What Is Sound?

A sound is a vibration that propagates through a medium in the form of a mechanical wave.
The medium in which it propagates can either be a solid, a liquid or a gas. Sound travels
fastest in solids, relatively slower in liquids and slowest in gases.

In physics, the sound is defined as

A vibration that propagates as an audible wave of pressure, through a medium such as a gas,
liquid or solid.

What is a Soundwave?
A sound wave is the pattern of disturbance caused by the energy travelling away from the
source of the sound. Sound waves are longitudinal waves. This means that the propagation of
vibration of particles is parallel to the energy wave propagation direction. When the atoms
are set in vibration they move back and forth. This continuous back and forth motion results
in a high-pressure and a low-pressure region in the medium. These high- pressure and low-
pressure regions are termed compressions and rarefactions, respectively. These regions are
transported to the surrounding medium resulting in the sound waves travelling from one
medium to another.
How is Sound Produced?

Sound is produced when an object vibrates, creating a pressure wave. This pressure wave
causes particles in the surrounding medium (air, water, or solid) to have vibrational motion.
As the particles vibrate, they move nearby particles, transmitting the sound further through
the medium. The human ear detects sound waves when vibrating air particles vibrate small
parts within the ear.

In many ways, sound waves are similar to light waves. They both originate from a definite
source and can be distributed or scattered using various means. Unlike light, sound waves
can only travel through a medium, such as air, glass, or metal. This means there’s no sound
in space!

Nature Of Sound
The sound produced by a guitar is different from the sound produced by a drum. This is
because the sound produced by different sources have different characteristics. Sound can be
characterized by its frequency, wavelength, and amplitude.

• Frequency of sound
The number of rarefactions and compressions that occur per unit time is known as the
frequency of a sound wave. F= 1/T

Where,

• f is the frequency of a sound wave and

• T is the time period.
 • Wavelength of sound
The distance between the successive compression and rarefaction is known as the
wavelength of a sound wave.

λ = v/f

Where, f is the frequency of the sound wave and v is the velocity of the sound wave.

Types of Sound

There are many different types of sound including, audible, inaudible, unpleasant, pleasant,
soft, loud, noise and music. You’re likely to find the sounds produced by a piano player soft,
audible, and musical. And while the sound of road construction early on Saturday morning is
also audible, it certainly isn’t pleasant or soft. Other sounds, such as a dog whistle, are
inaudible to the human ear. This is because dog whistles produce sound waves that are below
the human hearing range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Waves below 20 Hz are called infrasonic
waves (infrasound), while higher frequencies above 20,000 Hz are known as ultrasonic
waves (ultrasound).

Infrasonic Waves (Infrasound)

Infrasonic waves have frequencies below 20 Hz, which makes them inaudible to the human
ear. Scientists use infrasound to detect earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, to map rock and
petroleum formations underground, and to study activity in the human heart. Despite our
inability to hear infrasound, many animals use infrasonic waves to communicate in nature.
Whales, hippos, rhinos, giraffes, elephants, and alligators all use infrasound to communicate
across impressive distances – sometimes hundreds of miles!

Ultrasonic Waves (Ultrasound)

Sound waves that have frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz produce ultrasound. Because
ultrasound occurs at frequencies outside the human hearing range, it is inaudible to the
human ear. Ultrasound is most often used by medical specialists who use sonograms to
examine their patients’ internal organs. Some lesser-known applications of ultrasound
include navigation, imaging, sample mixing, communication, and testing. In nature, bats
emit ultrasonic waves to locate prey and avoid obstacles.

Amplitude of sound
The amplitude of the sound is the magnitude of the maximum disturbance in a sound wave.
The amplitude is also a measure of energy. Higher the amplitude higher the energy in a
sound wave. Humans can hear a limited range of frequencies of sound. Physicists have
identified the audio frequency spectrum of the human ear to be between 20 Hz and 20,000
Hz. Under ideal laboratory conditions, the human ear can detect frequencies that are as low
as 12 Hz and as high as 20,000 Hz.
Speed of Sound
The speed at which sound waves propagate through a medium is known as the speed of
sound. The speed of sound is different in different media. The speed of sound is highest in
solids because the atoms in solid are highly compressed. The interaction between atoms in a
particle is highly dependent on the distance between them. Higher the interaction between
the atoms, the quicker the energy is transferred. As the interaction of the particles in solids is
high, the speed of sound is faster than liquids and gases. The table below lists the speed of
sound in different media.

S = D/T

Where,

• d is the distance traveled by sound

• t is the time taken to cover the distance.

Medium Speed of sound

Water 1481 m/s

Air 343.2 m/s

Copper 4600 m/s

Hydrogen 1270 m/s

Glass 4540 m/s

4 Properties of Sound
What makes music different from noise? A bird’s call is more melodic than a car alarm. And,
we can usually tell the difference between ambulance and police sirens - but how do we do
this? We use the four properties of sound: pitch, dynamics (loudness or softness), timbre
(tone color), and duration.

Frequency (Pitch)

Pitch is the quality that enables us to judge sounds as being “higher” and “lower. It provides
a method for organizing sounds based on a frequency-based scale. Pitch can be interpreted as
the musical term for frequency, though they are not exactly the same. A high-pitched sound
causes molecules to rapidly oscillate, while a low-pitched sound causes slower oscillation.
Pitch can only be determined when a sound has a frequency that is clear and consistent
enough to differentiate it from noise. Because pitch is primarily based on a listener’s
perception, it is not an objective physical property of sound.

Amplitude (Dynamics)

The amplitude of a sound wave determines it relative loudness. In music, the loudness of a
note is called its dynamic level. In physics, we measure the amplitude of sound waves in
decibels (dB), which do not correspond with dynamic levels. Higher amplitudes correspond
with louder sounds, while shorter amplitudes correspond with quieter sounds. Despite this,
studies have shown that humans perceive sounds at very low and very high frequencies to be
softer than sounds in the middle frequencies, even when they have the same amplitude.

Timbre (Tone Color)

Timbre refers to the tone color, or “feel” of the sound. Sounds with various timbres produce
different wave shapes, which affect our interpretation of the sound. The sound produced by a
piano has a different tone color than the sound from a guitar. In physics, we refer to this as
the timbre of a sound. It’s what allows humans to quickly identify sounds (e.g. a cat’s meow,
running water, the sound of a friend’s voice).

Duration (Tempo/Rhythm)

In music, duration is the amount of time that a pitch, or tone, lasts. They can be described as
long, short, or as taking some amount of time. The duration of a note or tone influences the
timbre and rhythm of a sound. A classical piano piece will tend to have notes with a longer
duration than the notes played by a keyboardist at a pop concert. In physics, the duration of a
sound or tone begins once the sound registers and ends after it cannot be detected.

What Makes Sound Music or Noise?

Acousticians, or scientists who study sound acoustics, have studied how different sound
types, primarily noise and music, affect humans. Randomized, unpleasant sound waves are
often referred to as noise. Alternatively, constructed patterns of sound waves are known as
music. Studies have shown that the human body responds differently to noise and music,
which may explain why road construction on a Saturday morning makes us more tense than
a pianist’s song.
Earth

The interior of the earth can be divided into 3 different layers – crust, mantle, and core. The
crust is the outermost layer of the earth, and the core is the innermost layer of the earth,
located at a depth of 2900 Km. This article briefly throws light on these 3 different interior
layers of the earth.

The Crust

• The crust is the outermost solid part of the earth.

• It is fragile.

• The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas.

• Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust.

• The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems.

• The crust is made up of heavier rocks having a density of 3 g/cm3.

• The kind of rock seen in the oceanic crust is basalt.

• The mean density of material in the oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3.

• Silica (Si) and Aluminum (Al) are major constituent minerals. Hence it is often termed
as SIAL. Also, sometimes SIAL is used to refer to the Lithosphere.
The Mantle

• The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle.
• It is in a solid-state.
• It has a density higher than the crust portion.
• The thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
• The mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
• The asthenosphere is the upper portion of Mantle.
• It is the chief source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic
eruptions.
• The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called the lithosphere.
• The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and hence it
is also termed as SIMA

The Core

• The core-mantle boundary is positioned at the depth of 2,900 km.

• The inner core is in the solid-state whereas the outer core is in the liquid state.

• The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by nickel and iron.
Hence it is also called the “nife” layer.
Solar Eclipse

A solar eclipse happens when the Moon gets in the way of the Sun’s light and casts its
shadow on Earth. That means during the day, the Moon moves over the Sun and it gets dark.
This total eclipse happens about every year and a half somewhere on Earth. A partial eclipse,
when the Moon doesn’t completely cover the Sun, happens at least twice a year somewhere
on Earth.
Lunar Eclipse

During a lunar eclipse, Earth gets in the way of the Sun’s light hitting the Moon. That means
that during the night, a full moon fades away as Earth’s shadow covers it up.
The Moon can also look reddish because Earth’s atmosphere absorbs the other colors while it
bends some sunlight toward the Moon. Sunlight bending through the atmosphere and
absorbing other colors is also why sunsets are orange and red.
Remembering the Difference

It’s easy to get these two types of eclipses mixed up. An easy way to remember the
difference is in the name. The name tells you what gets darker when the eclipse happens. In
a solar eclipse, the Sun gets darker. In a lunar eclipse, the Moon gets darker.

What is an eclipse?
An eclipse is a celestial event that happens when a spacecraft or an astronomical body is
temporarily optically blocked by passing into another body’s shadow or by having another
object pass between it and the observer.

What are the two types of natural eclipses that can be observed from the Earth?
Solar eclipses and lunar eclipses are the two types of natural eclipses that can be observed
from the Earth.

What is a solar eclipse?

A solar eclipse happens when the moon comes in between the sun and the Earth. As a result,
the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching the Earth’s surface and casts a shadow on
it. This occurs during the new moon phase. We can observe up to 5 solar eclipses per year.

What are the three types of solar eclipses?

The three types of solar eclipse are partial, annular and total solar eclipse.

What is a lunar eclipse?

A lunar eclipse happens when the Earth comes in between the sun and the moon. As a result,
the Earth blocks the sun’s light from reaching the moon’s surface and casts its shadow on the
moon. It occurs on a full moon day. We can observe up to 3 lunar eclipses per year.
The term “microbes” is used to describe several different life forms with different sizes and
characteristics. A few of these microbes include:

• Bacteria

• Fungi

• Protists

• Viruses

• Archaea

Microbes can be useful as well as harmful. Certain microbes cause severe infections and
diseases and can also spoil food and other materials. While others play an important role in
maintaining environmental balance.

Microorganisms are omnipresent, they are found everywhere. They live in every nook and
corner you could possibly imagine. On your seat, under the table, over the roof, even on your
body parts, your palms, literally everywhere. They also dwell in extreme weather conditions
like the equator, poles, deserts, ice-cold water bodies, hot boilers etc and adapt accordingly.

Microorganisms And Us – Role Of Microorganisms

Microorganisms play a very integral part of our lives. Some are harmful while some are very
beneficial to man. Let us look at some of the microorganisms that are beneficial:

Friendly Microorganisms

Microorganisms are being used for a multitude of purposes. Since ages, it has been used in
the production of alcohol. They are also used in the preparation of cakes, bread, and curd.
Apart from this, some microbes help clean up the environment, such as bacteria. They are
also used for the following applications:

• Helps break down organic wastes into reusable substances which are harmless.

• Used in the preparation of medicine

• To increase the fertility of the soil by nitrogen fixation

Making Of Curd And Bread

The curd is obtained by the action of bacteria on milk. A bacterium named Lactobacillus is
present in the milk, which promotes the formation of curd by multiplying itself continuously
in milk. Bacteria are involved in the making of:

• Cheese

• Pickles

• Yeast and bacteria are important in the fermentation of dosa and idli batter

Yeast is used extensively in the baking industry to make pastries, cakes etc. They do so by
continuously reproducing and as they respire, they produce carbon dioxide as a result of
which dough increases in size due to bubble formation.

Commercial Use Of Microorganisms

Microorganisms such as yeast are grown on natural sugars to produce alcohol, wine, and
vinegar on a large scale. Fermentation is the process of converting sugar into alcohol. Yeasts
take part in fermentation.

Medicinal Use Of Microorganism

Microorganisms are the primary source of making antibiotics. Antibiotics are medicines that
stop or inhibit the growth of disease-causing microorganisms. Antibiotics are produced by
growing many fungi and bacteria and are used to treat numerable diseases. Few antibiotics
are:

• Erythromycin

• Amoxicillin

• Streptomycin

In animals, antibiotics are used to check microbial infections. They are used in plants to
control diseases as well.

Vaccine

On a large scale, vaccines are manufactured using microorganisms to protect animals and
humans from various diseases. Diseases such as smallpox, hepatitis, tuberculosis can be
prevented using vaccines.

How does a vaccine work?

Antibodies are produced whenever a disease-carrying microbe enters our body. These
antibodies help the body to combat the disease. Later, the body remembers how to fight
against that particular disease should it re-enter. These antibodies remain forever in our
bodies, and we remain protected from these microbes.

Increasing Soil Fertility

Some bacteria help in nitrogen fixation to enrich the soil and increase soil fertility. These
bacteria are called biological nitrogen fixers.

Cleaning The Environment

Microorganisms help in cleaning up the environment. They decompose dead and decaying
matter from plants and animals, convert them into simpler substances which are later used up
by other plants and animals. Thus, they are used to breakdown harmful substances.

Harmful Microorganisms

While most microorganisms are beneficial, some are very harmful to living organisms.
Pathogens are disease-causing microbes. These pathogens cause harm in many ways: either
by producing diseases, spoiling food, bringing about degradation in commercial products
like leather and clothing etc. Let us know more about their damaging activities

Disease-Causing Microorganisms In Humans

Communicable diseases are the diseases that spread through infected food, water, air or
physical contact from an infected person to a healthy person. These may spread through
droplets of moisture while sneezed through the air or by consuming contaminated water or
food. In some cases, diseases are spread by carriers. Carriers are insects and animals that
carry the disease-causing pathogens. Example: Housefly, female Anopheles mosquito carries
the parasite of malaria, dengue virus is carried by Female Aedes mosquito.

Some human diseases caused by microorganisms

Name of the disease Pathogen Transmission mode

Tuberculosis Bacteria Air

Chicken Pox Virus Contact/Air

Polio Virus Water/Air

Cholera Bacteria Water/Food

Malaria Protozoa Carrier (Mosquito)

Disease-Causing Microorganisms In Animals

Animals too are affected by the activity of microbes. For example, anthrax is caused by
bacteria and it is quite a deadly disease, affecting both human and cattle. Viruses can cause
foot and mouth disease.

Disease-Causing Microorganisms In Plants

Pathogenic microorganisms stay very active around plants and affect their normal life cycle,
hindering their growth and causing diseases. It affects and reduces the yield of potato, apple,
orange, rice, wheat, to name a few. However, they can be controlled using chemicals.

Name of the disease Pathogen Transmission mode

Citrus Canker Bacteria Air

Wheat leaf rust Fungi Seeds/Air

Yellow vein mosaic of Bhindi Virus Insect