos r + …… (1)
2

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics
 8

For air film μ=1 and for normal incidence r = 0


 = 2t + …… (2)
2

At the point of contact t = 0,  = , this is the condition for minimum intensity.
2
Hence the central spot is dark.
The condition for bright ring is

 = 2t + = n
2

 2t = (2n −1) ……. (3) Where n=0, 1, 2, 3 ….
2
The condition for dark ring is
 
 = 2t + = (2n +1)
2 2
 2t = n ……. (4) Where n=0, 1, 2, 3 ….
Let us consider the curved surface of the lens as an arc of a circle whose center is at C.
NP  NQ = NO  NO'
r  r = t (2R − t)

r 2 = 2Rt − t 2

r 2  2Rt (Since t is small t2 is very small)

r 2 = 2Rt
r2
t= …… (5)
2R
r2 
For bright rings, 2 = (2n −1)
2R 2
r 2 (2n −1) 
=
R 2
(2n −1) R
r2 =
2
D
If D is the diameter of the ring, r =
2
D2 (2n −1) R
=
4 2
D2 = 2R(2n −1)

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics
 9

D = 2R(2n −1)

Dn  (2n −1)
Therefore the diameter of the bright ring is proportional to the square root of the odd
natural numbers.
r 2 = n
For dark rings, 2
2R
r2
= n
R
r 2 = n R
D
If D is the diameter of the ring, r =
2
2
D
= n R
4
D2 = 4nR

D = 2 n R

Dn  n
Therefore, the diameter of the dark ring is proportional to the square root of natural
numbers.

Applications of Newton’s rings:

1. Determination of wavelength of given source of light:
Let R be the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens and λ is the wavelength of
light used.
The diameter of the nth dark ring
Dn2 = 4nR ...... (1)

The Dn+m is the diameter of (n+m)th dark ring, then

Dn+2 p = 4(n + m)R ....... (2)

Subtracting equations (1) and (2)

D2 − D2 = 4(n + m)R − 4nR
n+m n

D 2
− D2 = 4mR
n+m n

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics
 10

D2 − D2
Therefore the wavelength of given source of light  = n+m n

4mR
From this equation the radius of curvature of the lens can be determined as
D − D2
2

R= n+m n
4m
2. Determination of refractive index of liquid:
The experiment is performed in two steps
1) When there is an air film between glass plate and plano-convex lens
2) When there is liquid film instead of air film between glass plate and plano-convex lens
In both cases diameter of nth and (n+m)th rings are determined.
If the diameters of nth and (n+m)th rings are Dn and Dn+m when medium is air, then
Dn2 = 4nR and Dn+m
2
= 4(n + m)R
D2 − D2 = 4mR ......... (1)
n+m n

For liquid medium of refractive index μ is

4nR and D '2 4(n + m)R
D 'n2 = =
 
n+m

4mR.......
D '2 − D '2 = (2)
n+m n

Using equations (1) and (2)
D2 − D2
 = Dn+m n
'2 − D '2
n+m n

This equation can be used to determine the refractive index of a liquid.

*******

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Engineering Physics