Explain FLYNN Classification with suitable examples.

Answer: FLYNN Classification categorizes computer architectures based on the number of instruction
streams (I) and data streams (D) they can handle concurrently. It defines four categories:

SISD (Single Instruction, Single Data): Traditional von Neumann architecture where a single instruction
stream operates on a single data stream. Example: Basic personal computers.

SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data): A single instruction stream controls multiple processing
elements operating on separate data streams simultaneously. Example: Graphics processing units
(GPUs).

MISD (Multiple Instruction, Single Data): Multiple instruction streams operate on a single data stream
concurrently. This architecture is rare in practice.

MIMD (Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data): Multiple instruction streams control multiple processing
elements, each operating on different data streams independently. Example: Cluster computing
systems.

Explain floating-point representation technique for IEEE 754 standard.

Answer: The IEEE 754 standard defines the format for representing floating-point numbers in
computers. It specifies formats for single precision (32 bits) and double precision (64 bits)
floating-point numbers. In the single precision format:

1 bit represents the sign of the number.

8 bits represent the exponent using biased notation.

23 bits represent the significand (mantissa) with an implicit leading bit.

The exponent bias allows both positive and negative exponents to be represented. This format
provides a wide range of representable numbers with variable precision. It is widely used in scientific
and engineering computations.

Describe sign extension technique for signed number representation.

Answer: Sign extension is a technique used to convert a signed binary number from a shorter length
to a longer length while preserving its signed value. In sign extension:

If the original number is positive, the additional bits added during extension are filled with zeros.
If the original number is negative (i.e., its most significant bit is 1), the additional bits are filled with
ones to preserve the negative sign.

For example, extending the 4-bit signed number "1010" to 8 bits would result in "11111010" because
the original number is negative (the most significant bit is 1).

A machine has a 32-bit architecture, with 1-word long instructions. It has 64 registers, each of which is
32-bit long. It needs to support 45 instructions, which have an immediate operand in addition to two
register operands. Assuming that the immediate operand is an unsigned integer, What is the
maximum value of the immediate operand?

Answer: In a 32-bit architecture, the immediate operand typically occupies a portion of the instruction
word. Since the instruction word is 32 bits long and includes the opcode, we need to calculate the
remaining bits available for the immediate operand.

Each instruction needs to support two register operands and one immediate operand, resulting in 32 -
(2 * 32) = -32 bits available for the immediate operand.

However, since the immediate operand is unsigned, all 32 bits can be used to represent positive
integers.

Therefore, the maximum value of the immediate operand is 2^32 - 1 = 4294967295.

State the differences between Hardwired and Micro-programmed Control Unit.

Answer:

Hardwired Control Unit:

It is implemented using combinational logic circuits.

Instructions are decoded directly into control signals.

It provides fast execution since there is no additional overhead for decoding instructions.

It is challenging to modify or update the control logic.

Example: Basic CPU architectures like MIPS.

Micro-programmed Control Unit:

It is implemented using microinstructions stored in control memory.

Instructions are decoded into microinstructions, which generate control signals.

It may introduce additional overhead due to the need to fetch microinstructions.

Example: Complex CPU architectures like x86.

Explain 4-bit Ripple Carry adder using Full Adder with a suitable block diagram:

Answer: A 4-bit Ripple Carry adder is a combinational digital circuit used to add two 4-bit binary
numbers. It consists of four full adders connected in cascade, where each full adder computes the sum
of two bits along with the carry-in from the previous stage. Here's a suitable block diagram:

Input A3 ------\

| _______

Input A2 ------|-----| Full |----- Sum S3

| | Adder |

Input A1 ------|-----|_______|----- Sum S2

| |_______|----- Sum S1

Input A0 ------|-------------------|_______|----- Sum S0

Input B3 ------|------- Carry-In C4

Input B2 ------|------- Carry-In C3

Input B1 ------|------- Carry-In C2

Input B0 ------|------- Carry-In C1

In this diagram:

A3, A2, A1, A0 and B3, B2, B1, B0 represent the input bits of the two 4-bit binary numbers to be
added.

S3, S2, S1, S0 represent the sum bits of the result.

Each full adder takes two input bits (A and B) along with a carry-in (Cin) and produces a sum (S) and a
carry-out (Cout). The carry-out of one full adder serves as the carry-in for the next full adder, forming
a ripple carry chain.

What is the binary value 0.011010 in decimal?

Answer: To convert the binary number 0.011010 to decimal, we use the positional notation. Each digit
in the binary number represents a power of 2, starting from the rightmost digit as 2^0, then 2^1, 2^2,
and so on, with the exponent increasing by 1 for each subsequent digit.

0.011010

= (0 * 2^-1) + (1 * 2^-2) + (1 * 2^-3) + (0 * 2^-4) + (1 * 2^-5) + (0 * 2^-6)

= 0 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0 + 0.03125 + 0

= 0.40625

Therefore, the binary value 0.011010 is equivalent to the decimal value 0.40625.

What is 0.687510 in binary?

Answer: To convert the decimal number 0.6875 to binary, we use the fractional binary conversion
method. We repeatedly multiply the fractional part of the decimal number by 2 and take the integer
part as the binary digit. Here's the conversion process:

0.6875 * 2 = 1.375 (1)

0.375 * 2 = 0.75 (0)

0.75 * 2 = 1.5 (1)

0.5 * 2 = 1.0 (1)

Concatenating the binary digits in order gives us the binary representation:

0.6875 = 0.1011

Therefore, the decimal number 0.6875 is equivalent to the binary number 0.1011.

Explain fixed point number system for signed numbers:

Answer: In a fixed-point number system for signed numbers, a certain number of bits are allocated to
represent both the integer and fractional parts of a number. One of the bits is typically reserved to
represent the sign of the number (positive or negative). The remaining bits are used to represent the
magnitude of the number. The position of the binary point (or decimal point) is fixed and known in
advance. Arithmetic operations on fixed-point numbers follow standard rules, but extra care must be
taken to handle overflow and underflow situations, especially when dealing with fractional parts.

Explain Virtual memory with suitable example:

Answer: Virtual memory is a memory management technique that allows a computer to use
secondary storage (such as a hard drive) as if it were main memory (RAM). It provides the illusion of a
larger memory space than physically available by transparently transferring data between RAM and
disk storage as needed. For example, consider a computer with 4 GB of RAM and 500 GB of hard disk
space. When a program is executed, only a portion of it may be loaded into RAM initially. As the
program runs and requires more memory, the operating system (OS) swaps out less frequently
accessed data from RAM to disk and loads new data into RAM. This swapping process occurs
transparently to the running program, allowing it to access data as if it were all stored in RAM.

Represent the signed number representation for 4-bit numbers of sign magnitude, 1's complement,
and 2's complement:

Sign Magnitude:

In sign magnitude representation, the leftmost bit represents the sign of the number (0 for positive, 1
for negative), and the remaining bits represent the magnitude.

For example:

+7 is represented as

0111

0111

−7 is represented as

1111
1111

1's Complement:

In 1's complement representation, positive numbers are represented as usual, while negative
numbers are obtained by taking the bitwise complement (flipping all bits) of the corresponding
positive number.

For example:

+7 is represented as

0111

0111

−7 is represented as

1000

1000

2's Complement:

In 2's complement representation, positive numbers are represented as usual, while negative
numbers are obtained by taking the 2's complement (1's complement + 1) of the corresponding
positive number.

For example:

+7 is represented as

0111

0111

−
7

−7 is represented as

1001

1001

Explain 0-address, 1-address, 2-address & 3-address instruction format with suitable examples:

0-address:

In 0-address instruction format, all operands are implicitly specified and stored in the CPU registers.
The instructions themselves specify the operations to be performed.

Example: Stack-based instructions, where operands are implicitly accessed from the top of the stack.

1-address:

In 1-address instruction format, one operand is explicitly specified in the instruction, and the other
operand is implicitly stored in a register or memory location.

Example: Accumulator-based instructions, where one operand is explicitly specified, and the
accumulator register holds the other operand.

2-address:

In 2-address instruction format, both operands are explicitly specified in the instruction, and the result
is stored in one of the operand locations.

Example: ADD destination, source, where the sum of the destination and source operands is stored
back in the destination operand.

3-address:

In 3-address instruction format, three operands are explicitly specified in the instruction, and the
result is stored in a separate location.

Example: ADD destination, operand1, operand2, where the sum of operand1 and operand2 is stored
in the destination location.