ADVANCED COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND

NETWORK BASICS

NETWORKS

 A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers

and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow
sharing of resources and information Where at least one process in one device is able to
send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two
devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected
through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer
network.
 Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics, such as the
medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and
organizational scope.
 Communications protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information
in a computer network, and provide the basis for network programming. Well-known
communications protocols include Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is
ubiquitous in local area networks, and the Internet protocol suite, which defines a set of
protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, as
well as host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.
 Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering,
telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering,
since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.

Properties

Computer networks:
1. Facilitate communications
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant
messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
2. Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information
In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on
other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and
information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
3. Share network and computing resources
In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use resources
provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network
printer. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish
tasks.
4. May be insecure

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A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy computer viruses or
computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from
normally accessing the network (denial of service).
5. May interfere with other technologies
Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio communication, e.g.,
amateur radio. It may also interfere with last mile access technologies such as ADSL and
VDSL.
6. May be difficult to set up
A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It may also be very costly to set
up an effective computer network in a large organization or company.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

A network topology is the arrangement of elements (such as data links or nodes) in a network. It
is the physical arrangement of terminals in a local area network. The choice of topology is
dependent upon

 type and number of equipment being used

 planned applications and rate of data transfers
 required response times
 cost

Definitions of hub on the Web:

A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to
connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one
port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets. A
passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or
segment) to another. ...
Node – a terminal point in a communications network.
Workstation – A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed to
support the work of one person.

MESH TOPOLOGY

 Mesh topology work on the concept of routes.

 In Mesh topology, message sent to the destination can take any possible shortest, easiest route
to reach its destination.
 It works by sending data along the fastest route from one device to another as all devices are
either directly or indirectly connected creating many pathways for data to travel
 Internet employs the Mesh topology and the message finds its route for its destination. Router
works in find the routes for the messages and in reaching them to their destinations.
 It is the topology in which every devices connects to every other device is called a full Mesh
topology unlike in the partial mesh in which every device is indirectly connected to the other
devices.

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 In Other topologies like star and bus, messages are usually broadcasted to every computer,
especially in bus topology.
 Similarly in the Ring topology message can travel in only one direction i.e clockwise or
anticlockwise.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Extremely fault tolerant
4. Provides security and privacy.
5. Multiple routes for data to travel if one device fails
6. Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic.
7. Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data transfer
doesn’t get affected.
8. Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Cabling cost is more. Very expensive

2. Installation and configuration are difficult if the connectivity increases
3. Bulk wiring is required (unless wireless)
4. Expensive
5. Difficult to implement
6. Difficult to administer
7. Difficult to troubleshoot problems like cable faults
8. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
9. Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
10. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.

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STAR TOPOLOGY

 Is a network in which nodes are connected to a central component as its hub?

 The central component can be a switching device like a switch or PABX [private automatic
branch exchange], a computer [minicomputer to which workstations or PCs are connected] or
just a wiring center that is a common termination point for the nodes, called a hub.
 A HUB is a component that serves as a common termination point for multiple nodes and that
can relay [store & forward] signals along the appropriate paths.
 All computers are connected to a central device, which provides more resilience for the
network.
 It is the most prevalent topology in use today.

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Advantages of star topology

 It is easy to add or remove nodes/workstation

 Because each node has its own link to the central node, the star is more reliable than other
topologies.
 When one system goes down, it does not bring the rest of the network down.
 Easy to install
 Easy to add devices to network
 One break does not bring whole network down
 Easier to troubleshoot
 Widely used
 Centralized management
 Full utilization of resources i.e. printer, sharing of processor
 Direct connection of terminals to the main processor, means that if one terminal breaks down
it won’t affect other terminals.

Disadvantages of star topology

 All traffic between two nodes passes through the central node. If the central component
breaks down, the whole network is down.
 The number of ports of the central component limits the number of connected nodes.
 Costs are usually higher than with bus or ring networks
 If you have only one central device and it fails, it brings the network down
 A star topology requires a lot of cabling since all data path connections must be to the central
node.
 There is no direct communication between or among workstations
 Sharing of processor delays in the processing of jobs.

BUS/LINEAR TOPOLOGY

 Describes a network in which each node is connected to a common line.

 This is also sometimes called a horizontal, multidrop or multi point network.

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 Though it is preferable to use the last terms for connections with a
mainframe/minicomputer as in the following diagram.
 In a bus messages travel in both directions and do not go through the individual nodes but
every node can hear each message as it goes past.
 When the signal/message reaches an end of the bus, a terminator absorbs it, to keep it
from traveling back again along the bus line, to avoid interference with other messages
already in the line.
 The data/signals/messages are transmitted in packets along the bus.
 Each packet is send with a receiver identification code that is an address of destination
and all computers on the network are permanently on the alert for any messages coming
to them.

Advantages of Bus Network/topology

 When a node breaks down, the network does not break down.
 A bus uses relatively less cables compared to other topologies
 Direct communication due to direct connection.
 Fast processing since there is no Host computer
 Once a cable has been laid down any new equipment can easily be connected to the
network by a simple tapping into the cable.
 Easy to install
 Costs are usually low
 Easy to add systems to network
 Great for small networks

Disadvantages of Bus Network/topology

 In a bus topology it is not always easy to add a node. [E.g. installation of extra tap in
thick Ethernet].
 Diagnosis/trouble shooting can be difficult.
 Expensive to run [several processors] – Detectors.
 Communication between components of the network traveling in opposite direction along
the bus can collide causing loss of transmitted information.
 Because of this collision a detection system has to be present to control the re-
transmission of lost information thereby making it a more expensive option
 Out-of-date technology
 If cable breaks, whole network is down
 Can be difficult to troubleshoot
 Unmanageable in a large network
 If a malicious user were on this network and utilized a packet capture program, he could
see every conversation that occurred between machines.

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RING NETWORK
 A ring network has nodes connected in a circular way.
 Each node has two neighboring nodes
 Data flow is unidirectional.
 A message is forwarded in one direction until it reaches the destination with intermediate
nodes acting as relay [store & forward] units.
 The destination node copies the message and passes the message again to the ring.
 This message then continues to circulate around the ring back to the source.

 A network topology in the form of a closed loop or circle. Each node in the network is
connected to the next, and messages move in one direction around the system. When a
message arrives at a node, the node examines the address information in the message. If the
address matches the node's address, the message is accepted; otherwise the node regenerates
the signal and places the message back on the network for the next node in the system. ...

ADVANTAGES of ring network

 The message return provides the source with a form of acknowledgement. The node
removes its own message from the ring.
 Little cabling needed compared to Star.
 Each node acts as relay unit.
 Packet collisions do not occur because information is traveling in one direction.

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 Relatively cheap to install.
 Efficient and accurate means of communication.
 There is no dependency on the host computer or file server as each node controls
transmission to and from itself.
 When the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus
topology.
 There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
 Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
 Each computer has equal access to resource.
 Token ring technology reduces the need of server or central hub to manage the
workstations.
 The message return provides the source with a form of acknowledgement. The node
removes its own message from the ring.
 Little cabling needed compared to Star.
 Each node acts as relay unit.
 Packet collisions do not occur because information is traveling in one direction.
 Relatively cheap to install.
 Efficient and accurate means of communication.
 There is no dependency on the host computer or file server as each node controls
transmission to and from itself.

DISADVANTAGES of Ring Topology

 If one node is disrupted then the whole network goes down.

 Only one machine can transmit on the network at a time.
 The failure of one machine will cause the entire network to fail.
 Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network.
 If one of the nodes breaks down, the whole network will be down.
 If the network cable breaks the whole network is affected
 Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network.
 If one of the nodes breaks down, the whole network will be down.
 If the network cable breaks the whole network is affected

TREE TOPOLOGY
 Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently.
 This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus topology.
 This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network.
 Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices.
 The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached.
 The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper
layer and lower layer.
 The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of
the tree from which all nodes fork.
 All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.

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 Similar to the Bus topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even
though it is not the single point of failure.
 Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network into
unreachable segment.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
 Extension of bus and star topologies.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

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 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.

Tree Topology

HYBRID TOPOLOGY
 A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology.
 Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
 The diagram below represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology.
 The combining topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain
topologies.
 Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to
them are mostly Star topology networks.
 Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology

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Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

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WIRELESS NETWORK TOPOLOGY

 Wireless network topology is a logical topology.

 It shows how the computers connect and interact each other when there is no physical
connection, no cables connecting the computers.
 The computers communicate each other directly, using the wireless devices. Wireless
networks can have infrastructure or ad hoc topology.
 The infrastructure wireless network topology is a hub and spoke topology.
 It is also named “one to many” topology.
 There is a single central wireless access point (WAP) in the infrastructure wireless network
topology.
 The ad hoc wireless network topology is a “many to many” topology.
 There is no central access point, every computer of the network communicates directly with
other computer in the ad hoc wireless network topology.

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LANs and WANs

LAN WAN
Stands For Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Covers Local areas only (e.g., homes, offices, schools) Large geographic areas (e.g., cities, states, nations)
WAN (Wide Area Network) is a computer network
LAN (Local Area Network) is a computer
that covers a broad area (e.g., any network whose
Definition network covering a small geographic area, like a
communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or
home, office, school, or group of buildings.
national boundaries over a long distance).
Speed High speed (1000 mbps) Less speed (150 mbps)
WANs have a lower data transfer rate compared to
Data transfer rates LANs have a high data transfer rate.
LANs.
Example The network in an office building can be a LAN The Internet is a good example of a WAN
WANs tend to use technologies like MPLS, ATM,
Tend to use certain connectivity technologies,
Technology Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over longer
primarily Ethernet and Token Ring
distances
Computers connected to a wide-area network are
One LAN can be connected to other LANs over often connected through public networks, such as the
Connection
any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. telephone system. They can also be connected through
leased lines or satellites.
Layers 3 devices Routers, Multi-layer Switches and
Layer 2 devices like switches and bridges. Layer
Components Technology specific devices like ATM or Frame-relay
1 devices like hubs and repeaters.
Switches etc.
LANs tend to have fewer problems associated
WANs tend to be less fault tolerant as they consist of
Fault Tolerance with them, as there are smaller number of systems
large number of systems.
to deal with.
Data Transmission Experiences more data transmission errors as
Experiences fewer data transmission errors
Error compared to LAN
WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one
Typically owned, controlled, and managed by a organization but rather exist under collective or
Ownership
single person or organization. distributed ownership and management over long
distances.
For WANs since networks in remote areas have to be
If there is a need to set-up a couple of extra
connected the set-up costs are higher. However
Set-up costs devices on the network, it is not very expensive to
WANs using public networks can be setup very
do that.
cheaply using just software (VPN etc).
Have a large geographical range generally spreading
Geographical Have a small geographical range and do not need
across boundaries and need leased telecommunication
Spread any leased telecommunication lines
lines
Because it covers a relatively small geographical
Maintaining WAN is difficult because of its wider
Maintenance costs area, LAN is easier to maintain at relatively low
geographical coverage and higher maintenance costs.
costs.
Bandwidth High bandwidth is available for transmission. Low bandwidth is available for transmission.
Congestion Less congestion More congestion

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There are two types of network: LAN and WAN.

LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

 LAN is a short form of local area network. Local area network is a network for
connecting computers and other computer accessories with each other.
 Computer accessories include printers, scanners, game consoles etc.
 LAN is used to make the connection of computers within one building.
 To make the connection between the computers we use communication devices and
cables.
 Communication devices are hubs, switches, and routers. Ethernet cables are connected to
hubs, switches, and routers by rj45 ports.
 A LAN is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small geographic area.
 It typically connects workstations, personal computers, printers, servers, and other
devices.
 LANs offer computer users many advantages, including shared access to devices and
applications, file exchange between connected users, and communication between users
via electronic mail and other applications.
 The development of standard networking protocols and media has resulted in worldwide
proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.

Local area network (LAN) diagram

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What is a virtual local area network (VLAN?)

In a virtual area network, different switches of LAN are logically connected to each other to make
the single switch. This type of network is used to logically differentiate and limit the different
level of computers. For example, there are different departments in the office like the accounting
department, support department, and administrative department. All the computers of these
departments are logically connected to the same switch but one department computer cannot
access another department computer. So same department computers can communicate with each
other but different department computers cannot communicate with each other.

Advantages of local area network (LAN)

Sharing of resources:

All the resources are attached to one network and if any computer needs any resources then it can
be shared with the required computer. Types of resources are the DVD drive, printers, scanners,
modems and hard drives. So there is no need to purchase separate resources for each computer
and it saves money.

Client and server relationship:

All the data from attached computers can be stored in one server. If any computer (Client) needs
data then that computer user can simply log in and access the data from the server. For example
movies and songs can be stored on the server and can be accessed by any authorized user (Client
computer).

Sharing of the internet:

In offices and net cafes, we can see that one internet connection is shared between all computers.
This is also the type of LAN technology in which main internet cable is attached to one server
and distributed amoung attached computers by the operating system.

Software program sharing:

Software programs can also be shared on the LAN. You can use single licensed software and any
user can use it in the network. It is expensive to buy a license for each user in the network so
sharing software program is easy and cost-effective.

Securing of data:

Keeping data on the server is more secure. And if you want to change or remove any data you can
do it easily on one server computer and other computers can access updated data. You can also
give access or revoke access to specific users so that only authorized users can access the data in
the network.

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Communication is easy, fast, and time-saving:

In LAN computers can exchange data and messages in the easy and fast way. It also saves time
and makes our work fast. Every user can share messages and data with any other user on LAN.
The user can log in from any computer on the network and access the same data placed on the
server.

Computer identification:

Each computer is given a MAC address and is temporarily stored in the switch or router during
communication. All computers on the LAN are identified by MAC addresses which are used to
send and receive messages and data. Note that MAC address is stored in the network adapter that
is attached in the motherboard of each computer. In old computers, network adapters were not
built in with motherboards but in modern computers, they come built-in with motherboards.

Disadvantages of local area network (LAN)

Data security problem:

If the server computer is not set up correctly and there is a leak in security then unauthorized
users can access the data also. So there should be privacy policy and rules set up correctly on the
server.

Limitation of distance:

Local area networks are usually made within a building or nearby building and cannot extend to
the wider area.

Server crashes may affect all computers:

If any file on the server is corrupted or hard drive fails then all the attached computers face
problems in functioning properly.

Setting up a LAN is expensive:

It is expensive to set up LAN because there is special software required to make a server. Also,
communication devices like hubs, switches, routers, cables are costly. The special administrator is
required to maintain and troubleshoot LAN for a large office.

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WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)

A network consisting of computers of LAN's connected across a distance WAN can cover small
to large distances, using different topologies such as telephone lines, fiber optic cabling, satellite
transmissions and microwave transmissions. Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger
geographic areas. A WAN is a Wide Area Network covering a large geographical area.

Wide area network (WAN) is a type of network that provides transmission of voice, data,
images, and videos over the large geographical area. WAN is made with the
combinations of LAN and MAN. The transmission of data is carried out with the help of
hubs, switches, fiber optics, modem, and routers. To transfer data from any computer
over the internet we use some technologies including:

1. ISDN (Integrated service digital network)

2. SMDS (Switched multimegabit data server)
3. SONET (Synchronous optical network)
4. HDLC (High data link control)
5. SDLC (Synchronous data link control)
6. Frame relay

A WAN is a Wide Area Network covering a large geographical area.

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Wide
area network (WAN) diagram

Advantages of a wide area network (WAN)

Covers large geographical area:
Wan covers a large geographical area of 1000 km or more If your office is in different
cities or countries then you can connect your office branches through wan. ISP (Internet
service provider) can give you leased lines by which you can connect different branch
offices together.

Centralized data:
Your company doesn’t need to buy email, files, and backup servers, they can all reside on
head office. All office branches can share the data through the head office server. You
can get back up, support, and other useful data from the head office and all data are
synchronized with all other office branches.

Get updated files and data:

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Software companies work over the live server to exchange updated files. So all the coders
and office staff get updated version of files within seconds.

A lot of application to exchange messages:

With IOT (Internet of things) and new LAN technologies, messages are being transmitted
fast. A lot of web applications are available like Facebook messenger, WhatsApp, Skype
by which you can communicate with friends via text, voice and video chat.

Sharing of software and resources:

Like LAN we can share software applications and other resources like a hard drive, RAM
with other users on the internet. In web hosting, we share computer resources among
many websites.

Global business:
Now everyone with computer skills can do business on the internet and expand his
business globally. There are many types of business like a shopping cart, sale, and
purchase of stocks etc.

High bandwidth:
If you get leased lines for your company then it gives high bandwidth than normal
broadband connection. You can get a high data transfer rate that can increase your
company productivity.

Distribute workload and decrease travel charges:

Another benefit of wide area network is that you can distribute your work to other
locations. For example, you have an office in the U.S then you can hire people from any
other country and communicate with them easily over WAN. It also reduces your travel
charges as you can monitor the activities of your team online.

Disadvantages of a wide area network (WAN)

Security problems:
WAN has more security problem as compare to MAN and LAN. WAN has many
technologies combined with each other which can create a security gap.

Needs firewall and antivirus software:

As data transferred on the internet can be accessed and changed by hackers so firewall
needs to be enabled in the computer. Some people can also inject a virus into the
computer so antivirus software needs to be installed. Other security software also needs
to be installed on different points in WAN.

The setup cost is high:

Setting up WAN for the first time in office costs higher money. It may involve
purchasing routers, switches, and extra security software.

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Troubleshooting problems:
As WAN covers a lot of areas so fixing the problem in it is difficult. Most of WAN wires
go into the sea and wires get broken sometimes. It involves a lot of resources to fix lines
under the sea. In ISP (Internet service provider) head office many of internet lines,
routers are mixed up in rooms and fixing issues on the internet requires a full-time staff.

Server down and disconnection issue:

In some areas, ISP faces problems due to electricity supply or bad lines structure.
Customers often face connectivity issues or slow Internet speed issues. The solution to
this is to purchase a dedicated line from ISP.

Examples of wide area network (WAN)

Some examples of WAN are below:
 Internet
 U.S defense department
 Most big banks
 Airline companies
 Stock brokerages
 Railway reservations counter
 Large telecommunications companies like Airtel store IT department
 Satellite systems
 Cable companies
 Network providers

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

NETWORKS
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORKING & SHARING RESOURCES OVER A
NETWORK.

ADVANTAGES OF INSTALLING A NETWORK

1. Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
Without a network, copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the
disks from one computer to another shares files. This method of transferring files
(referred to as sneaker-net) is very time-consuming.

2. Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at

considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies.
Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier
upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done only once, on the file

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server, instead of on all the individual workstations. Low cost. Single device
shared by several machines reduce the need to buy many peripheral devices.
Resource sharing also serves money. An installation can have several low-cost
work stations accessing a single file-server. That puts a lot of processing power
on the user’s desk without the expense of large mainframe systems.

3. Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit,"

so that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also,
passwords can be established for specific directories to restrict access to
authorized users. Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on
stand-alone machines.

4. Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a

network at a school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one
computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy
installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the
building. Site licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several stand-alone
licenses.

5. Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds

stand-alone computers. Some organizations cannot afford enough laser printers,
fax machines, modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer.
However, if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be
shared by many users. Resource sharing is the primary benefit of networking. It
allows users on different machines to share modems, printers, tape drives and
disk space, for example, users can send network messages requesting to use a
central printer, allowing everyone to share that resource. Users realize the benefit
of sharing information. Data files can be shared between machines on the
network, allowing users to see invoices, results of surveys, company newsletters,
and other information.

6. Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to

install an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication
for all school personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general information
to the entire school staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to
communicate with teachers and peers at their own school. If the LAN is
connected to the Internet, students can communicate with others throughout the
world.

7. Flexible Access. Networks allow data & information access from any computer
in the campus.

8. Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice)

allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example,
educators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously
contribute their ideas about new curriculum standards to the same document and

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 ADVANCED COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
spreadsheets.

9. It turns isolated computers into integrated systems, providing an environment

where resources are shared and capacity problems reduced.
10. It allows growth. If more computing resources become a need, a new computer
can be installed, added to the network, and immediately accessed by other
machines and users.
11. High reliability. If applications share data, the data can be replicated across
several machines. If one machine goes down, another can take its place and
provide the data to the applications.
12. A file server is easy to back up as all the data is stored in one place

DISADVANTAGES

Disadvantages of Installing a Network

1. Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time,
the initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and
software are expensive, and the installation may require the services of a
technician. Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.

2. Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires

considerable time and expertise. Many organizations have installed a network,
only to find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
Increased administration. There will be need for a systems administrator to tune
the network, monitor the network, administer database files, and ensure network
integrity (ensure the network runs smoothly)

3. File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure
than any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network
may come to a halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to
necessary programs and files.

4. Cables May Break. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can
stop the entire network.

5. Security concerns. Some user can gain unauthorized access to private data. There
is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures
are needed to prevent such abuse. Of all the disadvantages, the greatest drawback
is security concerns; therefore, network security is a priority in the development
of network applications.

6. Network failure. As applications increase their use of a network, network failures

become catastrophic.
7. Virus attack. A networked system is vulnerable to destructive network messages.
For example, a message that sparks damaging activity (like erasing files) may

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 ADVANCED COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
enter the system via the network.Viruses can spread to other computers
throughout a computer network.

8. Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network

manager usually needs to be employed.
9. If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. E-
mail might still work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used
as stand alones.

NETWORK SECURITY

The field of network security in general and of TCP/IP security in particular is too wide
to be dealt with we take the most common security exposures and measures to counteract
them. Because many, if not all, security solutions are based on cryptographic algorithms.

Security Issues
This section gives an overview of some of the most common attacks on computer
security, and it presents viable solutions to those exposures and lists actual
implementations.

Common Attacks
For thousands of years, people have been guarding the gates to where they store their
treasures and assets. Failure to do so usually resulted in being robbed, neglected by
society or even killed. Though things are usually not as dramatic anymore, they can still
become very bad. Modern day I/T managers have realized that it is equally important to
protect their communications networks against intruders and saboteurs from both inside
and outside. We do not have to be overly paranoid to find some good reasons why this is
the case:

 Tapping the wire: to get access to clear text data and passwords
 Impersonation: to get unauthorized access to data or to create unauthorized e-
mails, orders, etc.
 Denial-of-service: to render network resources non-functional
 Replay of messages: to get access to and change information in transit
 Guessing of passwords: to get access to information and services that would
normally be denied.
 Guessing of keys: to get access to encrypted data and passwords (brute-force
attack, chosen cipher text attack, chosen plaintext attack)
 Viruses, Trojan horses and logic bombs: to destroy data

Though these attacks are not exclusively specific to TCP/IP networks, they should be
considered potential threats to anyone who is going to base his/her network on TCP/IP,
which is what the majority of enterprises, organizations and small businesses around the
world are doing today. Hackers (more precisely, crackers) do likewise and hence find
easy prey.

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Observing the Basics

Before even thinking about implementing advanced security techniques such as
the ones mentioned in the following sections, you should make sure that basic
security rules are in place:

 Passwords: Make sure that passwords are enforced to be of a minimum length

(typically six to eight characters), to contain at least one numeric character, to be
different from the user ID to which they belong, and to be changed at least once
every two months.

 User IDs: Make sure that every user has a password and that users are locked out
after several logon attempts with wrong passwords (typically five attempts). Keep the
passwords to superuser accounts (root, supervisor, administrator,etc.) among a very
limited circle of trusted system, network and security administrators.

 System defaults: Make sure that default user IDs are either disabled or have
passwords that adhere to the minimum requirements stated above. Likewise, make
sure that only those services are enabled that are required for a system to fulfill its
designated role.

 Physical access: Make sure that access to the locations where your systems and users
physically reside is controlled appropriately. Information security begins at the
receptionist, not at the corporate firewall.

 Help desk: Make sure that callers are properly identified by help desk representatives
or system administrators before they give out "forgotten" passwords or user IDs.
Social engineering is often the first step to attack a computer network.

Solutions to Security Issues

Therefore, a combination of several such solutions should be considered in order to
guarantee a certain level of safety and security.
 Encryption: to protect data and passwords
 Authentication and authorization: to prevent improper access
 Integrity checking and message authentication codes (MACs): to protect against
the improper alteration of messages
 Non-repudiation: to make sure that an action cannot be denied by the person who
performed it
 Digital signatures and certificates: to ascertain a party's identity
 One-time passwords and two-way random number handshakes: to mutually
authenticate parties of a conversation
 Frequent key refresh, strong keys and prevention of deriving future keys: to
protect against breaking of keys (crypto-analysis)
 Address concealment: to protect against denial-of-service attacks
 Content inspection: to check application-level data for malicious content before
delivering it into the secure network

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Setting up a LAN is expensive:

It is expensive to set up LAN because there is special software required to make a server. Also,
communication devices like hubs, switches, routers, cables are costly. The special administrator is
required to maintain and troubleshoot LAN for a large office.

Differences between Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area

Network (WAN)

• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a private computer network that connects computers in
small physical areas. Example: A small office, A Single building, Multiple buildings
inside a campus etc. Wide Area Networks (WAN) is type of computer network to
connect offices which are located in different geographical locations. Wide Area Network
(WAN) depends mainly on Internet Service Providers (ISPs) for connection solutions.

• Local Area Network (LAN) has higher bandwidth rates. Current Local Area Networks
(LANs) runs on bandwidths of 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps or 10 Gbps. Wide Area Networks
(WAN) has lower bandwidth rates compared with Local Area Network (LAN). Current
Wide Area Networks runs on bandwidths of 4 Mbps, 8 Mbps, 20 Mbps, 50 Mbps or 100
Mbps.

• Local Area Network (LAN) bandwidth rates are almost constant. Local Area Network
(LAN) bandwidth rates are dependent on characteristics of the LAN technology in use
(Normally FastEthernet or Gigabit Ethernet). Since most of Wide Area Networks (WAN)
connectivity solutions are dependent on Internet Service Providers (ISPs), budget related
constraints affect the quality of WAN.

• Most of the current Local Area Networks (LANs) use Ethernet as the LAN Standard
(FastEthernet 100 Mbps, or Gigabit Ethernet 1/10 Gbps). WAN uses technologies like
VPN (Virtual Private Network) over Internet, MPLS, FrameRelay, or Leased Lines as
WAN connectivity solutions.

• Since Local Area Networks (LANs) are private networks, managed by dedicated local
network administrators, Local Area Networks (LANs) are more reliable and secure than
Wide Area Networks (WANs). Since Wide Area Networks (WANs) involve 3rd party
service providers, WAN networks are less reliable and secure.

• Initial set-up costs for Local Area Networks (LANs) are low as the devices required to
set up the networks are cheap. Initial set-up costs for Wide Area Networks (WANs) are
high, because of the devices (Routers, Firewalls etc), cables and manpower required.

• Local Area Networks (LANs) running costs are less Wide Area Networks (WANs)
running costs are high. Wide Area Networks (WANs) normally have recurring monthly
cost as Service Provider access fees.

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• Wide Area Networks (WANs) are more congested than Local Area Networks (LANs).

Comparison Chart

BASIS OF
LAN MAN WAN
COMPARISON
Metropolitan Area
Expands to Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Network
A network that connects a It covers relatively It spans large locality and
Meaning group of computers in a large region such as connects countries together.
small geographical area. cities, towns. Example Internet.
Ownership of
Private Private or Public Private or Public
Network
Design and
Easy Difficult Difficult
maintenance
Propagation Delay Short Moderate Long
Speed High Moderate Low
Fault Tolerance More Tolerant Less Tolerant Less Tolerant
Congestion Less More More
Used for College, School, Hospital. Small towns, City. Country/Continent.

LAN WAN
Stands For Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Local areas only (e.g., homes, offices, Large geographic areas (e.g., cities, states,
Covers
schools) nations)
WAN (Wide Area Network) is a computer
LAN (Local Area Network) is a
network that covers a broad area (e.g., any
computer network covering a small
Definition network whose communications links cross
geographic area, like a home, office,
metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries
school, or group of buildings.
over a long distance).
Speed High speed (1000 mbps) Less speed (150 mbps)
Data transfer WANs have a lower data transfer rate compared
LANs have a high data transfer rate.
rates to LANs.
The network in an office building can
Example The Internet is a good example of a WAN
be a LAN
Tend to use certain connectivity WANs tend to use technologies like MPLS,
Technology technologies, primarily Ethernet and ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity
Token Ring over longer distances
Computers connected to a wide-area network are
One LAN can be connected to other
often connected through public networks, such as
Connection LANs over any distance via telephone
the telephone system. They can also be connected
lines and radio waves.
through leased lines or satellites.
Layer 2 devices like switches and Layers 3 devices Routers, Multi-layer Switches
Components bridges. Layer 1 devices like hubs and and Technology specific devices like ATM or
repeaters. Frame-relay Switches etc.

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 LAN WAN
LANs tend to have fewer problems
Fault associated with them, as there are WANs tend to be less fault tolerant as they
Tolerance smaller number of systems to deal consist of large number of systems.
with.
Data
Experiences fewer data transmission Experiences more data transmission errors as
Transmission
errors compared to LAN
Error
WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any
Typically owned, controlled, and
one organization but rather exist under collective
Ownership managed by a single person or
or distributed ownership and management over
organization.
long distances.
For WANs since networks in remote areas have
If there is a need to set-up a couple of
to be connected the set-up costs are higher.
Set-up costs extra devices on the network, it is not
However WANs using public networks can be
very expensive to do that.
setup very cheaply using just software (VPN etc).
Have a small geographical range and Have a large geographical range generally
Geographical
do not need any leased spreading across boundaries and need leased
Spread
telecommunication lines telecommunication lines
Because it covers a relatively small Maintaining WAN is difficult because of its
Maintenance
geographical area, LAN is easier to wider geographical coverage and higher
costs
maintain at relatively low costs. maintenance costs.
High bandwidth is available for
Bandwidth Low bandwidth is available for transmission.
transmission.
Congestion Less congestion More congestion

Personal area network (PAN)

Personal area network (PAN) is an interconnection between different devices like
smartphone, tablet, computer and other digital devices. PAN is used for a personal
purpose like data sharing among devices and it has a range of 10 meters. Some type of
personal area networks is wired like USB while others are wireless like Bluetooth.
Wireless personal area network is also known as WPAN.

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 Personal Area Network (PAN) Diagram

Advantages of personal area network

No extra space requires:

Personal area network does not require extra wire or space. For connecting two devices
you only need to enable Bluetooth in both devices to start sharing data among them. For
example, connecting wireless keyboard and mouse with the tablet through Bluetooth.

Connect to many devices at a time:

Many devices can be connected to one device at the same time in a personal area
network. You can connect one mobile to many other mobiles or tablets to share files.

Cost effective:

No extra wires are needed in this type of network. Also, no extra data charges are
involved so PAN is an inexpensive way of communication.

Easy to use:

It is easy to use. No advanced setup is required.

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Reliable:

If you use this type of data connection within 10 meters then your network is stable and
reliable.

Secure:

This network is secured because all the devices are authorized before data sharing. Third
party injection and data hacking are not possible in PAN.

Used in office, conference, and meetings:

Infrared is the technology used in TV remotes, AC remotes, and other devices. Bluetooth,
infrared and other types of PAN is used to interconnect digital devices in offices,
meetings, and conferences.

Synchronize data between different devices:

One person can synchronize several devices i.e. download, upload and exchanging data
among devices.

Portable:

A person can move devices as it is a wireless network and data exchange is not affected.
That mean PAN is portable as well.

Disadvantages of personal area network

Less distance range:

Signal range is maximum 10 meters which makes limitation for long distance sharing.

Interfere with radio signals:

As personal area network also use infrared so it can interfere with radio signals and data
can be dropped.

Slow data transfer:

Bluetooth and infrared have a slow data transfer rate as compared to another type of
networks like LAN (local area network).

Health problem:

In some cases, PAN uses microwave signals in some digital devices which have a bad
effect on the human body like brain and heart problems may occur.

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Costly in terms of communication devices:

Personal area network is used in digital devices which are costly so it is another
disadvantage of PAN. Examples are smartphones, PDA, laptops, and digital cameras.

Infrared signals travel in a straight line:

TV remote use infrared signals which have a problem that they travel in straight line. So
this counts another disadvantage of PAN.

Examples of personal area network

Some examples of PAN are:

· Wireless keyboards
· Wireless Mice
· Smartphones
· TV remotes
· Wireless printers
· Gaming consoles
· Smartphone technologies include Infrared, Bluetooth, FireWire, ZigBee,
Ultrawideband, Wibree, wireless USB

DEFINE THE TERM NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM (NOS) AND STATE THE
PURPOSE OF A NOS IN A NETWORK SYSTEM

NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM (NOS)

· Is the software that allows multiple computers to communicate, share files and hardware
devices with one another.
· Some examples of network operating systems include novell netware, microsoft windows
nt, microsoft windows 2000, microsoft windows xp, sun solaris, linux, etc.

The salient features of network operating systems are:

· Basic operating system features support like protocol support, processor support,
hardware detection and multiprocessing support for applications
· Security features like authentication, restrictions, authorizations and access
control
· Features for file, Web service, printing and replication
· Directory and name services management
· User management features along with provisions for remote access and system
management

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DESCRIBE THE FOLLOWING FOUR COMMONLY USED
NETWORKING COMMUNICATION MEDIA:
TRANSMISSION MEDIA

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Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to receiver. We
use different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through
electrical or electromagnetic signals.

An electrical signal is in the form of current. An electromagnetic signal is series of

electromagnetic energy pulses at various frequencies. These signals can be transmitted through
copper wires, optical fibers, atmosphere, water and vacuum Different Medias have different
properties like bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance. Transmission
media is also called Communication channel.

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Types of Transmission Media

Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.

Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media:

Bound transmission media are the cables that are tangible or have physical existence and are
limited by the physical geography. Popular bound transmission media in use are:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

2. Shielded Twisted Pair
3. Coaxial Cable
4. Optical Fiber

Each of them has its own characteristics like transmission speed, effect of noise, physical
appearance, cost etc.

Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media:

Unbound transmission media are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables. These
media are not bounded by physical geography. This type of transmission is called Wireless
communication. Nowadays wireless communication is becoming popular. Wireless LANs are
being installed in office and college campuses. This transmission uses

1. Microwave,
2. Radio wave,
3. Infra-red
4. Bluetooth
5. Wi-Fi
6. Satellite Communication
7. Lasers

Are some of popular unbound transmission media?

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 DESCRIBE THE FOLLOWING COMMUNICATION
DEVICES
1. Hubs
2. Repeaters
3. Routers
4. Bridges
5. Gateway
6. Modems

Networking devices hold the key to generate a network through which

communication can occur. These devices are responsible smooth data transmission
among different nodes of same network and/or nodes of different network.

There are five basic devices which are used for data transmission. These are:

Networking Devices

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