MODULE – II

WELDING TECHNIQUES

SYLLABUS

Fusion welding processes - Types of Gas welding - Principles of Resistance

welding - Spot/butt, seam welding -Percussion welding - Gas metal arc
welding - Submerged arc welding -Electroslag welding - TIG welding -
Plasma arc welding - Thermit welding - Electron beam welding.

Introduction

The process of joining takes place by means of welding, riveting or by fastening nut
and bolts. If a joint can be disassembled then joining method is called temporary
joining method. If the same, cannot be disassembled without breaking it then the
joint is called permanent joint. Normally in welding operation joining of metal pieces
is done by raising their temperature to the fusion point so that they form a sort of
pool of molten metal at the ends to the joined, sometimes, the pool is supplemented
with a filler metal (wire or rod) which normally has almost same compositions as that
of the work pieces. This way the pool forms a homogeneous mixture. It is allowed to
get solidify to have a permanent joint. There is wide diversity in welding technology
so its conventional definition can be modified as ―welding is a technique of joining
similar and dissimilar metals and plastics by adopting ways which do not include
adhesives and fasteners.‖

Selection of type of joints:

a) Type of joint required for an application is temporary or permanent.

b) Whether similar or dissimilar materials are to be joined in order to take care of
the compatibility aspect as metallurgical incompatibility can be disastrous for
performance of the joints
c) Physical, chemical metallurgical properties of materials to be joined.
d) Requirements of the service from the joint under special conditions of
temperature, corrosion, environment, and reliability.
e) Type and nature of loading conditions (static and dynamic loading under
tension, shear, compression, bending etc.)
 f) Economy or cost effectiveness is one most important factors influencing the
selection of joint for manufacturing an engineering component

2.2 CLASSIFIATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

Welding process can be classified into different categories depending upon
the following criteria:
(a) Liquid state welding (Fusion welding)
(b) Solid state welding (Pressure welding)
Welding process can be also classified as:

Autogeneous : During welding process, no filler metal is added to the joint

interface.
For example: solid welding process and electric resistance
welding
Homogeneous : During welding process, filler metal is added and is of the same
type as the parent metal.
For Example: Arc welding
Heterogeneous : During welding process, filler metal is added and is of a different
type from the parent metal.
Example: Brazing and soldering

Advantages and Limitation of Welding

Advantages of welding are enlisted below:

1. Permanent joint is produced, which becomes an integral part of work piece.
2. Joints can be stronger than the base metal if good quality filler metal is used.
3. Economical method of joining.
4. It is not restricted to the factory environment.

Disadvantages of welding are enlisted also below:

1. Labour cost is high as only skilled welder can produce sound and quality weld
joint.
2. It produces a permanent joint which in turn creates the problem in dissembling
if of sub-component required.
3. Hazardous fumes and vapours are generated during welding. This demands
proper ventilation of welding area.
4. Weld joint itself is considered as a discontinuity owing to variation in its
structure, composition and mechanical properties; therefore welding is not
commonly recommended for critical application where there is a danger of life.

Applications of welding
The welding is widely used for fabrication of pressure vessels, bridges,
building structures, aircraft and space crafts, railway coaches and general
applications besides shipbuilding, automobile, electrical, electronic and defense
industries, laying of pipe lines and railway tracks and nuclear installations.
Specific components need welding for fabrication includes
(a) Transport tankers for transporting oil, water, milk etc.
(b) Welding of tubes and pipes, chains, LPG cylinders and other items.
(c) Fabrication of Steel furniture, gates, doors and door frames, and body
 (d) Manufacturing white goods such as refrigerators, washing machines,
microwave ovens and many other items of general applications

Electric Arc Welding

Electric arc
welding is one of the
fusion welding
processes in which
coalescence of the
metal is achieved by
the heat from an
electric arc between
an electrode and work
piece. A line diagram
indicating the whole
process is shown in
Figure 2.1.
Electric arc is
generated when electrode is brought into contact with the work and is then quickly
separated by a short distance approximately 2 mm. The circuit operates at low
voltage and high current so arc is established in the gap due to thermo ionic
emission from electrode (Cathode) to work piece (Anode). The arc is sustained due
to continuous presence of a thermally ionized column of gas. This arc produces at
temperature of the order of 5500oC or higher. In this way a pool of molten metal
consisting of work piece metal and filler metal is formed in the welding zone. The
electrode is moved along the joint with perpendicular zig-zag motion. The solidified
molten weld pool makes the strong welded joint. Movement of the electrode relative
to work piece is accomplished by either manually or by mechanical means in case of
automatic welding machines. Better uniformity and good quality weldments are
possible in case of automatic welding process.
Arc welding equipments are listed below. The equipments are categorized as
facilitator, consumable and protecting equipments. Some of the equipment of arc
welding is same as that are used in gas welding like flux, protecting devices and
cleaning devices, etc.
Facilitator Equipment Welding
a) Power source (welding machine)
b) Electrode holder
c) Work table
 d) Cables (for connection)
e) Finishing devices like chipping, hammer, wire brush, etc.
Consumable Equipment
a) Electrode
b) Flux
c) Work piece
d) Filler metal
Protecting Equipment
a) Welding shields
b) Goggles
c) Screens
d) Gloves
e) Apron
Arc welding equipments are described below.
a) Power Source
Both AC (Alternative Current) and DC (Direct Current) can be used for
welding. AC machines are recommended for ferrous metal and DC machines are
recommended for other metals for better result. Main constituent of welding machine
is transformer which converts the supply to low voltage and high current. For AC
welding power is required at 80 to 110 volt and 50 to 80 ampere. For sustaining the
established are power factor is kept low. In case of DC welding power is required at
8 to 25 volts and 50 ampere. Polarity is also are significant factor. Two types of
polarities are possible in case of DC welding.
Straight Polarity
Electrode is made negative pole and work piece is made positive pole. It is
also called as electrode negative.
Reversed Polarity
Electrode is made positive pole and work piece is made negative pole. It is
called electrode positive too. As we know that two third of the total heat is generated
at positive pole and only one third at negative pole. Polarity is decided according to
the requirement of heat at either pole.
b) Welding Electrodes
These are also called welding rods. Two types of welding electrodes are
generally used.
1) Consumable electrodes
 2) Non-consumable electrodes.
Consumable electrodes
Consumable electrodes are the source of filler metal in case of arc welding.
Consumable electrodes can further be classified into two categories
a. Coated electrodes
 Light coated electrode
 Heavily coated electrode
b. Bare electrodes.

The important functions Electrode coating are as follows:

1. Improve the electric conductivity in the arc region to improve the arc
ignition and stabilization of the arc.
2. Formation of slag, which;
(a) Influences size of droplet.
(b) Protects the droplet during transfer and molten weld pool from
atmospheric gases.
(c) Protects solidified hot metal from atmospheric gases.
(d) Reduces the cooling rate of weld seam.
3. Formation of shielding gas to protect molten metal.
4. Provide deoxidizers like Si and Mn in form of FeSi and FeMn.
5. Alloying with certain elements such as Cr, Ni, Mo to improve weld metal
properties.
6. Improve deposition rate with addition of iron powder in coating.

Various constituents of electrode coating are cellulose, calcium fluoride,

calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide, clay, talc, iron oxide, asbestos, potassium /
sodium silicate, iron powder, ferro-maganese, powdered alloys, silica etc. Each
constituent performs either one or more than one functions.
GAS WELDING
It is a fusion welding in which strong gas flame is used to generate heat and
raise temperature of metal pieces localized at the place where joint is to be made. In
this welding metal pieces to be joined are heated. The metal thus melted starts flowing
along the edges where joint is to be made. A filler metal may also be added to the
flowing molten metal to fill up the cavity at the edges. The cavity filed with molten metal
is allowed to solidify to get the strong joint. Different combinations of gases can be
used to obtain a heating flame. The popular gas combinations are oxy- hydrogen
mixture, oxygen-acetylene, etc. different mixing proportion of two gases in a mixture
can generate different types of flames with different characteristics.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Oxy-acetylene welding can use for welding of wide range of metals and alloys.
Acetylene mixed with oxygen when burnt under a controlled environment produces
large amount of heat giving higher temperature rise. This burning also produces carbon
dioxide which helps in preventing oxidation of metals being welded. Highest
temperature that can be produced by this welding is 3200oC. The chemical reaction
involved in burning of acetylene is

2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

 On the basis of supply pressure of gases oxy-acetylene welding is
categorized as high pressure welding in this system both gases oxygen and
acetylene supplied to welding zone are high pressure from their respective high
pressure cylinders. The other one is low pressure welding in which oxygen is
supplied from high pressure cylinder but acetylene is generated by the action of
water on calcium carbide and supplied at low pressure. In this case high pressure
supply of oxygen pulls acetylene at the welding zone.
A comparison can be drawn between low pressure and high pressure
welding. High pressure welding equipment is handy, supplies pure acetylene at
constant pressure, with better control and low expenses as compared to low
pressure welding.
Characteristics of the oxy-acetylene welding process include:

 The use dual oxygen and acetylene gases stored under pressure in
steel cylinders,
 Its ability to switch quickly to a cutting process, by changing the
welding tip to a cutting tip,
 The high temperature the gas mixture attains,
 The use of regulators to control gas flow and reduce pressure on both
the oxygen and acetylene tanks,
 The use of double line rubber hoses to conduct the gas from the tanks
to the torch,
 Melting the materials to be welded together,
 The ability to regulate temperature by adjusting gas flow.
Gas Welding Equipments
The following equipments are necessary for gas welding
1. Gas cylinders
2. Regulators
3. Pressure gauges
4. Rubber hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Safety goggles
7. Gloves
8. Spark lighter
9. Wire brush

1. Gas Cylinders

Oxygen and acetylene gases are stored in separate cylinders and used for
gas welding. The colour of oxygen cylinder is black and the acetylene gas is stored
in maroon cylinders. Oxygen is stored at a pressure of 125Kg/cm 2. Acetylene gas is
stored at a pressure of 16 Kg/cm2 in the cylinder.

2. Regulators

Separate regulators are fitted on both the cylinders. A regulator is used to

control the working pressure of the gases. The working pressure of oxygen is
1Kg/cm2 and acetylene is 0.15Kg/cm2. Working pressure of these gases is altered
according to the thickness of the metal parts of the joint.

3. Pressure Gauges

Two pressure gauges are fitted each on the oxygen cylinder and on the
acetylene cylinder. One of the pressure gauges indicates the pressure of the cylinder
and the other gauge indicates the working pressure of the specific gas.

4. Hoses

Separate hoses are used to connect the two cylinders with the welding torch
through regulators. The colour of the hose from the oxygen cylinder is black and the
one from the acetylene cylinder is red. These hoses carry the gases to the welding
torch.
5. Welding Torch

Oxygen and acetylene reach the welding torch through the passages of hoses
from the respective cylinders. These gases are mixed in the mixing chamber of the
welding torch. Flame is produced at the tip of the torch when the gases are ignited.
There are two control valves present in the torch to control the quantity of oxygen
and acetylene. By this control, the grade of the flame can be altered. The size of the
flame is altered to suit the thickness of the metal parts.

6. Welding Gloves

Protective hand gloves are used by the operator to prevent possible damages
that may be caused by high temperatures and metal splashes during welding.

7. Spark Lighter

Spark lighter is used to ignite the oxy-acetylene gas at the tip of the welding
torch.

8. Wire Brush

Wire brushes are useful in cleaning the weld before and after the welding
process.

Filler Rods Used in Gas Welding

Filler rods used in gas welding supply the additional metal in making joints.
These rods are melted by the gas flame and deposited over the parts of the joint.
Generally the filler rods are made of the same metal as that of the parts of the joint.
 The diameter of the filler rod depends upon the thickness of the parts to be
welded. The strength of the welding joint is increased by adding Nickel or Chromium
in filler rods. A thin coat of copper is provided on the filler rods to prevent the molten
metal from reacting with atmospheric oxygen. Flux may be applied either in
powdered form or liquid form.

Advantages of Gas Welding

1. Applied for different classes of work
2. Welding temperature is controlled easily
3. The quantity of filler metal added in the joint can easily be controlled
4. The cost of the welding unit is less
5. The cost of maintenance is less
6. Both welding and cutting can be done

Limitations of Gas Welding

1. Intended for welding thin work pieces only
2. The process of welding is slow
3. The time taken by the gas flame to heat the metal is more when
compared with electric arc
4. The strength of the joint is less
5. Great care should be taken in handling and storing gas cylinders

FLAME FORMATION AND ITS DIFFERENT TYPES

Flame is established by burning (controlled) of the two gases mixture at the
outlet of blow pipe or torch. The proportion of gasses in the mixture is controlled by
controlling the flow rate of each of the two gasses. Here, it should be clear that
burning of acetylene generates heat and oxygen only supports acetylene in burning.
Insufficient supply of oxygen leaves acetylene un burnt in atmosphere creating
pollution and adding cost of waste acetylene. A general nomenclature of the flame
established in oxy-acetylene welding is given in Figure 2.5. The flame can be divided
in to three zones.
 Zone ‗1‘ is very near to the outlet of torch, where oxygen reacts with
acetylene and burning of two gases takes place.

Zone ‗2‘ produces carbon monoxide and hydrogen in ratio 2 : 1 by 45 volume.

This zone gives the highest temperature of the flame. This zone is supposed to
Welding consume the oxygen available here and contribute reducing properly to the
flame.

Zone ‗3‘ is the outermost zone of the flame. Temperature of this zone is
comparatively low. This zone converts CO to CO2 and H2O vapours. On the basis of
supply proportion of acetylene and oxygen, flames can be divided into three
categories, neutral flame, carburizing flame and oxidizing flame. These are
described here.

Neutral Flame

A neutral flame is obtained when amount of O 2 equal and C2H2 are mixed and
burnt at the outlet of welding torch. The flame consists of two sharply defined zones
inner white flame cone outer envelope of blue colour as shown in Figure 2.5. In this
flame none of two gasses is supplied in excess. This flame is of white cone and has
the maximum use for successful welding of many metals.

Carburizing Flame

This flame is obtained when excess of acetylene is supplied than which is

theoretically required. This flame is identified by three zones the inner cone which is
not sharply defined, an outer envelope as same in case of neutral flamed and middle
zone surrounds inner one extended to outer envelope. It is white in colour due to
excess acetylene. Larger the excess of acetylene larger will be its length. To get a
neutral flame a systematic procedure is to make carburizing flame first and then
increase oxygen supply gradually till the excess acetylene zone disappears. The
resulting flame wills a carburizing flame. Its temperature generation range is 3100oC
to 3300oC. It is used for the welding of metals where risk of oxidation at elevated
temperature is more like aluminium, its alloys and lead and its alloys. The metals
which have tendency to absorb carbon should not be welded by carburizing flame as
they become brittle localized.

Oxidizing Flame

This flame as an excess of oxygen over that required for a neutral flame. The
ratio O2 : C2H2 = 1.15 to 1.50. To have this flame set carburizing flame first convert it
to neutral flame and then reduce the supply of acetylene to get oxidizing flame. Its
inner cone is relatively shorter and excess oxygen turns the flame to light blue
colour. It burns with a harsh sound. It is used for metals which are not oxidized
readily like brasses and bronzes.
COMPARISON OF ARC WELDING AND GAS WELDING

Sl.No. Arc welding Gas welding

1 Electric arc is the source of Gas is the source of heat.

heat.

2 The arc temperature is about The gas temperature is about

4000 . 3200 .

3 Filler rod functions as Filler rod is introduced

electrodes. separately.

4 Risk due to electric shock. Risk due to gas pressure.

5 Arc welded joints have very Gas welded joints have not
high strength. much strength.

6 Brazing and soldering cannot Brazing and soldering are

be done using electric arc. done using gas.

7 Filler metal should be same as Filler metal need not be same

or an alloy of parent metal. as the parent metal.

8 This is a non-pressure fusion This is also a non-pressure

welding method. fusion welding method.

9 The filler rod metal should be The filler rod metal can be
selected as the same metal as different from that of the parts
that of the parts of the joint. of the joint.
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc
welding process in which arc is generated between non consumable tungsten
electrode and work piece. The tungsten electrode and the weld pool are shielded by
an inert gas normally argon and helium. Figures 2.6 show the principle of tungsten
inert gas welding process.

The tungsten arc process is being employed widely for the precision joining of
critical components which require controlled heat input. The small intense heat
source provided by the tungsten arc is ideally suited to the controlled melting of the
material. Since the electrode is not consumed during the process, welding without
filler material can be done without the need for continual compromise between the
heat input from the arc and the melting of the filler metal. As the filler metal, when
required, can be added directly to the weld pool from a separate wire feed system or
manually, all aspects of the process can be precisely and independently controlled
i.e. the degree of melting of the parent metal is determined by the welding current
with respect to the welding speed, whilst the degree of weld bead reinforcement is
determined by the rate at which the filler wire is added to the weld pool.

In TIG torch the electrode is extended beyond the shielding gas nozzle. The
arc is ignited by high voltage, high frequency (HF) pulses, or by touching the
electrode to the work piece and withdrawing to initiate the arc at a preset level of
current.

Selection of Electrode

D.C.Welding : 1 or 2 % of thoria
Thoria helps to improve electron emission which facilitates easy
arc ignition

A.C.Welding : Pure tungsten or tungsten-zirconia

 Tungsten electrodes are commonly available from 0.5 mm to 6.4 mm
diameter and 150 - 200 mm length. The current carrying capacity of each size of
electrode depends on whether it is connected to negative or positive terminal of DC
power source. AC is used only in case of welding of aluminum and magnesium and
their alloys.

The capacity to limit the current to the set value is equally crucial when the
electrode is short circuited to the work piece, otherwise excessively high current shall
flow, damaging the electrode. Open circuit voltage of power source ranges from 60
to 80 V.

Shielding Gases

 Argon
 Argon + Hydrogen
 Argon/Helium

Helium is generally added to increase heat input (increase welding speed or

weld penetration). Hydrogen will result in cleaner looking welds and also increase
heat input, however, Hydrogen may promote porosity or hydrogen cracking.

Argon or helium may be used successfully for most applications, with the
possible exception of the welding of extremely thin material for which argon is
essential. Argon generally provides an arc which operates more smoothly and
quietly, is handled more easily and is less penetrating than the arc obtained by the
use of helium. For these reasons argon is usually preferred for most applications,
except where the higher heat and penetration characteristic of helium is required for
welding metals of high heat conductivity in larger thicknesses. Aluminum and copper
are metals of high heat conductivity and are examples of the type of material for
which helium is advantageous in welding relatively thick sections.

Pure argon can be used for welding of structural steels, low alloyed steels,
stainless steels, aluminum, copper, titanium and magnesium. Argon hydrogen
mixture is used for welding of some grades of stainless steels and nickel alloys. Pure
helium may be used for aluminum and copper. Helium argon mixtures may be used
for low alloy steels, aluminum and copper.
Application

TIG welding can be used in all positions. It is normally used for root pass(es)
during welding of thick pipes but is widely being used for welding of thin walled pipes
and tubes. This process can be easily mechanised i.e. movement of torch and
feeding of filler wire, so it can be used for precision welding in nuclear, aircraft,
chemical, petroleum, automobile and space craft industries. Aircraft frames and its
skin, rocket body and engine casing are few examples where TIG welding is very
popular.

Benefits

 Superior quality welds

 Welds can be made with or without filler metal
 Precise control of welding variables (heat)
 Free of spatter
 Low distortion

Limitations

 Requires greater welder dexterity than MIG or stick welding

 Lower deposition rates
 More costly for welding thick sections

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (MIG WELDING)

This process also known as Shielded Inert Gas Metal Arc (SIGMA) welding,
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) uses a shielded
arc struck between a bare metal electrode and the work piece. The metal electrode
is provided in the form of a wire reel.

This process is based on the principle of developing weld by melting faying

surfaces of the base metal using heat produced by a welding arc established
between base metal and a consumable electrode. Welding arc and weld pool are
well protected by a jet of shielding inactive gas coming out of the nozzle and forming
a shroud around the arc and weld. MIG and TIG welding is primarily attributed to the
variation in effectiveness of shielding gas to protect the weld pool in case of above
two processes. Effectiveness of shielding in two processes is mainly determined by
two characteristics of the welding arc namely stability of the welding arc and length
of arc besides other welding related parameters such as type of shielding gas, flow
rate of shielding gas, distance between nozzle and work-price. Consumption of the
electrode during welding slightly decreases the stability of the arc.

Metal inert gas process is similar to TIG welding except that it uses the
automatically fed consumable electrode therefore it offers high deposition rate and
so it suits for good quality weld joints required for industrial fabrication (Fig. 17.1).
Consumable electrode is fed automatically while torch is controlled either manual or
automatically. Therefore, this process is found more suitable for welding of
comparatively thicker plates of reactive metals (Al, Mg, Stainless steel). The quality
of weld joints of these metals otherwise is adversely affected by atmospheric gases
at high temperature.

Characteristics of the MIG welding process

 Uses a consumable wire electrode during the welding process that is

fed from a spool,
 Provides a uniform weld bead,
 Produces a slag-free weld bead,
  Uses a shielding gas, usually – argon, argon - 1 to 5% oxygen,
argon - 3 to 25% CO2 and a combination argon/helium gas,
 Is considered a semi-automatic welding process,
 Allows welding in all positions,
 Requires less operator skill than TIG welding,
 Allows long welds to be made without starts or stops,
 Needs little cleanup.

Shielding Gas

The shielding gas, forms the arc plasma, stabilizes the arc on the metal being
welded, shields the arc and molten weld pool, and allows smooth transfer of metal
from the weld wire to the molten weld pool.

The primary shielding gasses used are:

 Argon
 Argon - 1 to 5% Oxygen
 Argon - 3 to 25% CO2
 Argon/Helium

CO2 is also used in its pure form in some MIG welding processes. However,
in some applications the presence of CO2 in the shielding gas may adversely affect
the mechanical properties of the weld.

Benefits

 All position capability

 Higher deposition rates than SMAW
 Less operator skill required
 Long welds can be made without starts and stops
 Minimal post weld cleaning is required
 MIG weld is not considered as clean as TIG weld
 The MIG arc is relatively longer and less stable than TIG arc

MIG Welding Problems

 Heavily oxidized weld deposit

 Irregular wire feed
  Burn back
 Porosity
 Unstable arc
 Difficult arc starting

Comparison on TIG welding and MIG welding

Sl.No. TIG Welding MIG Welding

1 Suitable to weld any metal. Suitable to weld on Non-ferrous
metal
2 Argon gas is used as primary Argon gas is used as primary
shielding gas, Helium is shielding gas, Argon mixture with
Occasionally use. CO2 is frequently used for
dissimilar metal
3 Due to usage of non-consumable Filler metal is act as electrode
electrode, filler material is
separately added
4 Difficult in operation Simple and easy of operation
5 Suitable to operate on A.C. and It is operate on D.C. supply only
D.C. supply

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding process that uses a

continuous, consumable bare wire electrode. The arc shielding is provided by a
cover of granular flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride
and other compounds. The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity
flow through a nozzle. The thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal.
The electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil into the arc. The flux is introduced
into the joint slightly ahead of the weld arc by gravity from a hopper, as shown in the
figure.

The blanket of granular flux completely submerges the arc welding operation,
preventing sparks, spatter and radiation that are so hazardous in other arc welding
processes. The portion of the flux closest to the arc is melted, mixing with the molten
weld metal to remove impurities and then solidifying on top of the weld joint to form a
glasslike slag. The slag and infused flux granules on top provide good protection
from the atmosphere and good thermal insulation for the weld area. This result in
relatively slow cooling and a high-quality weld joint. The infused flux remaining after
welding can be recovered and reused. The solid slag covering the weld must be
chipped away usually by manual means. This process is widely used for automated
welding of structural shapes, longitudinal and circumferential seams for large-
diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels. Because of the gravity feed of the
granular flux, the parts must always be in a horizontal orientation.

The consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire 1.5 to 10 mm in

diameter, consumable electrode is fed automatically through a tube. Electric currents
typically range from 300 to 2000A. The power supplies usually are connected to
standard single-phase or three-phase power lines with a primary rating up to 440V.

Characteristics of submerged-arc welding

 The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity through a
nozzle
 Prevents spatter and sparks;
 Suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes characteristics
of the SMAW.
 It acts as a thermal insulator by promoting deep penetration of heat into
the work piece.
 The unused flux can be recovered, treated and reused.

Applications:
 The weld made by Submerged-arc welding have high strength and ductility
with low Hydrogen and Nitrogen content. It is suitable for welding low alloy steel,
high tensile steel, LC and MC steels, high resisting steel, corrosion resistant steel,
high strength steel and many of non-ferrous alloys.

Advantages:

 Smooth welds of high strength and ductility with low H2 and N2

content.
 Because of high current, high metal deposition, high welding speeds
and good penetration are achieved.
 Due to high speeds less distortion will occur.
 Elimination of fumes and spatter.
 Absence of visible arc and ease of penetration.

Limitations:

 During welding process arc is not visible, judging the welding progress
is difficult and so tools like jigs, fixtures and guides are required.
 Pre-placing of flux may not always possible.
 This welding process is limited to flat position.
 Flux is subjected to contamination that may cause weld porosity.
 Chlorine, Aluminium, Magnesium, Lead, Zinc cannot be welded.

ELECTROSLAG WELDING
Electro slag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is generated by
an electric current passing between the consumable electrode (filler metal) and the
work piece through a molten slag covering the weld surface.

Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled with a welding
flux. Electroslag Welding is initiated by an arc between the electrode and the work
piece (or starting plate). Heat, generated by the arc, melts the fluxing powder and
forms molten slag. The slag, having low electric conductivity, is maintained in liquid
state due to heat produced by the electric current.

The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500°F (1930°C). This temperature

is sufficient for melting the consumable electrode and work piece edges. Metal
droplets fall to the weld pool and join the work pieces. The weld pool is contained
within this space and—due to contact with the copper blocks—it cools, solidifies, and
is shaped. Electro-Slag welds are started and finished on run-off plates. This is
known as starting or finishing tabs—they improve the quality of the weld metal.

Circumferential seams can be welded by the electro-slag process, using

special devices to overcome the difficulty of joining the start and finish of a weld. The
bead on the reverse side can be moulded by a water-cooled copper chill-ring, a
permanent steel-ring, or a travelling shoe. Pieces of variable cross-sections can be
electro-slag welded using consumable electrode guides.

An A.C. or D.C.
power source in the
range 300-800 amps is
suitable, as used for
automatic and MMA
processes.

Electroslag
welding is capable of
welding plates with
thicknesses ranging
from 50 mm to more
than 900 mm and
welding is done in one
pass. The current
required is about 600 A
at 40 to 50 Volts
although higher
currents are used for
thick plates. The travel
speed of the weld is in
the range from 12 to 36 mm/min. Weld quality is high. This process is used for large
structural-steel sections, such as heavy machinery, bridges, ships and nuclear-
reactor vessels.
Advantages:

 High deposition rate - up to 20 kg/h

 Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight);
 Low distortion;
 Unlimited thickness of work piece.

Disadvantages

 Coarse grain structure of the weld;

 Low toughness of the weld;
 Only vertical position is possible.

RESISTANCE WELDING

Resistance Welding is a welding process in which work pieces are welded

due to a combination of a pressure applied to them and a localized heat generated
by a high electric current flowing through the contact area of the weld.

Different metals and alloys such as low carbon steels, aluminium alloys, alloy
steels, medium carbon and high carbon steels can be welded by resistance welding.
However, for high carbon contained steels, the weld bed can be harder (less brittle).

Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle body parts, fuel tanks,
and domestic radiators, pipes of gas oil and water pipelines, wire ends, turbine
blades, railway tracks.
 Required heat is generated at the junction due to flowing current through it
and resistance offered. The amount of heat generated is

𝐻 = i2𝑅𝑡

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 i

= ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 f𝑙𝑜𝑤i𝑛𝑔

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠i𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜f j𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡i𝑜𝑛

𝑡 = 𝑡i𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 f𝑜𝑟 f𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜f 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

Principle of resistance welding can be explained with the help of diagram

shown in Figure. It consists of work piece to be welded, two opposing electrodes a
mechanism to apply pressure to squeeze the work pieces, AC power supply to
maintain the current, and a circuit breaker with times to stop the flowing current after
a preset time.

Heat produced by the current is sufficient for local melting of the work piece at
the contact point and formation of small weld pool (‖nugget‖). The molten metal is
then solidifies under a pressure and joins the pieces.

Advantages:

 High welding rates;

 Low fumes;
 Cost effectiveness;
 Easy automation;
 No filler materials are required;
 Low distortions.

Disadvantages:

 High equipment cost;

  Low strength of discontinuous welds;
 Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 6 mm

TYPES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

 Butt welding
 Spot welding
 Seam welding
 Projection welding
 Percussion
 Stud welding

BUTT WELDING

Resistance butt welding is the simplest form of a group of resistance welding

processes that involve the joining of two or more metal parts together in a localised
area by the application of heat and pressure. The heat is generated within the
material being joined by resistance to the passage of a high current through the
metal parts, which are held under a pre-set pressure.

The process is used predominantly to make butt joints in wires and rods up to
about 16mm diameter, including small diameter chain. The faces of the pieces to be
joined may be flat and parallel or profiled in the case of larger sections. This reduces
the initial contact area and further concentrates the heating at the interface. The
components are clamped in opposing copper dies, with a small amount of stick-out,
and abutted under pressure. Current is passed between the dies causing resistance
heating of the weld area. The heat generated during welding depends on the current,
the duration of the current, and the resistance. As the resistance is highest at the
joint interface, heating is most intense in this area. When the material softens, it
deforms under the applied load, giving a solid phase forge weld. No melting occurs.
The current is terminated once a pre-set upset length has occurred, or the duration
of the current is pre-set.
 The joint is then allowed to cool slightly under pressure, before the clamps are
opened to release the welded component. The weld upset may be left in place or
removed, by shearing while still hot or by grinding, depending on the requirements.

Benefit
s
 Resistance butt welding is a high speed,
 It is clean process
 It is preferred to flash welding for many small components.

Drawbacks

There are some limitations on component size and geometry:

 Very thin or large sections are unsuitable.

 The risk of crushing fingers or hands
 Burns or eye damage from splash metal.
SPOT WELDING

Spot welding is one of the oldest welding processes. It can be used on very
thin foils or thick sections but is rarely used above about 6mm thickness. It is used in
a wide range of industries but notably for the assembly of sheet steel vehicle bodies.
High quality welds can also be made in stainless steels, nickel alloys, aluminium
alloys and titanium for aerospace application.

Spot welding is one of a group of resistance welding processes that involve

the joining of two or more metal parts together in a localised area by the application
of heat and pressure. The heat is generated within the material being joined by the
resistance to the passage of a high current through the metal parts, which are held
under a pre-set pressure.

The process is used for joining sheet materials and uses shaped copper alloy
electrodes to apply pressure and convey the electrical current through the work
pieces. Heat is developed mainly at the interface between two sheets, eventually
causing the material being welded to melt, forming a molten pool, the weld nugget.
The molten pool is contained by the pressure applied by the electrode tip and the
surrounding solid metal.

Benefits

Spot welding offers a number of advantages over other techniques, including

high speed, ease of automation and energy efficiency.
Drawbacks:

There are some limitations on material weldability but attention to correct

setting up and good process control can solve most production problems. The main
hazards are (i) the risk of crushing fingers or hands and (ii) burns or eye damage
from splash metal. Little fume is produced but may need attention when welding
coated steels or when oils or organic materials are present.

SEAM WELDING

In Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW), the electrodes are two rotating wheels
as shown in the figure:

In the process of welding, a series of overlapping spot welds is made along

the lap joint. The process is capable of producing airtight joints, and its industrial
applications include the production of gasoline tanks, automobile mufflers, and
various others fabricated sheet-metal containers.

The spacing between the weld nuggets in resistance seam welding depends
on the motion of the electrode wheels relative to the application of the weld current.
In the usual method of operation, called continuous motion welding, the wheel is
rotated continuously at a constant velocity, and current is turned on at timing
intervals consistent with the desired spacing between spot welds along the seam so
that overlapping weld spots are produced. But if the frequency of current switching is
reduced sufficiently, there will be spacing between the weld spots, and this method is
termed roll spot welding. In another variation, the welding current remains on at a
constant level so that a truly continuous welding seam is produced. These variations
are depicted in the figure: Since the operation is usually carried out continuously,
rather than discretely, the seams should be along a straight or uniformly curved line.
Sharp comers and similar discontinuities should be avoided.

Advantages

 Gas tight as well as liquid tight joints can be made.

 The Overlap is less than spot or projection welding.
 The production of single seam weld and parallel seams can be got
simultaneously.

Disadvantages

 The welding process is restricted to a straight line or uniformly curved

line.
 The metals sheets having thickness more than 3mm can cause
problems while welding.
 The design of the electrodes may be needed to change to weld metal
sheets having obstructions.

Applications of RSEW

 Girth weld is possible in rectangular or square or even in circular

shapes.
 Most of the metals can be welded (Except copper and some high
percentage copper alloys)
 Butt welding can be done.

PROJECTION WELDING

In resistance projection welding (RPW), small projections are formed on one

or both pieces of the base metal to obtain contact at a point which localize
the current flow and concentrate the heat. Under pressure, the heated and softened
projections collapse and a weld is formed. Projection on the upper component is
pressed against the lower component by electrode force. The projection collapses
and a fused weld nugget are formed with the application of current. This technique is
of special value in mounting attachments to surfaces of which the back side is
inaccessible to a welding operator.

Types of Projection Designs

There are typically three types of projection designs which are used for
projection welding:

1) Embossed Projections
2) Stud-to-Plate Projections
3) Annular Projections

Advantages

 Simultaneous operation can be done i.e. more than one welds can be
made.
 Projection welding has this advantage that it can weld metals of
thickness which is not suitable for spot welding.
  Projection welding electrodes have a longer life when compared to spot
welding electrodes.
 Resistance projection welding is not limited to sheet to sheet joints.
 Projection welding can be done in specific points which are desired to
be welded.
 In difficult welding work projection welding gives a better heat balance.
 Projection welding saves electricity because it needs less current to
produce heat. So it reduces the shrinkage and distortion defects.

Disadvantages

 All types of metals cannot be welded using projection method. Metal

thickness and composition is a big question.
 All the metals are not strong enough to support the projections. Some
brasses and coppers cannot be welded satisfactorily using projection
welding.
 There is an extra operation which is called forming of projection.
 Projections need to have same heights for a appropriate welding.

Applications

 Resistance Projection welding is used in Automobile sector.

 Projection welding is used in refrigeration works ( mass production
of condensers, gratings, racks etc.)

PERCUSSION WELDING

Percussion welding is a variation or version of resistance welding, which is

characterized by extremely short welding times and high welding currents. During
this procedure, a joint is produced by a rapidly ignited arc and by the force which is
generated by an electromagnet. Since only one 50 Hz half wave is used for the
actual welding process, the welding time is always in the range of about 10
milliseconds. The weld current can reach values of about 100 kA.
 The short welding time and the high welding current allow the combination of
materials with high electrical and thermal conductivity. Also, large cross-section and
thickness differences in the work pieces to be welded are no problem.

Process steps in Percussion Welding

1) The two materials to be welded are positioned with a preset air gap
between them
2) A burst of RF energy ionizes the air gap.
3) Capacitor banks discharge, creating an arc that heats the two materials
to a weldable temperature.
4) When the materials reach the proper welding state, electromagnetic
actuators accelerate them together. The molten masses combine,
metal to metal, and are forged together. As the weld cools, a complete
alloy bond is formed.

In addition to the materials that can be processed on conventional resistance

welding machines, the method is particularly suitable for the following combinations
of materials and applications:
  Copper, tungsten, silver, molybdenum, nickel and their alloys
 Work pieces produced by powder metallurgy
 High-melting materials for high-voltage switchgear and control gear as
well as power and heavy-duty switching devices

The components frequently used in power and high power switching devices
in the field of electrical engineering can be made without the use of solder, flux or
other welding and soldering consumables.

The main features of the method are

 The short welding time results in a very narrow heat affected zone
 A joint is created which is free from weld upset and nearly free from
spatter
 Since the parts do not distort during the welding process and since
there is nearly no material loss, minimum post weld machining or
dressing is required, only.

STUD WELDING

Stud welding is an economical, rapid fixing method of metals used both in

engineering and construction work in heavy sections. Stud means a protecting know-
pin or a large-headed nails which can apply the fixing or fastening method of a
variety of shapes and diameters to the parent plate.

The studs may be of circular or rectangular cross-section, plain or threaded

(internally or externally) and vary from heavy support pins to clips or attachments
used in component assembly.

Types of Stud welding:

(1) Drawn arc; and

(2) Capacitor discharge.

The Drawn arc method is generally used for heavier studs and plates. The
Capacitor discharge method is for light gauge sheets. The operation depends upon
the size, shape, and material of the stud and the composition and thickness of the
metal parts.
 Drawn arc process is used in both engineering and heavy construction work.
The equipment consists of a D.C. power source controller and a hand-operated gun
or holder. The hand-operated gun has an operating solenoid and return-spring within
the gun-body which carries the operating adjustment switch. Studs are fluxed on the
contact end, which is slightly pointed, and are supplied with ferrules. To operate the
equipment, the welding current and time for the diameter of the stud are selected,

the stud is loaded into the proper chuck, the legs adjusted for length and the stud
positioned on the plate. When the gun switch is pressed a low current flows between
the pointed stud end and the work-piece and immediately the stud is raised, drawing
an arc and ionizing the gap.

Studs from 3.3-20 mm and above in diameter can be used on the plate thicker
than 1.6 mm and above. The rate of welding varies with the type of work, jigging,

location, etc. In circular and rectangular cross-section for engineering and

construction industries the weld can be made in mild steel, austenitic stainless steel,
aluminium, and its alloys, etc.

In the capacitor process, a small projection on the end of the stud makes
contact with the work-piece and the energy from a bank of charged capacitors is
discharged across the contact. This melts the stud projection and produces a molten
end of the stud and a shallow molten pool in the base metal. This completes the
work-piece under controlled spring pressure.

Advantages:

 Fast attachment.
 No reverse marking.
 The welded joint is stronger than the parent material or the stud.
 Access is only required from one side.
 No holes hence no leaking or weakening of the sheet.
 Tamper proof.
 Pre-coated or painted material can be welded

Disadvantages

 It lacks the near-instant speed that the CD stud welding process offers.
This factor could serve as a drawback for arc stud welding, resulting in
a slight effect on productivity in certain fast-paced projects.
 Arc stud welds aren‘t ideal for use on thin metals,
 The amount of heat and current could leave behind discoloration on
thinner work pieces.
 It is not suitable for smaller length of fasteners

PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW)

It is a fusion welding process wherein the coalescence is produced by heating

the work with a constricted arc established between a non-consumable tungsten
electrode and work piece or between a non-consumable electrode and constricted
nozzle. The shielding of the weld pool is obtained by the hot ionized gas produced by
passing inert gas through the arc and constricted nozzle. Filler material may or may
not be applied.

Principles of Operation:

In the PAW process, the work piece is cleaned and edges are prepared. An
arc is established between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and work piece or
between a non-consumable electrode and constricted nozzle. An inert gas is passed
through the inner orifice surrounding the tungsten electrode and subsequently the
gas is ionized and conducts electricity. This state of ionized gas is known as plasma.
The plasma arc is allowed to pass through the constricted nozzle causing high
energy and current density. Subsequently high concentrate heat and very high
temperatures are reached. The low flow rate (0.25 to 5 l/min) of the orifice gas is
maintained as excessive flow rate may cause turbulence in the weld pool. However
the orifice gas at this flow rate is insufficient to shield the weld pool effectively.
Therefore inert gas at higher flow rate (10- 30 l/min) is required to pass through outer
gas nozzle surrounding the inner gas nozzle to protect the weld pool. A typical
manual torch used in PAW is as shown in Fig. 4.5.2.

Plasma arc welding is of two types:

1) Non-transferred plasma arc welding process and

2) Transferred arc welding process.

In the former, the arc is established between the electrode and the nozzle and
in the latter process the arc is established between the electrode and the work piece.
The differences between these two processes are presented in the Table 2.1.

Operation:

In this process, arc cannot be initiated by touching the work piece as

electrode is recessed in the inner constricted nozzle. Therefore, a low current pilot
arc established in the constricted inner nozzle ad electrode. The pilot arc is generally
initiated by the use of high frequency. AC or high voltage DC pulse superimposed on
the main welding current. It cause the ionization of the orifice gas and high
temperature which contributes to easy initiation of the main arc between the
electrode and the work piece. After the initiation of the main arc, the pilot arc may be
extinguished. This is followed by adding the filler material as in TIC welding process.
Next, the welding torch is moved manually or automatically in the direction of
welding. There are two techniques

1) Key hole technique

2) Non key hole techniques

In the key hole technique, due to constricted arc, high temperature and high
gas flow, small weld pool with high penetration (up to 100%) width is obtained,
resulting in complete melting of the base material beneath the arc. As the arc move
forward, the material is melted and fills the hole produced due to arc force. The
power supply and gas flow rate are turned off once the key hole is filled appropriately
in the end of welding. The work piece is suitably cleaned after cooling

Table 2.1: Difference between the transferred and non-transferred arc welding
processes

Sl.No. Transferred plasma arc welding Non-transferred plasma arc

welding

1 Arc is established between Arc is established between

electrode and Work piece electrode and nozzle.

2 The work piece is part of the The work piece is not part of the
electrical circuit and heat is electrical circuit and heat is
obtained from the anode spot and obtained from the plasma jet.
the plasma jet. Therefore, higher Therefore, less energy is
amount of energy is transferred to transferred to work. This is useful
work. This is useful for welding. in cutting.

3 Higher penetration is obtained, so Less penetration is obtained, so

thicker sheets can be welded. thin sheets can be welded.

4 Higher process efficiency Less process efficiency.

Equipment and Consumables:

Power source: A conventional DC current power supply with drooping V-I

characteristics is required. Both rectifier or generator type power source may be
used; however, rectifier type power source is preferred. The general range of the
open-circuit voltage and current is 60-80V and 50-300A respectively.

Plasma torch: It consists of non consumable tungsten electrode, inner nozzle

(constricting nozzle) and outer gas nozzle. The torch is water cooled to avoid heating
of the nozzle. It is of two types: transferred arc and non transferred arc welding torch.

Filler material and shielding gases: Filler material used in this process is
the same as those used in the TIG and MIG welding processes. The selection of the
gases depends upon the martial to be welded. The orifice gas must be an inert gas
to avoid contamination of the electrode material. Active gas can be used for shielding
provided it does not affect the weld quality. In general, the orifice gas is the same as
the shielding gas.

Applications of PAW:

This process is comparatively new and hence the potential of the process is
yet to be understood/ accepted. This process can be used to join all the materials
those can be welded by welding TIG process. Present applications of the process
include:

 Piping and tubing of stainless and titanium,

 Submarine, aeronautical industry and jet engine manufacturing,
 Electronic components.

Advantages of PAW:

 Welding speed is higher.

 Penetration is more.
 Higher arc stability.
 The distance between torch and work piece does not affect heat
concentration on the work up to some extent.
  Addition of filler material is easier than that of TIG welding process.
 Thicker job can be welded.
 Higher depth to width ratio is obtained resulting in less distortion.

Disadvantages of PAW:

 Higher radiations.
 Noise during welding.
 Process is complicated and requires skilled manpower.
 Gas consumption is high.
 Higher equipment and running cost.
 Higher open circuit voltage requiring higher safety measures to
take.

ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a fusion welding in which coalescence is

produced by heating the work piece due to impingement of the concentrated electron
beam of high kinetic energy on the work piece. As the electron beam impinges the
work piece, kinetic energy of the electron beams converts into thermal energy
resulting in melting and even evaporation of the work material.

Principles:

In general, electron beam welding process is carried out in vacuum. In this

process, electrons are emitted from the heated filament called electrode. These
electrons are accelerated by applying high potential difference (30 kV to 175 kV)
between cathode and anode. The higher the potential difference, the higher would
be the acceleration of the electrons. The electrons get the speed in the range of
50,000 to 200,000 km/s. The electron beam is focused by means of electromagnetic
lenses. When this high kinetic energy electron beam strikes on the work piece, high
heat is generated on the work piece resulting in melting of the work material. Molten
metal fills into the gap between parts to be joined and subsequently it gets solidified
and forms the weld joint.

Equipment:

An Electron Beam Welding set up consists of the following major equipment:

 1) Electron gun,
2) Power supply,
3) Vacuum Chamber, and
4) Work piece handling device

Electron Gun: An electron gun generates, accelerates and aligns the electron beam
in required direction and spots on the work piece. The gun is of two types:

(1) Self-accelerated
(2) Work accelerated.

The work accelerated gun accelerates the electron by providing potential

difference between the work piece and cathode. In the self-accelerate gun, electrons
are accelerated by applying potential difference between the cathode and the anode.
The anode and cathode are enclosed within the gun itself. The control of electron
density is better in this type of electron gun. A schematic diagram of an Electron
Beam Welding is shown in figure. The major parts of a gun are briefly introduced in
the following section.
Emitter / Filament:

It generates the electron on direct or indirect heating.

Anode:

It is a positively charged element near cathode, across which the high voltage
is applied to accelerate the electrons. The potential difference for high voltage
equipment ranges from 70-150 kV and for low voltage equipment from 15-30kV.

Grid cup:

Grid cup is a part of triode type electron gun. A negative voltage with respect
to cathode is applied to the grid. The grid controls the beam.

Focusing unit:

It has two parts: Electron focusing lens and deflection coil. Electron focusing
lens focuses the beam into work area. The focusing of the electrons can be carried
out by deflection of beams. The electromagnetic lens contains a coil encased in iron.
As the electrons enter into the magnetic field, the electron beam path is rotated and
refracted into a convergent beam. The extent of spread of the beam can be
controlled by controlling the amount of DC voltage applied across the deflection
plates.

Electron gun power supply:

It consists of mainly the high voltage DC power supply source, emitter power
supply source, electromagnetic lens and deflection coil source. In the high voltage
DC power supply source the required load varies within 3-100 kW. It provides power
supply for acceleration of the electrons. The current level ranges from 50-1000 mA.

In emitter power supply, AC or DC current is required to heat the filament for

emission of electrons. However DC current is preferred as it affects the direction of
the beam. The amount of current depends upon the diameter and type of the
filament. The current and voltage varies from 25-70 A and 5-30 V respectively. The
power to the electromagnetic lens and deflection coil is supplied through a solid state
device.

Vacuum Chamber:

In the vacuum chamber pressure is reduced by the vacuum pump. It consists

of a roughing mechanical pump and a diffusion pump. The pressure ranges from 100
kPa for open atmosphere to 0.13-13 Pa for partial vacuum and 0.13-133 mPa for
hard vacuum. As the extent of vacuum increases, the scattering of the electrons in
the beam increases. It causes the increase in penetration.

Work Piece Handling Device:

Quality and precision of the weld profile depends upon the accuracy of the
movement of work piece. There is also provision for the movement of the work piece
to control the welding speed. The movements of the work piece are easily adaptable
to computer numerical control.

Advantages of EBW:

 High penetration to width can be obtained, which is difficult with other

welding processes.
 High welding speed is obtained.
 Material of high melting temperature can be welded.
 Superior weld quality due to welding in vacuum.
 High precision of the welding is obtained.
 Distortion is less due to less heat affected zone.
 Dissimilar materials can be welded.
 Low operating cost.
 Cleaning cost is negligible.
 Reactive materials like beryllium, titanium etc. can be welded.
 Materials of high melting point like columbium, tungsten etc. can be
welded.
  Inaccessible joints can be made.
 Very wide range of sheet thickness can be joined (0.025 mm to 100
mm)

Disadvantages of EBW:

 Very high equipment cost.

 High vacuum is required.
 High safety measures are required.
 Large jobs are difficult to weld.
 Skilled man power is required

Applications of EBW:

a. Electron beam welding process is mostly used in joining of refractive

materials like columbium, tungsten, ceramic etc. which are used in
missiles.
b. In space shuttle applications wherein reactive materials like beryllium,
zirconium, titanium etc. are used.
c. In high precession welding for electronic components, nuclear fuel
elements, special alloy jet engine components and pressure vessels for
rocket plants.
d. Dissimilar material can be welded like invar with stainless steel.

THERMIT WELDING

The energy in the form of heat is liberated by a chemical reaction the reaction
is called ―Exothermic‖ — which is the chemical reaction of Thermit welding.

Thermit is a chemical process welding which was previously termed ―Alumino

-Thermit‖ because the chemical mixture was of iron oxide and powdered aluminium.
Aluminium is a strong reducing agent—it combines with the oxygen from the iron
oxide, reducing it to iron.

The Thermit consists of about five parts of aluminium to eight parts of iron
oxide. If this mixture is placed in a fireclay crucible and ignited by means of a special
powder, the action starts and continues throughout the mass of the mixture, giving
out great heat.

The intense heat that results due to the chemical action not only melts the iron
but raises the temperature to about 3,000°C. The high temperature of the iron results
in excellent fusion of the parts to be welded. Good steel scrap, or a small percentage
of manganese or other alloying elements may be added, thereby producing a good
quality Thermit steel.

Fe2O3 + 2 Al 2 Fe + Al2O3

3Cu2O + 2 Al 6 Cu + Al2O3

Preparation of the Weld:

1. The edges of the work piece are cut flat and cleaned to remove dirt, grease
and other impurities to obtain a sound weld. A gap of about 1.5-6mm is left
between the edges of the two work pieces.
 2. A wax heated to its plastic state is poured in the gap between the work pieces
to be joined and allowed to solidify. Excess wax solidified around the joint is
removed.
3. A mould box is placed around the joint and packed with sand providing
necessary gates and risers. A hole or heating gate is made in the mould
connecting to the joint.
4. The wax material is melted out by means of flame directed into the heating
gate, so that it leaves a cavity at the joint which will later be occupied by the
molten metal. The heating gate is then closed with a sand core or iron plug.
5. Exothermic reaction occurs to form molten iron and slag which floats at the
top. The temperature resulting from this reaction is approximately 3000°C.
The plug at the bottom of the crucible is opened and the molten metal is
poured into the cavity. The molten metal acts as a filler metal, melts the edges
of the joint and fuses to form a weld.
6. After the weld joint cools and solidifies, the mould is broken, risers are cut and
the joint is finished by machining and grinding.

Fig. 2.11 illustrates the weld process.

Types of Thermit welding

1. Wabbler Thermit
2. Plain Thermit
3. Cast iron Thermit
4. Forging Thermit

Wabbler Thermit

Wabbler thermit which is particularly alloyed to make a solid, wear resistant,

Machinable Steel use for produce rolls and pinions within rolling mills.

Plain Thermit

Plain Thermit is a combination of Aluminium with Iron Oxide and is the base
for every other Thermits
Cast Iron Thermit:

Beside by Ferro-Silicon, Plain Thermit with Mild Steel are add as a

combination and is use for welding iron works

Forging Thermit

Beside by Nickel, Manganese, Plain Thermit with mild steel are other as a
mixture and is use for welding iron works.

Advantages:

 Intended for finish welding of strengthens bars to be use in concrete

construction.
 For welding new necks to rolling mill rolls with pinions.
 Used for welding large broken crankshafts
 Used for building up damaged wobblers
 For welding busted frames of machines
 For restore broken teeth on big gears

Disadvantages:

 Low deposition rate with operating factor

 Its cannot weld low melting point
 It has slag inclusion
 It is high skill factor
 Extremely high level of fumes

Application:

The process is especially useful in welding together large-sections such as

locomotive frames, stem posts of ship and rudders, railway lines, and tramlines.