Ancient Egypt

Timeline
Old kingdom: Age of Pyramids
Middle kingdom: Age of Nobles
New kingdom: Age of Empire

Summary
In the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians built pyramids for their deceased pharaohs, hence the title ‘Age
of Pyramids”. It was during this time that nomes fought because of incompetent pharaohs; this led
to the downfall of the Old Kingdom which ten led to the 1st intermediate period where rivals
claimed the throne. After the 1st intermediate period came the Middle Kingdom, the ‘Age of
Nobles. It was during this period were systems & reorganization took place, stabilizing the
kingdom. It however faltered due to strong nobles in the provinces fighting for power & successive
rule resulting in a long civil war where the Hyksos easily invaded. This led to the 2nd intermediate
period and then the New Kingdom, the “Age of Empire’ where the empire grew as nearby
provinces were acquired

Nile River
- Served as the natural barrier of the kingdom which fostered isolation, protected Egypt
from invasion, & gave a sense of security
- Source of abundant resources for food
- An effective way for transportation & communication

Pharaoh (Great house)

- They were viewed as liaisons to the Gods
 - Has an absolute power over the Egyptian land & waters
- King Menes is one of the known pharaohs that have ever ruled Egypt as he united upper
& lower Egypt, which led to the continuous progress of the Egyptian Empire

Religion
- Egyptians believed in the afterlife
➢ Pyramids & mummification are tangible expressions of these beliefs
- Egypts’ version of heaven is A’aru (field of reeds)
- Polytheism was practiced in Ancient Egypt
➢ They worshiped Amon-Ra, the sun god & Osiris, the god of the nile
- Anubis is the god of mummification
- In the New Kingdom, Amenhotep, a pharaoh ordered the worship of only 1 god Aton
- Depending on their current ruler, the religion could be mono or poly

Social structure
Egyptian society was divided into 3 classes. How “fancy” your pyramid is (if you had one)
symbolized your status
- Upper class: Priests, the court mobility, & the landed mobility
- Middle class: Artisans, professionals such as teachers, doctors, & scribes
- Lower class: Peasants & slaves

Women in ancient Egypt

During the New Kingdom, women in Egypt enjoyed high status
- They can acquire property
- Could enjoy legal & economic rights
- Could manage, own, & sell properties
- Could hold position in the government
- Could request for divorce

Education in ancient Egypt

- Boys w/ privileged backgrounds had greater access to formal education. Their education
was under the care of their fathers
- Some girls from the elite class might receive limited basic education. They learned the
skills they needed at home

Economic activities in ancient Egypt

- The fertile Nile River valley facilitated abundant farming, w/ Egyptians cultivating crops
such as wheat, barley, & flax
- The Egyptians excelled in crafts like pottery, weaving, & metal working. These skills fueled
a thriving economy w/ a robust system of barter & trade within & outside Egypt
Achievements of ancient Egypt
- Hieroglyphics: The writing system used in ancient Egypt
- Papyrus paper: A material similar to thick paper used as a writing surface
- Mummification: The process of embalming a dead body
- Ink & reed pen: Reeds pens were used to write on papyrus paper
- Cubit-measurement system: A measurement system based on the length of the arm from
the elbow to the tip of the middle finger

Ancient Greece

Timeline

Summary
First came the Minoans whose downfall was due to the eruption of the Thera volcano & the
invasion of the Mycenaeans who came second. The downfall of the Mycenaeans was caused by
the Dorians because the Mycenaeans did not have a chance against their superior weaponry along
w/ an earthquakes & social unrest. At around 1200 BCE, all written records have stopped for the
next 400 years because the Dorians had won. Greece fell into a dark age which ended around
800 BCE w/ the start of the Archaic period. The period started w/ a massive increase in
population & a structural revolution that led to the development of the Greek city-states.The period
saw a development in Greek politics, economics, international relations, warfare, & culture. The
Archaic period led to Classical Greece/ the Classical period, the period between the Archaic &
Hellenistic periods. This period was marked by continuous conflicts, artistic revolution, the birth of
Greek philosophy, advancements in Science, warfare, & the advent of Athenian democracy

Geography
- Ancient Greece was a civilization located in southeastern Europe
- It is a mountainous peninsula that juts into the eastern Mediterranean Sea
- Lacks plains & large rivers
- Limited amount of arable land
 - Surrounded by seas; made overseas trade important
Advantages
- Encouraged the development of independent cities
- Barrier for invaders

Disadvantages
- Physically isolated communities
- Made it difficult to unite the country
- Made agriculture difficult
- Mountains limited transportation & communication

Citizenship
- In Ancient Greece, you had to earn your citizenship through meeting specific requirements
- A citizen is a member of a city-state & had certain political rights (the right to vote) &
responsibilities

Economics
- The limited land forced many Greeks to turn to fishing & trading
- Overseas trading became an important part of their society

Minoan civilization
A Bronze Age culture named after king Minos

Geography
- Started on Crete island (Mountains & hills)
- Surrounded by water

Religion
- Their religion revolved around a mother goddess, who is often associated w/ fertility,
vegetation, & the earth
- The bull was likely a symbol of power & vitality, & its importance is evident in the myth of
the Minotaur
- Practiced rituals aimed at communicating w/ the divine, seeking blessings, & appeasing
gods

Politics
- The Minoan civilization consisted of a number of principalities which were dominated/ruled
by a palace however the king ruled over the entire civilization
 - The most famous of these palaces is the Knossos which served as an administrative &
economic center

Economy
- Minoans were the trading power of the Eastern Mediterranean
- They traded w/ the people in Fertile Crescent
- Learned how to make bronze from the Sumerians
- They transported goods to as far as Egypt & Syria through the Nile & the Black Sea using
their own built ships made of oak & cedar
- Agriculture

Society
- Kings lived in palaces
- Wealthy merchants spent lavishly on their homes & personal comfort
- Women were believed to be allowed to engage in economic activities as depicted in
Minoan paintings

Mycenaeans
Last phase of the Bronze Age in ancient Greece

Geography
- Located on the Greek mainland
- The mountainous terrain provided natural defenses for Mycenaeans
- Connected to trade routes

Religion
- Featured a pantheon of deities who were the manifestation of ideas & represents natural
phenomenons that couldn’t be explained
- Ancestor worship appears to be an important aspect of Mycenaean religion due to
elaborated tombs

Politics
- Administrative & political powers were firmly under royal authority (king)
- The government could have control over the economy & imposed tax like goods to the
people

Economy
- Trading was an essential activity in Mycenaean civilization. It made them rich but victories
in battles made them richer
- Poetry, tanning of leather, bronze metalworking, sewing clothes, & creating wines were
what made the Mycenaeans busy
Society
- Kings help the apex of the hierarchy, encompassing roles as both governmental &
religious leaders
- Military commanders came 2nd while religious figures came 3rd in the hierarchy
- Cavalry class was 4th followed by laborers & the slaves
- Women can trade

Classical Greek
The period that is regarded as the peak of Greek civilization

Geography
- The mountainous terrain led to the development of independent city-states, each w/ its
own government, laws, & identity
- They engaged in trade & developed a maritime culture

Religion
- The greeks believed in a pantheon of gods & goddesses known as the Olympians. These
deities resided on Mount Olympus
- Each city-state had its own set of local deities & heroes
- Classical Greek religion was an integral part of daily life, shaping moral values, societal
norms, & the arts
- Temples such as the Parthenon were created for worship
- Greek people consulted oracles for advice

Greek city-states (Polis)

A typical polis included a city & surrounding villages. At the center of the city, on top of the
acropolis/fortified hill, stood the temple of the local gods/goddesses. There is also an agora/public
square that serves as the center of political affairs. Citizens usually gathered in the agora to choose
their officials & pass laws

- Athens: A democratic citi-state focused on intellectual & cultural achievements

Government
The Athenian government placed a high value on education, philosophy, & the arts that made it
the center of intellectual & cultural achievements

Citizenship
Only Athenian free-born males are considered citizens but not women & slaves

Economic activities
Became the power trading center of the Mediterranean
- Agriculture
- Industry & craftsmanship

Society
- Athenian education focused on creating well-rounded citizens capable of contributing to
civic life
- Women were expected to manage the household & were generally not involved in public
affairs or events

- Sparta: An oligarchic society w/ a focus on military strength & discipline, led by a

dual monarchy
Government
Spartan government revolved around its priority to become a strong military state that involves
rigorous military training & discipline

Citizenship
Only free-born males who have met specific requirements like having Spartan parents, finishing
military training, & joining communal meals were considered citizens

Economic activities
Limited trade as they focused on military discipline & the reliance on helot labor (helot means a
member of a class of serfs in ancient Sparta)
- Agriculture was their main economic activity
- Helot labor, where state slaves do the lands of the states
Society
- Education in Sparta was primarily geared towards producing capable soldiers
- Primary societal expectations for Spartan women was to bear healthy & strong children

Legacies of the Greek civilization

Arts, Architecture, & Science

- Painting through Amphoras

- Realistic & intricate sculptures/sculpture details

 - Orders of architecture w/ distinctive columns & ornamentation

- Advanced knowledge in Geometry, History, Astronomy, Medicine, Anatomy, & Science

Philosophy
- Aristotle: Observation & comparison is necessary to gain knowledge
- Socrates: The Socratic Method involved asking & answering questions to stimulate
thinking & illuminate ideas
- Plato: He emphasized the importance of reason

Politics
- Concept of Democracy: The first known concept of Democracy was when citizens
participated in decision-making through the Athenian Assembly, where they could vote on
laws & policies
- Philosophies on government: Plato – philosophy/philosophies on the idea of an ideal
state ruled by philosopher-kings; Aristotle – philosophy/philosophies on the different forms
of government & constitutional structures
- Citizenship & civic responsibilities: Citizens had both rights & responsibilities, including
military service, participation in the assembly, & adherence to civic duties

Literature
- Iliad & Odyssey: Homer’s epic poems, the “Iliad” & the “Odyssey” are foundational works
of Greek literature
- Histories: Herodotus & Thucydides wrote accounts on the great Peloponnesian war.
Herodotus, author of “Histories” was the 1st historian to systematically record events that
have happened, hence, being referred as the “Father of History”
- Lyric poetry: Sappho, a lyric poet from the island of Lesbos, is known for her lyric poetry,
which explores themes of love, desire, & personal emotions
- Comedy & tragedy
- Greek mythology
Ancient Rome

Timeline

Period of Kings

Government structure
The land was led by a king who had absolute power of the land

Composition of society
Etruscans, people who lived at the north of Rome in Etruria, led the society

Significant events
Etruscans brutally enforced the Monarchy that the Romans hated, resulting to a revolt
overthrowing the Etruscans

Roman Republic
The period in which Rome was a republic (a government structure where the officials are chosen
by the people)
Res – entity or concern
Publicus – of the people or public
Government structure
- Senate was the most powerful, w/ all 300 members coming from the particians
- Every year, the senate chooses 2 consuls who come from the patricians
- The consuls only serve for a year

12 tables
- Serves as the foundation of Roman civil law
- Contains laws that should be followed by all Romans regardless of citizenship

Checks & balances

It is a principle within the government where each branch has the ability to limit & control the
powers of the other branches of the government. This principle is used to prevent corruption
Composition of society
Citizens during the Roman Republic were divided into 2 classes, the Patricians, the ruling class, &
the Plebeians, the common people/lower class

Significant events

The expansion of Roman power

- Punic war 1 (264-261 BCE): The Romans conquered Sicily
- Punic war 2 (218-201 BCE): The Romans defeated the Carthaginians & controlled parts
of Africa
- Punic war 3 (149-146 BCE): The Romans ousted the the Carthaginians & expanded their
territory as far as Spain

Notable people

First Triumvirate
The first triumvirate was successful in leading Rome. However, when Crassus died, the war
between Pompey & Julius Caesar arose on who should lead
- Julius Caesar:
- Politician & general
- Defeated Pompey to rule Rome
- Made himself the 1st dictator of the Roman Republic
- Passed reforms in the Roman Republic
Reforms of Julius Caesar
- Allowed Plebeians to take hold of public office
- Roman citizenship was extended to people living outside Italy
- Distribution of land to people of Rome
- Unburdening debtors of heavy taxes
- Introduced changes & revisions in the system of government (ie. Taxation & laws)
- Increased pay of soldiers
- Helped Roman colonies stand on their own & support themselves
- Extended compassion & pardon to those who betrayed him

Assassination of Julius Caesar

A group of senators planned to kill him because of his reforms & fear of making himself a king. In
a meeting, they backstabbed Caesar. This is popularly known as the “Ides of March”
 - Marcus Crassus
- Pompey Magnus

Second Triumvirate
After the death of Julius Caesar, the second triumvirate was born. Octavian eventually led Rome
after a series of civil wars
- Mark Antony
- Lepidus
- Octavian:
- Established the Roman Empire
- Was granted the title of Augustus by the senate meaning Emperor
Reforms of Augustus
- Marriage of Plebeians & Patricians
- Worship of Roman Gods & Goddesses
- Made several economic reforms
- Strengthened the allegiance of cities & governments to Rome by giving them the freedom
of self-government
- Created a stable government through efficient & well-trained civil servants
- Jobs were given to talented men, regardless of their class
- Ordered a population count to be included in the empire
- Set up a postal service system
- Made trading easier by issuing coins

Pax Romana
The period of relative peace & stability that existed throughout the Roman Empire where they
experienced minimal internal conflict, allowing for economic prosperity, cultural development, &
widespread trade
The division and decline of the Roman Empire (Idk if we learned this)
Before the fall of the Roman Empire, there had been a long decay seen many years before. Pax
Romana ended when Marcus Aurelius died, & political disorder & civil war plagued Rome.
During this turmoil, the authority of Rome weakened. Many issues started arising such as law &
order declining & the devaluation of currency, leading to inflation. This resulted in businesses &
cities declining.
Additionally, business people & small farmers were being burdened by heavy taxes. Due to this,
many farmers abandoned their farms. The arrival of invaders only added to this problem and more
Reign of Diocletian
In 284 CE, Diocletian introduced harsh laws meant to strengthen the empire
- He divided the empire into 2 & appointed a co-emperor
- He organized the civil service & made officials directly responsible to the emperor
- He enlarged the army & trained new cavalry units to fight the invaders
- He ordered the building of forts & roads to reinforce the frontier defenses (For a time,
these moves kept peace)
- He set limits on prices & wages
- He ordered people to remain in their jobs to ensure that there is enough farm products &
manufactured food
Illness forced Diocletian to retire in 305 CE. A long power struggle resulted from so

Reign of Constantine
In 312 CE, Constantine reunited the eastern & western territories, & undertook a significant step
when he built a new capital at Byzantium. He expanded the reforms of Diocletian, ordering officials
to enforce harsh laws tying artisans to their trades & farmers to their lands. Without the hope of
getting ahead, people saw little reason to work hard.

The policies of Diocletian & Constantine did not stop the political & economic decay. Corruption
resurfaced after Constantine’s death in 337 BCE.
Diocletian & Constantine struggled to restore Roman power, but invaders sweeping across the
frontiers shattered the unity of the Roman Empire

Roman contributions
- Check & balances
- Land reforms
- 12 tables
- Women’s rights
- Colosseums
- Churches
- Aqueducts

- Roads