Themes in the Research on Preservice Teachers’ Views

of Cultural Diversity: Implications for Researching

Millennial Preservice Teachers
Antonio J. Castro

This article traces themes found in the research on preservice teach- their practices. Finally, White preservice teachers lacked a sense
ers’ views of cultural diversity published in peer-reviewed journals of themselves as cultural beings, resulting in their assumptions
from 1985 to 2007. The article seeks to draw insights that inform that their own cultural lenses represent the norm for all other
students.
education researchers interested in interrogating and unpacking
However, despite the persistence of these findings, recent
views about diversity expressed by today’s millennial college students.
reports about today’s millennial-generation college students—
Findings suggest that although recent studies report a shift toward those born in or since 1985—highlight their greater acceptance of
more positive attitudes about teaching culturally diverse students, cultural diversity, increased civic participation, and advocacy for
persistent issues plague preservice teachers’ understanding of cul- social justice issues (Broido, 2004; Howe & Strauss, 2000; Kiesa
tural diversity. Implications for future research are discussed. et al., 2007; Ousley, 2006). Scholars investigating the millennial
generation suggest that the “historical location” of millennial col-
lege students is dramatically different from that of previous gen-
Keywords: diversity; multicultural education; social justice;
erations, stressing the influence of factors such as the rise of the
teacher education/development Internet and interconnectivity, globalization, and demographic
diversity (Coomes, 2004; Howe & Strauss, 2000; Marker, 2006).
These factors may contribute to greater acceptance of and appre-
ciation for cultural diversity (Broido, 2004; Ousley, 2006).

A
s today’s public schools become more culturally and This article investigates the contradiction between the prom-
economically diverse, the demographic divide between ise of college students of the millennial generation and persistent
teachers and students deepens. Preservice teachers gen- findings about preservice teachers’ views on cultural diversity by
erally come from middle-class, Anglo-American backgrounds presenting a change-over-time analysis of the research literature
(Zumwalt & Craig, 2005) and prefer to teach in suburban and on preservice teachers’ views of cultural diversity, multicultural
more affluent school contexts (Darling-Hammond & Cobb, education, and social justice since 1985. Although teacher educa-
1996), perpetuating existing inequities in access to qualified tion researchers have already conducted syntheses of preservice
teachers for urban and high-needs schoolchildren (Darling- teachers and cultural diversity (Cochran-Smith, Davis, & Fries,
Hammond, 2007; Ladson-Billings & Brown, 2008). 2003; Grant & Secada, 1990; Hollins & Guzman, 2005; Sleeter,
Furthermore, teachers in diverse schools may hold lower expecta- 2008; Zeichner & Hoeft, 1996), this article investigates not only
tions, resulting in a pedagogy of poverty that undermines the the continuities, the themes that permeate the literature, but also
potential inherent to a public school education (Haberman, the discontinuities. An analysis of the changes over time in the
1991, 1996). Preparing culturally responsive teachers with the reported findings in the research literature may provide insights
willingness and abilities to teach in these more diverse school about today’s millennial-generation preservice teachers that do
contexts represents, perhaps, the most daunting task facing not emerge from a traditional synthesis. My central purpose is to
teacher educators today (Gay, 2002; Villegas, 2008). discern whether research findings suggest a trend among preser-
Much of the research on promoting culturally responsive vice teachers toward greater acceptance of and appreciation for
teaching addresses gaps and deficits in preservice teachers’ experi- multicultural education and teaching in culturally diverse con-
ences, attitudes, and perceptions. For example, Sleeter (2008) texts. More specifically, I aim to address the following questions:
outlined four interrelated issues affecting many White preservice
teachers. First, White preservice teachers failed to recognize the •• What themes in the research on preservice teachers’ views of
pervasiveness of racial inequity. Second, White preservice teach- cultural diversity, social justice, and multicultural education
ers held deficit views about and lower expectations for students have remained stable or constant since 1985?
of color. Third, these preservice teachers adopted a colorblind •• What themes in this research have shifted or changed since
approach to teaching, denying the very significance of race in 1985?

Educational Researcher,Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 198–210

DOI: 10.3102/0013189X10363819
© 2010 AERA. http://er.aera.net
198 educational Researcher
 As this inquiry reveals, the research over time offers both and social justice and whether the research literature suggests
problems and possibilities that make more complex our further greater critical awareness of multicultural issues.
examinations of millennial preservice teachers and their beliefs
Method
about cultural diversity.
Born in or since 1985, many of today’s undergraduate seniors
Critical Multiculturalism and Preservice Teachers’
belong to the first cohort of millennials to earn a college degree.
Views on Cultural Diversity
This article tracks and synthesizes the research discourse about
As I began this synthesis, I relied on aspects of critical multicul- preservice teachers’ views on cultural diversity throughout much
turalism to inform my interpretation of these studies. Critical of the millennial generation’s life span; however, it does not con-
multiculturalism draws inspiration from critical theory, sharing tain an exhaustive review of the literature. I used the following
“essentially the same ethics, spirit, values, principles, and actions” criteria to choose articles appropriate to this endeavor. First, all
(Gay, 1995, p. 180). Critical multiculturalism strives to bring the selected articles describe research findings for qualitative,
about the transformation of society to accomplish the goals of quantitative, or mixed-methods studies that involved traditional
social justice by confronting and disrupting institutions and the undergraduate students, usually ranging from 19 to 23 years of
structures of power that maintain disparities across race, class, age, who were enrolled in teacher education programs. The scope
and gender (May, 1998; Sleeter & Grant, 2007; Sleeter & of this synthesis includes possible generational trends in the
McLaren, 1995; Steinberg, 1995; Steinberg & Kincheloe, 2001). research findings over time and excludes studies focused on alter-
Critical multiculturalism also challenges the essentializing of cul- native certification or postbaccalaureate programs, which attract
tural groups and “romanticizing the curriculum” with images of older teacher education students (Zumwalt & Craig, 2005).
“brown heroes” or mystical pasts (McCarthy, 1993; McLaren, Second, all articles included in the synthesis present findings
1995; Nieto, 1995). related to views on cultural diversity, social justice, or multicul-
Applying ideas of critical multiculturalism to preservice teach- tural education that the preservice teacher possessed prior to any
ers’ views on cultural diversity, multicultural education, and intervention or educational experience. These findings offer a
social justice led me to explore two specific concepts. First, I bor- measure by which to draw comparisons across the literature over
rowed from Freire’s (1999) descriptions of conscientizção. Freire time. Descriptions of programs or courses that did not utilize a
argued that the first stage in promoting an antioppressive, specific research methodology and/or failed to report on stu-
humanist pedagogy required both the oppressor and oppressed to dents’ incoming views were not included.
“take into account their behavior, their view of the world, and I began first by identifying key research articles published from
their ethics” (p. 37). This idea of conscious reflection on one’s self 1985 to 1999. I defined a “key” study as one that either was cited
and situation mirrors the concept of sociocultural consciousness in a review of literature on preservice teachers’ views on cultural
espoused by Villegas and Lucas (2002), which they define as diversity, social justice, and/or multicultural education or appeared
“awareness that one’s worldview is not universal but is profoundly as a chapter in a handbook of research on teacher education and/
shaped by one’s life experiences, as mediated by a variety of fac- or multicultural education or in Cochran-Smith and Zeichner’s
tors, chief among them race/ethnicity, social class, and gender” Studying Teacher Education: The Report of the AERA Panel on
(p. 27). This awareness, according to Villegas and Lucas, can Research and Teacher Education (2005; also see Cochran-Smith
assist preservice teachers in becoming culturally responsive in the et al., 2003; Grant & Secada, 1990; Hollins & Guzman, 2005;
classroom. Sleeter, 2008; Zeichner & Hoeft, 1996). These review chapters
Second, critical multiculturalism asserts that inequities occur synthesize the research literature usually over a span of 10 or more
at the level of institutional practices and structures and are often years and serve as a guide for future research in the field. In addi-
masked by common sets of ideologies and beliefs—what Freire tion, I located research articles that were cited by one or more of
referred to as the “myths which deform us” (Shor & Freire, the articles included in this synthesis. I wanted to ensure that I
1986/2003, p. 481). Bartolomé (1994) lamented that beginning included as many peer-reviewed studies as possible that had been
teachers often believe in these myths, assuming that their teach- identified as contributing to the field of research in this area.
ing practices are “fine” and need no further interrogation and Next, because most of the syntheses already published do not
that schools as institutions are “fair and democratic sites where all review recently published research, I conducted a hand search of
students are provided with similar, if not equal, treatment and peer-reviewed journals that address issues in teacher education,
learning conditions” (p. 174). Therefore, critical multicultural- diversity, and urban education; I looked for research studies pub-
ism fosters the types of knowledge that “help us understand how lished from 2000 to 2007 that fit my selection criteria, discussed
social relationships are distorted and manipulated by relations of above. These journals included Action in Teacher Education;
power and privilege” (McLaren, 2003, p. 197). Teachers who Education and Urban Society; Equity and Excellence; Journal of
achieve a sense of critical consciousness (Freire, 1999) or socio- Teacher Education; Teacher Education Quarterly; Teaching and
cultural consciousness (Villegas & Lucas, 2002) recognize that Teacher Education; Urban Education; and Urban Review.
teaching is always a political act, and they develop political clar- Using my selection process, I identified 36 articles published
ity, which is essential for realizing the transformative aims of from 1986 to 1999 and 19 articles published from 2000 to 2007,
critical multiculturalism (Bartolomé, 1994). a total of 55 research studies. To facilitate a change-over-time
Using critical multiculturalism as a framework for this change- analysis of the research, I distributed the articles into three time
over-time analysis, I sought to investigate the findings of preser- periods based on specific trends that I identified within the lit-
vice teachers’ views on cultural diversity, multicultural education, erature: 1986–1994 (13 articles), 1995–1999 (23 articles), and

april 2010 199

 Table 1
Themes Across the Research on Preservice Teachers’ Beliefs on Diversity in Each Time Period
Time Period 1 (1986–1994) Time Period 2 (1995–1999) Time Period 3 (2000–2007)
A lack of complexity in understanding A lack of complexity in understanding A lack of complexity in understanding
multicultural issues. multicultural issues. multicultural issues.
A lack of tolerance for different cultural Deficit views/prejudice regarding students Contradictory attitudes/perceptions
groups of color. concerning diverse populations and
Gaps in learning how to teach in Importance of personal background on social justice.
multicultural contexts. attitudes, beliefs, and multicultural Importance of personal background on
concepts. attitudes, beliefs, and multicultural
concepts.
Instructional practices that foster changes in
preservice teachers’ beliefs about
diversity, social justice, or multicultural
education.

2000–2007 (19 articles). As I read each article, I took extensive the mostly Anglo-American preservice teachers toward ethnic
notes on the influences and challenges associated with preparing minorities, and gaps in course work in multicultural education
teachers for culturally diverse student populations. I organized and teaching strategies.
these notes into a grid and categorized them into themes for each
specific time period, a process known as open coding (Miles & A lack of complexity in understanding multicultural issues. The
Huberman, 1994). Finally, I compared themes across the three studies during this time period revealed that preservice teachers
time periods to determine which themes had remained constant held uncritical, shallow, and inaccurate perspectives on impor-
and which had shifted over time. tant societal issues, akin to what King (1991) termed “dyscon-
In this synthesis, I focus on general trends across the research sciousness,” or the “uncritical habit of mind (including perceptions,
literature concerning preservice teachers’ views about cultural attitudes, assumptions, and beliefs) that justifies inequity and
diversity, social justice, and/or multicultural education; therefore, exploitation by accepting the existing order of things as given” (p.
this synthesis does not present a meta-analysis of quantitative or 135). Researchers discovered that many preservice teachers failed
qualitative data. Furthermore, as Montecinos (2004) pointed to look critically at systems of inequity, White privilege, teaching
out, several of these articles failed to disaggregate data specifically in diverse contexts, and the goals of multicultural education.
for their culturally diverse participants. As a result, the findings Two research studies demonstrated that preservice teachers
of this synthesis represent research on mostly middle-class, held shallow and vague notions of socioeconomic and educational
Anglo-American preservice teachers. disparities for minority populations. First, King (1991) asked the
57 students enrolled in her Foundations of Education course to
Changes in Preservice Teachers’ Views
offer explanations for the high infant mortality rate among
About Diversity
African Americans; she discovered that her students held a “blame
I separated the research on preservice teachers’ perspectives on the victim” mentality, finding fault within the African American
cultural diversity into three general time periods. The first time community or with poverty in general. In a similar study, Avery
period (1986–1994) consisted of 13 articles mostly published and Walker (1993) surveyed 152 preservice teachers about the
after 1990. The second time period (1995–1999) represented an achievement gap between Whites, Hispanics, and African
expansion phase of research on preservice teachers’ views on cul- Africans. They found the “simplicity of responses” given by par-
tural diversity. Finally, articles written since 2000 indicate a ticipants to be “surprising” (p. 35), indicating that participants
movement of research toward uncovering not only the ways in had “only vague understandings of the relationship between social
which preservice teachers view cultural diversity but also the structures and schooling and of the extent to which inequality is
methods with which teacher education programs can promote perpetuated through schools” (p. 35). These studies point to the
multicultural education and social justice agendas. The themes lack of critical consciousness necessary to engage in critical mul-
across each of these three time periods illuminate the continuing ticulturalism. Indeed, participants tended to hold individuals and
tensions in the research findings on preservice teachers’ orienta- communities personally responsible for these disparities.
tions to diversity (see Table 1). These findings offer both endur- Additional studies in this time period reported that partici-
ing problems and new possibilities for preparing preservice pants held narrow, individualistic, or distorted notions of multi-
teachers to work in culturally diverse contexts. cultural education. Both Grant and Koskela (1986) and Goodwin
(1994) found that their participants associated multicultural
Time Period 1: The Initial Phase of Research (1986–1994)
education with teaching only those who are culturally different
Between 1986 and 1994, teacher education researchers focused from the dominant group. Grant and Koskela reported that
on documenting problems associated with preservice teachers’ many of the 23 preservice teachers they interviewed subscribed to
conceptions of multicultural issues, general intolerance among an “exemption syndrome,” a belief that multicultural education

200 educational Researcher

did not apply to teaching in White schools. Likewise, the major- mentees prior to meeting them. The researchers realized that “the
ity of respondents to Goodwin’s questionnaire felt that multicul- majority of the mentors had negative perceptions and/or poor
tural education should only promote tolerance of culturally attitudes about the personalities of their African-American or
diverse others. In their case study of two White teacher education Mexican American mentees” (p. 7). These findings reflect the
students, Ross and Smith (1992) concluded that these students kinds of discomfort and stereotypical thinking measured by the
associated multicultural education with individualized instruc- Bogardus Scale in the studies discussed previously.
tion, ignoring race and culture as significant factors in learning. Only one study by Hlebowitsh and Tellez (1993), reported
These studies revealed that participants failed to grasp important positively about preservice teachers’ views on diverse student
aspects of critical multiculturalism, seeing multicultural educa- populations. The researchers provided 235 participants with
tion as boosting the self-esteem of culturally diverse students, character sketches (leader, athlete, bully, slow learner). Although
ensuring toleration of minority students, and practicing indi- the character sketches were the same, the race and gender of the
vidualized instruction. Participants failed to be aware of institu- student described varied on different instruments. Overall, stu-
tional racism and the impact of privilege on the potential life dents marked higher indications of respect for diverse students.
outcomes of students from marginalized groups. The researchers cautioned that participants, who generally hold
minority populations in lower esteem, might report greater levels
A lack of tolerance for different cultural groups. In this time period,
of respect when presented with sketches of them as leaders or
preservice teachers expressed distaste for interacting with differ-
athletes. When given a negative description of a minority student
ent racial and ethnic groups. Several studies utilized some version
(as a bully or slow learner), participants might see this as natural
of the Bogardus Social Distance Scale to determine the degree of
and thus report more positive values for these scenarios. The
acceptance participants had for culturally different others
researchers suggested that more in-depth, qualitative research be
(Bennett, Niggle, & Stage, 1990; Law & Lane, 1987; Martin &
conducted to explore the reasoning made by preservice teachers
Williams-Dixon, 1994; Reed, 1993). This scale “measures a per-
about diverse student types.
son’s willingness to recognize, live near, or be associated with
Generally, these studies reveal deep stereotypes and miscon-
people from different groups” (Law & Lane, 1987, p. 4). Overall,
ceptions held by White preservice teachers about different cul-
these findings demonstrated that preservice teachers during this
tural groups, reinforcing racial superiority and intolerance. Racial
time period were intolerant of minority groups.
distance and discrimination make impossible the realization of
Several studies revealed that participants held negative views
critical multiculturalism. Only when White preservice teachers
about interacting with minority cultural groups. First, Law and
confront their misguided assumptions about culturally different
Lane (1987) compared their survey results for 141 preservice
others and interrogate their own sense of cultural privilege can
teachers on the Bogardus Social Distance Scale with archival test
progress truly be made.
data, and they concluded that their participants were “no more
accepting of various ethnic groups than the national samples Gaps in learning to teach in multicultural contexts. Two studies in
spanning six decades” (p. 5). In a second study, Bennett et al. this time period documented gaps in learning how to teach in
(1990) administered a modified version of the Bogardus Social culturally diverse contexts. Hadaway and Florez (1987) discov-
Distance Scale and a test for intellectual development to 178 ered that more than half of the 125 teacher education students
students enrolled in a multicultural education class, finding that responding to their survey on multicultural education had not
those who were unwilling to interact with culturally different taken courses in multicultural education, felt unprepared to teach
others also exhibited simplistic and dualistic thinking. Later, in a culturally diverse context, and stated that if offered they
Martin and Williams-Dixon (1994) presented a version of the would attend a multicultural training institute. Likewise, Grant
Bogardus Social Distance Scale to 226 preservice teachers in the and Koskela (1986) found that most of the 23 participants in
spring of 1991. Findings showed that respondents were less will- their study (discussed earlier) indicated that they were taught
ing to interact in school settings with culturally diverse families some ideas of multicultural education but were not given guid-
than with White families. Finally, Reed (1993) gave 13 preservice ance on how to incorporate these ideas during their student
teachers an open-ended survey based on the Bogardus Social teaching semester. The findings of Hadaway and Florez and of
Distance Scale and reported that respondents attributed emo- Grant and Koskela suggest that a coherent approach to teaching
tional and aggressive behaviors to African American children and multicultural education can best promote critical multicultural
still felt uncomfortable interacting socially with culturally differ- awareness.
ent others. In the first time period, findings about the lack of understand-
Two studies by Larke and colleagues (Larke, 1990; Larke, ing of multicultural issues, the general intolerance held by preser-
Wiseman, & Bradley, 1990) confirmed the negative views of cul- vice teachers for cultural diversity, and gaps in multicultural
turally diverse others held by preservice teachers. First, Larke education justify the need for expanding multicultural education
(1990) administered the Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory in teacher education programs. Most of these studies uncovered
to 51 preservice elementary teachers, discovering that 68.6% of the attitudes of preservice teachers toward culturally diverse stu-
the participants reported feeling uncomfortable associating with dents but did not account for the root of these attitudes and per-
people who had different cultural values than they did. Second, ceptions. King (1991) pinpointed “culturally sanctioned
Larke et al. (1990) administered the Personality Characteristics assumptions, beliefs, and myths” (p. 135) and Ross and Smith
Inventory to preservice teachers, who were each to mentor a child (1992) discussed how an individualistic orientation to diversity
in a diverse school, to ascertain their preconceptions about their enabled two participants to hold deficit views on minority and

april 2010 201

low-income students. Yet these studies did not explore these issues Third, this individualistic orientation to multicultural educa-
at length. Promoting the aims of critical multiculturalism will tion allowed preservice teachers to maintain a myth of meritoc-
require teacher educators to help preservice teachers to interrogate racy from which they could blame minorities and underachieving
their prior experiences, cultural assumptions, and racial ideologies. students for their lack of success in the public schools. In a case
study of 31 student teachers in Saskatchewan, Canada, Finney
Time Period 2: Expansion of Research on Preservice Teachers’
and Orr (1995) concluded that participants held students “as
Views (1995–1999)
responsible for their fates in a morally neutral and open, unstrat-
The research published from 1995 to 1999 elaborated on the lack ified society” (p. 329). Likewise, Davis (1995) discovered a simi-
of complexity of preservice teachers’ engagement with multicul- lar trend in her 2-year ethnographic study of 30 preservice
tural ideas. In addition, these studies explored dimensions of stu- teachers; she reported that participants suggested that individual
dents’ prejudices and stereotypes. Finally, the notion that a factors, such as ability or genetics, and a lack of familial values
person’s prior experiences influenced her or his interactions in were root causes for the low academic performance of minority
culturally diverse settings emerged across several research studies. children, seeing schools as “meritocratic systems” and assuming
that all students “have an equal opportunity to succeed in school”
A lack of complexity in understanding multicultural issues. The
(p. 558). This myth of meritocracy blinded preservice teachers to
findings of this time period pointed to three dominant trends in
their own White and/or socioeconomic privileges.
preservice teachers’ views. First, preservice teachers adopted
A “logic of individual difference” (Montecinos & Rios, 1999,
highly individualistic approaches to diversity. For example,
p. 21), which reigned dominant across these studies, represents
Montecinos and Rios (1999) asked 79 preservice teachers to pro-
one of the “culturally sanctioned assumptions” that maintains a
vide arguments for or against different approaches to multicul-
system of inequity, assumptions identified by King (1991) in the
tural education. According to Montecinos and Rios, students
previous time period. As an ideology, the belief that individuals
adopted a “logic of individual differences” that saw cultural dif-
determine their own experiences, successes, and failures disre-
ferences as individualistic, ignoring aspects of racism and institu-
gards the influence of racial and structural inequity. Adopting
tional inequity. Likewise, Ross and Yeager (1999) found
ideologies of individualism and meritocracy, participants viewed
participants to hold individualistic views concerning democracy.
multicultural education as a problem of meeting the psychologi-
They determined that 18 of the 29 elementary preservice teachers
cal learning needs of each student rather than addressing aspects
who submitted papers on their definitions of democracy expressed
of injustice in society (Apple, 2004).
“a narrow conception of democracy” (p. 265), emphasizing
democracy as individualistic actions, such as voting, and failing Deficit views and stereotypes. Researchers also wrote about ways in
to acknowledge important aspects of pluralism and cultural which preservice teachers communicated stereotypes about cul-
diversity. These participants saw diversity merely as a product of turally diverse students and about teaching in urban settings.
individual differences, without regard to systems of inequity that First, stereotypes and prejudice affected the judgments made by
pervade institutions such as schools that often favor Anglo- preservice teachers about culturally diverse students. In a study
American and middle-class cultural norms. by Richman, Bovelsky, Kroovand, Vacca, and West (1997), 20
Second, preservice teachers equated multicultural teaching European American preservice teachers estimated the IQ and
with individualized instruction. For example, from a survey of 73 grade point average for two elementary students (one boy, one
preservice teachers, Barry and Lechner (1995) determined that girl) based solely on one photograph of each student. The group
preservice teachers relegated teaching of multicultural education that received photographs of African American students marked
to specific classroom teaching techniques meant to help the child these students as “less ambitious, less self-confident, and to have
accommodate to the classroom rather than to address underlying little initiative when compared with European-American stu-
assumptions about diverse students or to acknowledge the unique dents” (p. 381). Thus stereotypical beliefs influenced initial judg-
cultural contributions these students brought to the classroom. ments about the abilities of students of color. After administering
Likewise, in a case study of how one African American student the Oklahoma Racial Attitude Scale and the Teachable Pupil
teacher taught culturally diverse populations, Rodriguez and Survey, Tettegah (1996) found that participants thought of
Sjostrom (1995) discovered that the student teacher concen- Latino and African American students as less capable and teach-
trated primarily on selecting materials and organizing instruc- able than their White peers, while rating Asian-American stu-
tional content around different learning styles to meet the needs dents as more capable. These findings acknowledge both
of the students, rather than on including cultural knowledge in traditional stereotypes and notions of the “model” minority.
the curriculum. Finally, Easter Shultz, Neyhart, and Reck (1999) These two studies demonstrate how stereotypes affect the judg-
reported that respondents to a survey about attitudes and beliefs ments made by these future teachers about their students’ aca-
on teaching diverse students viewed multicultural teaching as demic abilities.
implementing instructional techniques and listed being a “good Second, studies depicted stereotypes held by preservice teach-
communicator, good listener, and good classroom manager” (p. ers about students in urban schools. Aaronsohn, Carter, and
212) as qualities necessary for the multicultural teacher. Hence Howell (1995) reported that most of 80 students in their study
the enactment of multicultural teaching mirrored a technical described urban students as disruptive, inattentive, rude, and
approach to teaching in which multicultural education becomes delinquent. Shultz, Neyhart, and Reck’s (1996) 300 participants
nothing more than implementing a set of teaching technologies provided these descriptors: “‘lackadaisical,’ ‘unmotivated,’ ‘screw-
in the classroom. you attitude,’ ‘rougher,’ ‘violent,’ ‘more streetwise,’ ‘emotionally

202 educational Researcher

unstable,’ and ‘concerned with survival’” (p. 4). Such findings experience with discrimination” was the one to reject ideas of
stress the deficit and negative views that preservice teachers asso- multiculturalism. Lawrence and Bunche (1996) also reported
ciated with students in the urban schools. that 1 of the 5 participants in their case study refused to abandon
Third, preservice teachers viewed teaching in urban and cul- her racist views; this participant clung to beliefs of individualism
turally diverse schools as more challenging and difficult. After and had the least experiences interacting with culturally diverse
administering the Multicultural Teaching Concerns Survey to others. Cockrell, Placier, Cockrell, and Middleton (1999), in
103 preservice teachers, Marshall (1996) concluded that respon- their analysis of 25 preservice teachers, noted that participants
dents felt that teaching culturally diverse students in urban with limited experiences interacting with individuals from diverse
schools would add anxiety and stress, which would be an “imped- cultural backgrounds believed that schools should either assimi-
iment” to their growth as first-year teachers (p. 376). In fact, one late diverse groups or teach tolerance, rather than infuse multi-
participant in Tiezzi and Cross’s (1997) case study of 48 prospec- cultural education into the curriculum.
tive teachers’ attitudes about teaching in urban schools declared, On the other hand, students who either had experienced
“I wanted to teach White children because it is rumored that they oppression or discrimination or had cross-cultural interactions
are the smartest and easiest to teach” (p. 120). Tiezzi and Cross embraced concepts of multiculturalism (McCall, 1995a). Smith,
reported that most of their participants expressed unfounded Moallem, and Sherrill (1997) identified the kinds of experiences
fears about teaching urban students. that were associated with their students’ greater openness to cul-
As a result of these fears and stereotypes, preservice teachers tural diversity, which included having multicultural friendships;
lacked interest in teaching in an urban school. Many of the 345 multicultural education; travel, as in moving or vacationing; and
respondents to an open-ended survey about teaching in urban personal experiences with discrimination as a child or an adult.
schools likened urban teachers to “heroines and heroes in a war Overall, the research in this category suggests that preservice
against a dangerous urban environment” (Gilbert, 1997, p. 92) teachers with greater exposure to culturally diverse others and per-
and shunned the idea of teaching in an urban school. Fry and sonal experiences with discrimination are more open to multicul-
McKinney (1997) found that 6 of 10 White female preservice tural ideas. Indeed, Smith et al. proposed that those who resist
teachers who completed an urban-based field experience stated multiculturalism may simply lack cross-cultural experiences.
they would teach in an urban school only if they could not find Research published from 1995 to 1999 points to the contin-
another job elsewhere. Likewise, Gilbert (1995) found that most ued racist and uncritical demeanor of mostly Anglo-American
of 193 prospective teachers in a rural university who completed preservice teachers. Only in a few studies did participants exhibit
a demographic survey with open-ended items about urban a general acceptance of and appreciation for cultural diversity;
schools would teach in an urban school only if they had to find a however, these studies also revealed that preservice teachers held
job. The pervasiveness of deficit views and stereotypes greatly “generic” (Montecinos & Rios, 1999) views of cultural diversity,
affects the willingness of teacher candidates to teach in culturally relegating multiculturalism to a set of mere teaching strategies
diverse and urban contexts. and techniques. The underlying cultural assumptions of individu-
Deficit views and stereotypes about minority groups influence alism and meritocracy continued to limit the ways preservice
the initial judgments made by teachers about students. Such teachers thought about student achievement (Davis, 1995; Finney
views run counter to the critical awareness necessary for critical & Orr, 1995) and even the nature of democracy (Ross & Yeager,
multiculturalism and must be interrogated before real change can 1999). Despite a few studies highlighting the positive effects of
occur. prior experiences with cultural diversity, the lack of complexity
and deficit notions held by preservice teachers inhibits their criti-
The importance of background experiences. Investigating back-
cal consciousness. In particular, participants failed to recognize
ground experiences became a new category during this time
institutional inequity and did not see how their own biases and
period. First, two quantitative studies connected prior experi-
stereotypes as future teachers perpetuated these inequities.
ences with attitudes about cultural diversity. Using measurements
on beliefs about diversity with 492 preservice teachers, Pohan Time Period 3: Contemporary Research (2000–2007)
(1996) established that personal and professional beliefs were
Since the millennium, the research on preservice teachers’ per-
positively correlated with participants’ multicultural knowledge,
spectives on cultural diversity, social justice, and multicultural
especially cross-cultural experiences or course work in multicul-
education has taken two pathways. First, studies document the
tural education. Likewise, Wiggins and Follo (1999) determined
ongoing struggle with the lack of complexity in preservice teach-
from a questionnaire on multicultural knowledge that only 33%
ers’ conceptions of multicultural issues and perceptions on
of the 123 respondents had any prior experiences in culturally
diverse populations. Second, researchers now question which
diverse settings and that the most experienced felt more comfort-
kinds of personal experiences and what types of instructional
able teaching in culturally diverse contexts.
techniques best foster openness to diversity.
Second, researchers determined that prior experiences inter-
acting with culturally diverse others influenced how preservice A lack of complexity in understanding multicultural issues. Preservice
teachers responded to notions of multicultural education. McCall teachers continued to demonstrate a lack of understanding of
(1995b) conducted a case study of 3 participants in her social multicultural education and the processes of institutionalized
studies methods class and determined that preservice teachers’ racism and oppression. After analyzing the results from a mixed-
prior experiences influenced their acceptance of multicultural method study of 86 students enrolled in diversity courses,
ideas. For example, the student who had the “least awareness and Middleton (2002) concluded that although participants “identified

april 2010 203

a willingness to teach from a multicultural perspective,” they also American urban school). Participants held lower expectations for
exhibited “misunderstanding and misinterpretation of multicul- Native American and African American students and only
tural education, diversity, and the attitudes and skills needed for wanted to teach in the White suburban school. Likewise,
successful cross-cultural teaching” (p. 348). Thus these teachers Baldwin, Buchanan, and Rudisill (2007) found that most of their
held a very generic view of multicultural education, one with- 41 students participating in an urban-based service learning proj-
out a sense of critical consciousness surrounding privilege and ect held “stereotypical beliefs that children of color are difficult
inequity. [to teach] or unmotivated toward school” (p. 325). Finally, Bakari
Other researchers also documented this lack of critical con- (2003) distributed the Willingness to Teach African American
sciousness. For example, after administering to 141 students Students and the Cultural Sensitivity to African American
enrolled in multicultural education classes a questionnaire about Students scales to 415 students coming from three different uni-
whether students saw themselves as privileged or oppressed, versity settings—public university students (87% White), his-
Chizhik and Chizhik (2005) concluded that students could not torically Black colleges (90% African American), and private
identify multiple forms of oppression, especially institutionalized universities (88% White). Findings indicated that White preser-
oppression. In a second study, Chizhik and Chizhik added 55 vice teachers were less willing to teach African American students.
more participants to the first sample. Here, participants read four These studies suggest that preservice teachers still hold stereo-
scenarios about individuals and were asked to determine whether types and deficit thinking about culturally diverse students.
each individual was privileged or oppressed. Overall, those with On the other hand, two studies reported that preservice
less complex views of oppression (mostly White males) favored teachers felt positive about teaching in diverse settings. First,
individualistic orientations on each scenario, whereas those with Siwatu (2007) administered the Culturally Responsive Teaching
more complex views (mostly African American females) recog- Efficacy Scale (a measure of how effective culturally responsive
nized structural and institutional barriers inherent in the scenar- teaching is for student outcomes) and the Culturally Responsive
ios. These studies documented how preservice teachers failed to Teaching Outcome Expectancy Scale (a measure of beliefs in the
see structural or institutional barriers that affect marginalized ability to enact culturally responsive teaching) to 275 respon-
groups. dents. Siwatu’s findings suggest that preservice teachers hold
Beliefs in individualism and meritocracy are associated with a more positive attitudes about culturally diverse populations and
lack of critical consciousness. Weisman and Garza (2002) accept general notions of culturally responsive teaching. Second,
observed that most of the 158 respondents to a multicultural Dee and Henkin (2002) also reported positive findings about
education survey were completely unaware of the “inequities cultural diversity from the 150 students who completed the
embedded in the structures of society and schooling” (p. 32). Pluralism and Diversity Attitude Assessment. Using a factor
Even after completing a multicultural education course, partici- analysis of the data, Dee and Henkin identified multicultural
pants still “attribute[d] educational problems [the achievement teaching practices favored by these preservice teachers: imple-
gap] to the individual rather than oppressive factors” (p. 32), menting diversity into the curriculum, giving equal opportunity
clinging to an ideology of individualism. Mueller and O’ Connor in education, interacting with culturally different others, and
(2007) discovered that beliefs in meritocracy can be deeply recognizing the positive effects of diversity for society. These
entrenched. Fifteen students who were enrolled in their class on studies indicate more positive orientations to cultural diversity
race, class, and gender each interviewed a person from a different among preservice teachers.
cultural or socioeconomic background and wrote that person’s Two studies reported contradictory findings concerning social
educational biography, emphasizing “hard work” and meritoc- justice and teaching in culturally diverse settings. First, Chizhik
racy. In comparing the biographies against interview transcripts, and Chizhik (2002) distributed a questionnaire about who was
Mueller and O’Connor realized that participants “silenced and responsible for the offset of social inequality (the privileged or the
muted interview data that contradicted their assumptions” that oppressed) to 160 education students. One group of respondents
schools represent meritocracies with equal opportunities for all saw the privileged classes as being more able to stop inequity in
students (p. 852). These findings suggest that cultural assump- society but placed the burden for ending injustice on the
tions of individualism and meritocracy are strongly embedded in oppressed classes. The second group placed the burden for end-
preservice teachers. The studies from this and previous time peri- ing injustice on the privileged classes, but also felt that the mem-
ods provide evidence that these “culturally sanctioned assump- bers of the privileged classes had less power to change society.
tions, myths, and beliefs” (King, 1991, p. 135) are indeed a major Both groups demonstrated internal contradictions about who has
root of “dysconscious” racism. the power to change society versus who has the responsibility to
enact that change. Second, Song (2006) also noted contradic-
Contradictory perceptions concerning diverse populations and social tions in her findings concerning the ability of urban students to
justice. Research studies in this time period revealed contradic- learn intellectual skills and perform cognitively challenging tasks.
tions in the reports on preservice teachers’ views of cultural diver- She administered a variation of the Teacher Expectation and
sity. First, three studies depicted continued stereotypical and Deficit Assumption Survey to 28 preservice teachers. Participants
deficit thinking among preservice teachers, consistent with find- felt that the school could help students achieve and perform dif-
ings from the previous time periods. Terrill and Mark (2000) ficult academic tasks, but at the same time participants suggested
distributed a questionnaire to 97 respondents about their expec- that a child’s intellectual abilities were learned only at home.
tations for students in three imaginary school settings (a White Hence these teachers exhibited contradictory views about learn-
suburban school, a Native American rural school, and an African ing and achievement.

204 educational Researcher

 Unlike the previous time periods, a consistent theme of ste- in an urban school from their freshman year to their senior year.
reotypical and deficit thinking does not emerge from these stud- Although participants initially held stereotypes and lowered
ies. Instead, these studies appear to offer contradictory findings expectations for urban students, over time these concerns faded.
about how preservice teachers view culturally diverse popula- According to researchers, the decline indicated that participants
tions, suggesting the need for further research in this area. had become “accustomed to the ethnic and cultural diversity” as
a result of field experiences. Likewise, Bell, Horn, and Roxas
The importance of background experiences. Studies during this
(2007) assessed changes in attitudes regarding teaching in a cul-
time period demonstrated a link between preservice teachers’
turally diverse school of 30 preservice teachers participating in a
prior experiences interacting with culturally diverse others and
tutoring or mentoring project. They found that by the end of the
their support for multicultural education and teaching. First, Dee
experience, tutors and mentors adopted more advanced views of
and Henkin (2002) explored characteristics of the 150 partici-
cultural diversity. Finally, Causey, Thomas, and Armento (2000)
pants (study described earlier in this article) and reasoned that
concluded that participating in a cross-cultural experience had a
having experiences interacting with culturally diverse others
positive impact on the multicultural disposition of the 22 preser-
“may be associated with attitudes favoring cultural diversity in
vice teachers involved in an urban-based internship. They stressed
education” (p. 35). Key factors included living in culturally
the importance of reflection in the multicultural development of
diverse neighborhoods and having cross-cultural friendships.
participants, claiming that participants “who display a disposi-
Likewise, Adams, Bondy, and Kuhel (2005) investigated atti-
tion to thoughtfulness and reflection are most likely candidates
tudes of 18 participants who participated in a service-learning
for such cognitive restructuring and new learning” (p. 43). These
tutoring project in an urban school. Students who reported posi-
studies allude to the potential benefits of fieldwork in fostering
tive feelings about working with minority students had prior
greater multicultural awareness.
knowledge or experience working with diverse peers, children, or
Second, three studies focused on the impact of multicultural
families. These experiences included having had friends and
course work and teaching. Torok and Aguilar (2000) studied 33
social interactions with culturally diverse others, prior commu-
undergraduates who significantly improved their scores on the
nity volunteering and/or activism, and positive family attitudes
Professional Beliefs About Diversity Scale and the Personal Beliefs
about issues of social justice when growing up. These studies sug-
About Diversity Scale at the end of a multicultural course.
gest that prior experiences with cultural diversity may predispose
Students reported appreciating the following strategies employed
preservice teachers to greater acceptance of and appreciation for
by their instructor: “creating a safe environment, promoting
cultural diversity.
mutual respect, learning to listen to others, recognizing multiple
Two case studies show the importance of learning to reflect on
perspectives/different realities, being willing to unlearn, and
prior experiences with culturally diverse others. Smith (2000)
increasing self-awareness” (p. 29). Likewise, Brown (2004) con-
traced the personal biographies of two White student teachers.
cluded that the methods by which a multicultural education
The participant who embraced concepts of multicultural educa-
course is taught may have a greater affect on preservice teachers’
tion had grown up in a working-class home and had experienced
attitudes about diversity than the content of the course does.
feeling marginalized as a White student in a predominantly Black
Brown administered the Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory
middle school and as an American student in a Guam high
to 109 undergraduate students enrolled in one of six sections;
school. Through her experiences, she reflected on cultural diver-
participants were divided into two groups. In the first group, the
sity and institutional inequity, dismissing the myths of meritoc-
instructor modeled notions of cultural respect by creating a safe
racy and individualism. In a similar vein, Garmon (2004)
and reflective environment. In the second group, the instructor
explored the personal biography of a 22-year-old White female
presented the information through direct instruction. Group 1
preservice teacher who exhibited openness, readiness to accept
increased at higher levels across more of the subscales of the pre-
that people are different, self-awareness/self-reflectiveness, and
and posttests than did Group 2. Finally, Middleton (2002) high-
commitment to social justice. This student had maintained inter-
lighted the importance of reflection in a multicultural course.
cultural friendships, participated in service activities in diverse
The instructor—who used a reflective technique in which stu-
communities, and reflected deeply on diversity and social justice.
dents described the experience, reacted to it on a personal level,
Smith and Garmon each identify the capacity for reflection as
compared the experience with theory or practice, and applied the
significant in developing multicultural awareness, harkening
learning to their roles as educators—helped preservice teachers to
back to the notion of critical consciousness necessary for critical
adopt notions of multicultural education.
multicultural awareness.
These studies suggest the importance of field-based experi-
Instructional practices that foster changes in beliefs about diversity. ences and instructional practices that support critical reflection.
Researchers explored ways in which teacher education programs Unfortunately, researchers failed to identify specific components
can foster positive change in beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of field-based experiences that fostered changes in the beliefs and
about cultural diversity, specifically through field-based experiences attitudes of preservice teachers. However, the research on teach-
and university course work. First, three studies demonstrated that ing methodology did stress providing a safe, risk-free environ-
field-based experiences could foster improvement in how preser- ment (Brown, 2004; Middleton, 2002; Torok & Aguilar, 2000);
vice teachers define cultural diversity. Conaway, Browning, and fostering mutual respect for all students (Middleton, 2002; Torok
Purdum-Cassidy (2007) conducted a 4-year longitudinal study & Aguilar, 2000); and promoting reflection on self and others
of 218 preservice teachers, tracking their concerns with teaching (Brown, 2004; Middleton, 2002; Torok & Aguilar, 2000).

april 2010 205

 In the contemporary time period (2000–2007), the problem Haworth, 2002). Referring to data from the Higher Education
of the lack of complexity reached across several research studies. Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles, Raines
Preservice teachers expressed very positive views about cultural (2002) reported that “kids grew up in the 90s and 00s with more
diversity but still held minimal understandings of what cultural daily interaction with other ethnicities and cultures than ever
diversity means and requires (Middleton, 2002; Weisman & before.” Based on the sentiments of these popular texts, the mil-
Garza, 2002). This tendency toward oversimplification can make lennial generation promises to embrace concepts of critical mul-
multicultural ideas less threatening, less political. Preservice ticultural education.
teachers may readily advocate and clamor for multicultural edu- Broido (2004) cautioned that much is still unclear concerning
cation that supports a tolerance approach to diversity (Sleeter & millennial students and attitudes about diversity. She wrote,
Grant, 2007) without achieving the critical consciousness neces- “Most indicators point toward Millennials having more open
sary to dismantle structural inequity and interrogate dominant attitudes toward issues of diversity and social justice, although
cultural assumptions embedded in these structural arrangements. there are a number of trends challenging that perspective” (p. 76),
When compared with early research on the lack of tolerance such as racial segregation in some high schools and neighbor-
and social interaction with culturally diverse others (Bennett hoods. Residing in a diverse neighborhood or attending a diverse
et al., 1990; Law & Lane, 1987; Martin & Williams-Dixon, 1994), high school does not always equate to increased contact with cul-
studies in the contemporary period suggest that preservice turally diverse others.
teachers today may be more open to cultural diversity than were Findings from this synthesis reveal that preservice teachers
their predecessors 22 years prior. These studies point to the often support only minimal levels of multicultural education.
greater openness to cultural diversity found in preservice teachers Montecinos and Rios (1999) found that “the generic idea that
at the onset of the study (Brown, 2004; Dee & Henkin, 2002; schools need to provide an education that is multicultural is a
Siwatu, 2007), the possibility that preservice teachers may have belief well entrenched among these preservice teachers” (p. 20).
increased experiences interacting with culturally diverse others Causey et al. (2000) labeled preservice teachers’ attitudes as naïve
(Adams et al., 2005; Garmon, 2004; Smith, 2000), and the pos- egalitarianism in that “they believe each person is created equal,
sibility that preservice teachers are capable of changing their per- should have access to equal resources, and should be treated
spectives on cultural diversity as a result of instructional and field equally” (p. 34). These seemingly positive attitudes may in fact
experiences (Bell et al., 2007; Brown, 2004; Causey et al., 2000; mask a lack of real understanding of multicultural issues, White
Conaway et al., 2007; Torok & Aguilar, 2000; Weisman & privilege, and structural inequities (Mueller & O’Connor, 2007).
Garza, 2002). This can be read as “progress” in the realm of pre- Even worse, some researchers might argue that these findings
service teachers’ reactions to cultural diversity or can be seen as indicate that today’s preservice teachers have become more
indicative of the kinds of studies that have been conducted and sophisticated in their use of racial etiquette, especially when per-
published during this time period. Researchers may have been forming the role of participant in a research study.
more concerned with exploring nuanced reasons for why and If today’s college students actually do interact with culturally
how preservice teachers advocate for or resist multicultural edu- diverse others through travel, intercultural friendships, and activ-
cation than with getting a pulse on how attitudes on diversity ism and community service—several of the key life experiences
have shifted over time. identified as fostering openness to diversity (Dee & Henkin,
2002; McCall, 1995a; Smith, 2000; Smith et al., 1997)—other
Discussion and Implications for Researching
issues exist. First, researchers warn against exceptionalism, whereby
Millennial Generation Preservice Teachers
“stereotypes were proven false by a single case but those cases did
The central purpose of this inquiry was to discern whether not support systematic examination of the preservice teachers’ ste-
research findings from 1985 to 2007 indicate a trend toward reotypes” (Bell et al., 2007, p. 130). Second, just participating in
greater acceptance of and appreciation for multicultural educa- multicultural communities may have limitations. Gilbert (1997)
tion and teaching in culturally diverse contexts. An analysis of the stated, “Simply ‘being there,’ without careful analysis of multicul-
research fails to render a simple answer to this question. Instead, tural and socio-economic issues in the community in relation to
this synthesis of preservice teachers’ views on diversity points to the individual’s personal constructs and the community at large,
both possibilities and persistent problems. may not provide the positive results expected from direct experi-
ences” (p. 93). Mere exposure to culturally diverse situations may
The Promise of the Millennial Generation
reinforce stereotypical thinking, especially in the absence of criti-
A series of websites, blogs, newsletters, and the like focusing on cal reflection (Bell et al., 2007; Garmon, 2004).
the characteristics of the millennial generation can be accessed Despite these concerns and limitations, the possibility that
easily on any Internet search engine, attesting to the popularity millennial college students enter institutions of higher learning
and public fascination with this new generation. Indeed, several with experiences that may predispose them to greater acceptance
recent books present the promise of millennial youth for both of and appreciation for cultural diversity cannot be ignored by
universities and workplaces (Howe & Strauss, 2000, 2003; Junco researchers and teacher educators.
& Mastrodicasa, 2007; Zemke, Raines, & Filipczack, 2003).
The Problem of the Lack of Complexity
One characteristic cited frequently is that millennial generation
college students are more demographically diverse and accepting The findings of this synthesis also pose the problem of the lack of
of cultural diversity (Broido, 2004; Howe & Strauss, 2000; Junco complexity associated with preservice teachers’ views on cultural
& Mastrodicasa, 2007; Marker, 2006; Ousley, 2006; Sandfort & diversity. The problem of the lack of complexity stems from the

206 educational Researcher

uncritical adoption of cultural assumptions that limit one’s criti- imply that participants of color hold more complex and advanced
cal consciousness of structural and institutional inequity and views of multicultural education (Chizhik & Chizhik, 2005;
White privilege. Cockrell et al., 1999; Dee & Henkin, 2002), whereas other stud-
Beliefs in individualism and meritocracy work hand-in-hand ies (Bakari, 2003; Lawrence & Bunche, 1996; Rodriguez &
to construct a myth of equality. The concept of individualism Sjostrom, 1998; Song, 2006) show that students of color may be
assumes that every person controls her or his own destiny, outside “as susceptible to the same resistance or ignorance as White pre-
of any structural or institutional barriers. A belief in meritocracy service teachers [are]” (Bakari, 2003, p. 651). Future research
supports the view that success in society and schooling depends must address students of color as subjects, actors in critical mul-
solely on one’s own merit or hard work. The cultural myth of ticultural education, rather than as the objects of multicultural
pulling oneself up by the bootstraps still thrives in mainstream education (Montecinos, 2004).
American popular culture. These beliefs allow individuals to As millennial generation students come of age, we can only
blame oppressed peoples for their “failure” in the system of hope that they bring new ways of seeing the world and connect-
schooling rather than to recognize the system of failure embed- ing with others. We hope that as teacher educators we can build
ded in institutional practices that disfavors and disenfranchises upon our students’ experiences to create deeper avenues for criti-
minority groups. Preservice teachers may feel that their achieve- cal dialogue and reflection in our classrooms (Howard & Aleman,
ments resulted from their hard work, without being aware that 2008) so as to promote their critical and democratic participation
they have been beneficiaries of institutional and social systems in society, to promote a more just world.
and offered more resources from which to participate in school-
ing (Davis, 1995; Mueller & O’Connor, 2007). Only when pre- Note
service teachers confront beliefs in individualism and meritocracy
I would like to thank Keffrelyn and Anthony Brown for helpful com-
can they envision real social change. ments on this article, as well as the Educational Researcher editors and
Universal claims that preservice teachers are more open to cul- reviewers for their support on this piece.
tural diversity are challenged by the persistent problem of the lack
of complexity in their understandings of multiculturalism. At the
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AUTHOR
M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, & D. J. McIntyre (Eds.),
Handbook of research on teacher education: Enduring questions in chang- ANTONIO J. CASTRO is an assistant professor in the Department of
ing contexts (3rd ed., pp. 583–605). New York: Routledge and the Learning, Teaching, and Curriculum, University of Missouri, Columbia,
Association of Teacher Educators. 211F Townsend, Columbia, MO 65211; [email protected]. His
Villegas, A. M., & Lucas, T. (2002). Educating culturally responsive teach- research focuses on the recruitment, preparation, and retention of teach-
ers: A coherent approach. Albany: State University of New York Press. ers for culturally diverse contexts and urban schools.
Weisman, E. M., & Garza, S. A. (2002). Preservice teacher attitudes
toward diversity: Can one class make a difference? Equity and
Excellence in Education, 35(1), 28–34. Manuscript received August 17, 2008
Wiggins, R. A., & Follo, E. J. (1999). Development of knowledge, atti- Revisions received January 13, 2009,
tudes, and commitment to teach diverse student populations. Journal May 4, 2009, and August 2, 2009
of Teacher Education, 50(2), 94–105. Accepted August 11, 2009

210 educational Researcher