Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals &

Applications
Fourth Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, Afshin J. Ghajar McGraw-
Hill, 2011

Chapter 8
INTERNAL FORCED
CONVECTION

Mehmet Kanoglu
University of Gaziantep
 Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Objectives
• Obtain average velocity from a knowledge of velocity
profile, and average temperature from a knowledge of
temperature profile in internal flow.
• Have a visual understanding of different flow regions in
internal flow, and calculate hydrodynamic and thermal entry
lengths.
• Analyze heating and cooling of a fluid flowing in a tube under
constant surface temperature and constant surface heat flux
conditions, and work with the logarithmic mean temperature
difference
• Obtain analytic relations for the velocity profile, pressure
drop, friction factor, and Nusselt number in fully developed
laminar flow
2
 • Determine the friction factor and Nusselt number in fully
developed turbulent flow using empirical relations, and
calculate the heat transfer rate

INTRODUCTION
• Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and
cooling applications and fluid distribution networks.
• The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through
a flow section.
• Although the theory of fluid flow is reasonably well understood, theoretical
solutions are obtained only for a few simple cases such as fully developed
laminar flow in a circular pipe.
• Therefore, we must rely on experimental results and empirical relations for
most fluid flow problems rather than closed-form analytical solutions.

3
 For a fixed
surface area,
the circular
Circular pipes can withstand large pressure differences tube gives the
between the inside and the outside without undergoing any most heat
significant distortion, but noncircular pipes cannot. transfer for the
The fluid velocity in a pipe changes from least pressure
zero at the wall because of the no-slip drop.
condition to a maximum at the pipe
center.
In fluid flow, it is convenient to work with
an average velocity Vavg, which remains
constant in incompressible flow when
the cross-sectional area of the pipe is
constant.
The average velocity in heating and
cooling applications may change
somewhat because of changes in
density with temperature.

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But, in practice, we evaluate the fluid
properties at some average temperature
and treat them as constants.

5
AVERAGE VELOCITY AND
TEMPERATURE

6
7
Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes
Flow in a tube can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the flow
conditions.
Fluid flow is streamlined and thus laminar at low velocities, but turns
turbulent as the velocity is increased beyond a critical value.
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly;
rather, it occurs over some range of velocity where the flow fluctuates
between laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes fully turbulent.
Most pipe flows encountered in practice are turbulent.
Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow
in small diameter tubes or narrow passages.
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the Reynolds
number as well as the degree of disturbance of the flow by
surface roughness, pipe vibrations, and the fluctuations in the

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 flow. The flow in a pipe is laminar for Re < 2300, fully turbulent for
Re > 10,000, and transitional in between.
Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube
For flow
through
noncircular
tubes, the

number, and the friction factor are

based on thehydraulic diameterDh

Under most practical

conditions, he
t flow in a
pipe is laminar forRe <
2300, fully turbulent for
Re > 10,000, and 9
transitional in between.
Reynolds number as well as the Nusselt

10
THE ENTRANCE REGION
Velocity boundary layer (boundary layer): The region of the flow in which the effects of the
viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt.
The hypothetical boundary surface divides the flow in a pipe into two regions:
Boundary layer region: The viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant.
Irrotational (core) flow region: The frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains
essentially constant in the radial direction.
Hydrodynamic entrance region: The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the
velocity profile is fully developed.
Hydrodynamic entry length Lh: The length of this region.
Hydrodynamically fully developed region: The region beyond the entrance region in which
the velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged.

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The fluid properties in internal flow are usually evaluated at the bulk mean fluid
temperature, which is the arithmetic average of the mean temperatures at the
inlet and the exit: Tb = (Tm, i + Tm, e)/2
Thermal entrance region: The region of flow over which the thermal boundary layer
develops and reaches the tube center.
Thermal entry length: The length of this region.
Thermally developing flow: Flow in the thermal entrance region. This is the region
where the temperature profile develops.

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Thermally fully developed region: The region beyond the thermal entrance region in
which the dimensionless temperature profile remains unchanged.
Fully developed flow: The region in which the flow is both hydrodynamically and
thermally developed.

The
development of the thermal boundary layer in a tube.
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Hydrodynamically fully developed: both the friction (which
is related to wall shear
stress) and convection
Thermally fully developed: coefficients remain
constant in the fully
developed region of a
Surface heat flux tube.
The pressure drop and
heat flux are higher in
Variation of the friction
In the thermally fully developed region of a factor and the convection
tube, the local convection coefficient is heat transfer coefficient
constant (does not vary with x). Therefore, in the flow direction for
flow in a tube (Pr>1).
the entrance regions of a tube, and the
effect of the entrance region is always to
increase the average friction factor and
heat transfer coefficient for the entire tube.

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Entry
Lengths
• The Nusselt numbers and thus h values are much higher in the entrance
region.
• The Nusselt number reaches a constant value at a distance of less than 10
diameters, and thus the flow can be assumed to be fully developed for x > 10D.
• The Nusselt numbers for
the uniform surface
temperature and uniform
surface heat flux
conditions are identical in
the fully developed
regions, and nearly
identical in the entrance
regions.

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 Variation of local Nusselt number along a tube in turbulent flow for both
uniform surface
temperature and uniform surface heat flux.
GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
Rate of heat transfer

Surface heat flux

hx the local heat transfer coefficient

The heat transfer to a fluid flowing in a

tube is equal to the increase in the
energy of the fluid.

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The thermal conditions at the surface The constant surface heat flux condition
can be approximated to be constant is realized when the tube is subjected to
surface temperature (Ts= const) radiation or electric resistance heating
constant surface heat flux (qs = const) uniformly from all directions.
The constant surface temperature We may have either Ts = constant or qs
condition is realized when a phase = constant at the surface of a tube, but
change process such as boiling or not both.
condensation occurs at the outer
surface of a tube.

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Constant Surface Heat Flux (qs = constant)
Rate of heat transfer:

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 Mean fluid temperature at the tube exit:

Surface temperature:

Variation of the tube surface and the mean fluid

temperatures along the tube for the case of constant surface
heat flux.
Constant Surface Temperature (Ts = constant)

Rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube

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Two suitable ways of expressing Tavg
• arithmetic mean temperature difference
• logarithmic mean temperature difference

Arithmetic mean temperature difference

Bulk mean fluid temperature: Tb = (Ti + Te)/2

By using arithmetic mean temperature difference, we assume that the mean

fluid temperature varies linearly along the tube, which is hardly ever the case
when Ts = constant.
This simple approximation often gives acceptable results, but not always.
Therefore, we need a better way to evaluate Tavg.

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 logarithmic mean temperature difference
Constant Surface Temperature (Ts = constant)

21
log mean
temperature
difference

22
Laminar Flow in
Noncircular Tubes
Nusselt number relations are
given inTable 8-1 for fully
developed laminar flow in
tubes of various cross
sections.
The Reynolds and Nusselt
numbers for flow in these
tubes are based on the
hydraulic diameter
D =
h
4A /p,
c
Once the Nusselt number is
available, the convection heat
transfer coefficient
is
determined fromh = kNu/D .
h

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Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region
For a circular tube of length L subjected to constant surface
temperature, the average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance
region:

The average Nusselt number is larger at the entrance region, and it

approaches asymptotically to the fully developed value of 3.66 as L → .
When the difference between the surface and the fluid temperatures is large, it
may be necessary to account for the variation of viscosity with temperature:
All properties are evaluated at the bulk
mean fluid temperature, except for s,
which is evaluated at the surface
temperature.

24
The average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region of
flow betweenisothermal parallel plates
of lengthL is

25
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27
28
29
TURBULENT FLOW IN TUBES

Chilton–Colburn First Petukhov equation

analogy

Colburn
equation

Dittus–Boelter equation

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When the variation
in properties is large due to a large temperature difference

All properties are evaluated

T except
at  , which is evaluatedT .at
b s s

Second Petukhov equation

Gnielinski relation

The relations above are not very sensitive to the thermal conditions at the
tube surfaces and can be used for both Ts = constant and qs = constant.
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Rough Surfaces
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the
Reynolds number and the relative roughness /D, which is the ratio of the
mean height of roughness of the pipe to the pipe diameter.

Colebrook
equation

Moody chart is given in the appendix as Fig. A–20.

It presents the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow as a function of the Reynolds
number and /D over a wide range.

32
 An approximate
explicit relation for f
was given by S. E.
Haaland

In turbulent flow, wall roughness increases the heat transfer coefficient h

by a factor of 2 or more. The convection heat transfer coefficient for
rough tubes can be calculated approximately from Gnielinski relation or
Chilton– Colburn analogy by using the friction factor determined from the
Moody chart or the Colebrook equation.

33
34
35
Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region
The entry lengths for turbulent flow are typically short, often just 10 tube
diameters long, and thus the Nusselt number determined for fully developed
turbulent flow can be used approximately for the entire tube.
This simple approach gives reasonable results for pressure drop and heat
transfer for long tubes and conservative results for short ones.
Correlations for the friction and heat transfer coefficients for the entrance regions
are available in the literature for better accuracy.

Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes

Pressure drop and heat transfer
characteristics of turbulent flow in tubes are
dominated by the very thin viscous sublayer
next to the wall surface, and the shape of the
core region is not of much significance.
The turbulent flow relations given above for

36
circular tubes can also be used for In turbulent flow, the velocity noncircular
tubes with reasonable accuracy profile is nearly a straight line in by replacing
the diameter D in the evaluation the core region, and any
of the Reynolds number by the hydraulic significant velocity gradients
diameter Dh = 4Ac/p. occur in the
viscous sublayer.
Heat Transfer
Enhancement
Tubes with rough surfaces have
much higher heat transfer
coefficients than tubes with smooth
surfaces.
Heat transfer in turbulent flow in a
tube has been increased by as
much as 400 percent by
roughening the surface.
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Roughening the surface, of course,
also increases the friction factor and
thus the power requirement for the
pump or the fan.
The convection heat transfer coefficient can also be increased by
inducing pulsating flow by pulse generators, by inducing swirl by
inserting a twisted tape into the tube, or by inducing secondary flows
by coiling the tube.

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44
45
46
 Summary
• Introduction
• Average Velocity and Temperature
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes
• The Entrance Region
 Entry Lengths
• General Thermal Analysis
 Constant Surface Heat Flux
 Constant Surface Temperature
• Laminar Flow in Tubes
 Pressure Drop
 Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number
 Constant Surface Heat Flux
 Constant Surface Temperature
 Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes
 Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region

• Turbulent Flow in Tubes

47
 Rough Surfaces
 Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region
 Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes
 Flow through Tube Annulus
 Heat Transfer Enhancement

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