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    Aero Basics

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    PARTHIBAN
    The document provides an overview of the basics of flight, including the history of flight milestones, aircraft terminology, wing layouts, control surfaces, forces of flight, stability, and control. It covers topics such as airfoils, planforms, sweep, twist, flaps, Reynolds number, boundary layer, lift, drag, stall, and longitudinal, lateral, and directional stability.

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    Aero Basics

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    PARTHIBAN
    284 views44 pages
    The document provides an overview of the basics of flight, including the history of flight milestones, aircraft terminology, wing layouts, control surfaces, forces of flight, stability, and control. It covers topics such as airfoils, planforms, sweep, twist, flaps, Reynolds number, boundary layer, lift, drag, stall, and longitudinal, lateral, and directional stability.

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    The document provides an overview of the basics of flight, including the history of flight milestones, aircraft terminology, wing layouts, control surfaces, forces of flight, stability, and control. It covers topics such as airfoils, planforms, sweep, twist, flaps, Reynolds number, boundary layer, lift, drag, stall, and longitudinal, lateral, and directional stability.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    284 views44 pages

    Aero Basics

    Uploaded by

    PARTHIBAN
    The document provides an overview of the basics of flight, including the history of flight milestones, aircraft terminology, wing layouts, control surfaces, forces of flight, stability, and control. It covers topics such as airfoils, planforms, sweep, twist, flaps, Reynolds number, boundary layer, lift, drag, stall, and longitudinal, lateral, and directional stability.

    Copyright:

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    of 44

    Brainstorming and Barnstorming:

    Basics of Flight

    Flight History
    First flight: The Wright Flyer 1903 Break Speed of Sound: Bell X-1A 1947 Land on Moon: Apollo 11 1969 Circumnavigate Earth on one tank of gas: Global Flyer 2005 Weve come a long way

    Major Topics

    Terminology and Theory Forces of Flight Aircraft Design

    Basic Aircraft Terminology


    Airfoil: Cross sectional shape of a wing Leading Edge: Front edge of wing Trailing Edge: Back edge of wing Chord Line: Line connecting LE to TE Camber: Center line between top and bottom of wing
    High camber found on slow flying high lift aircraft

    Wing Layout
    Planform: Vertical projection of wing area
    Elliptical: good for high speed Straight: root stalls, but cheap to make Tapered: good stall characteristics Delta: used for supersonic flight

    Wing Layout
    Sweep: Angle between the lateral axis and the wing (high speed aircraft) Taper: Chord decreases as you move to the wing tip Incidence: Angle between the longitudinal axis and the wing chord Angle of Attack: Angle between the wing and the relative wind

    Wing Layout
    Twist: Bending of wing about lateral axis (helps prevent tip stall by changing angle of attack) Anhedral: Downward bend in wing (helps with stability) Dihedral: Upward bend in wing

    Corsair: WWII Fighter

    Wing Layout
    Aspect ratio (AR)= Span^2/Wing Area More efficient for slow aircraft Typical Values
    Glider: 20-30 Trainer: 7-9 Loadstar: 18.5 SR-71: Low AR

    U2 spy plane: High AR

    6 degrees of freedom
    Three axes of an aircraft
    Longitudinal: Parallel to the fuselage Lateral: Parallel to the wing Normal: Perpendicular to the ground

    Control Surfaces: Change Wing by altering the Angle of Attack


    Ailerons: horizontal surfaces located on wing tips
    Roll: rotation about the longitudinal axis

    Elevator: horizontal surface located on the tail


    Pitch: rotation about the lateral axis

    Rudder: vertical surface located on the tail


    Yaw: rotation about the normal axis

    Stabilizing Surfaces: Balancing Moments


    Vertical Stabilizer: The vertical part of the tail which prevents unwanted yaw Horizontal Stabilizer: Horizontal portion of the tail (or the Canard) that prevents unwanted pitch

    Flaps
    Change the shape of wing Increase Lift and Drag Used on takeoff and landing

    Neutral Point: Location of resultant lift force CG: Center of gravity High Wing: Wing on top (very stable) Mid Wing: Wing in middle (acrobatic) Low Wing: Wing on bottom ( less drag)

    Reynolds Number
    Reynolds Number (Re): ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces
    Re = (D*V*p)/mu D=characteristic length V=velocity p=density Mu= dynamic (absolute) viscosity

    A non-dimensionalized number that can be used to relate models to actual aircraft Determines whether a flow is laminar or turbulent in the Boundary Layer (laminar is good) Very useful for aircraft design

    Reynolds Number
    S1223 at various Reynolds numbers
    2.4 Re=61000 2 1.6 1.2 Re=101600 Re=122600 Re=147400

    Cl

    Re=171400 Re=198100 Re=251900

    0.8 0.4 0 -0.4 -10

    Re=302200 Re=149500 Re=198900 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25

    Angle of Attack (degrees)

    Note the difference in stall characteristics for different Re

    Boundary Layer
    No slip condition at surface (V=0) Effectively alters the shape of the airfoil Separation of the B.L. results in a stall Lead to major advances in aircraft design

    Boundary Layer

    Forces of Flight
    Lift Drag Thrust Weight
    For steady, level flight these four forces and the moments they generate must be in equilibrium. An airplane is a force and moment balancing machine.

    Lift
    Controlled by
    Airspeed, angle of attack, altering airfoil, and altering the planform area

    Lift = * p * V^2 * A *Cl


    P=density, V=velocity, A = wing area Cl=coefficient of lift

    How is lift actually generated???

    Lift: Equal Transit Time (Wrong)


    Air splitting at LE must meet at TE Air on top has a longer path; must travel faster Example: Boeing 747
    Weight: 775,000 lbs Airspeed: 550 mph or 810 ft/sec Distance across top: 1.059*bottom Density: 1/39 lb/ft^3 Wing Area: 5,500 ft^2

    Boeing 747 Example


    Pressure difference:
    Punder-Pover=1/2*p*(Vbottom^2-Vtop^2) Punder-Pover=18.75 lbs/ft^2

    Lift=P*A=(18.75 lbs/ft^2) * (5500 ft^2) Lift=103,000 lbs Weight=775,000 lbsOoops!!! This theory says that air accelerates thereby causing a pressure gradient. This is completely wrong. A pressure gradient will cause a fluid to accelerates.

    Einstein and Lift


    Einstein hired by the German Air Force He designed a wing based on the previously described theory It failed miserably He was still relatively successful

    Lift is complicated!!!!!!!!
    Newton Vs Bernoulli Newton: deflection of air Bernoulli: Pressure gradient Coanda effect Circulation 3-D fluid flow is hard
    Pressure Gradient

    Newton and Bernoulli


    A wing forces air down Thus air forces a wing up A change in the momentum of the fluid results in a force Air in motion creates a pressure difference around the wing
    Air being forced down

    Coanda Effect
    Tendency of a fluid in motion to stick to an object Due to skin friction between fluid and surface The top of the wing also directs air down Experiment with a rolled up paper.

    3-D effects of lift


    Spanwise flow High pressure on bottom Low pressure on top Air from bottom tries to move to top

    Wing Tip Vortex

    Return to the lift equation


    Lift = * p * V^2 * A * Cl Lift can be explained by the pressure gradient as indicated by the equation The gradient cannot solely be explained by air moving faster over the top of the wing What about this Cl factor????

    Coefficient of Lift
    Magic number of lift; determined experimentally Constant for any size wing with same airfoil Accounts for unknowns Varies with angle of attack There is an angle where the wing produces zero lift Explains how a wing can fly upside down

    Loss of Lift: Stall


    Every wing has a stall angle Stall angle is the angle of attack at which the wing loses lift Stall angle range from 12-20 degrees What actually causes a stall???

    Stall at high AoA


    Boundary layer separates from the surface (inertial vs viscous effects) Effectively changes wing shape Turbulence results that causes more drag and less lift

    Drag:
    Form Drag: shape of object Skin Friction Drag: surface of object Induced Drag: component of lift Parasitic Drag = Form Drag + Skin Drag Total Drag = Induced Drag + Parasitic Drag
    Total Drag = * p * V^2 * A * Cd

    Cd is the key and is determined experimentally just like Cl.

    Form and Skin Friction Drag


    Form Drag Greatly affects slow flying planes Depends upon the frontal area Depends upon how streamlined What does it mean to be streamlined??
    Examples of things that are streamlined

    Skin Friction Depends upon the surface roughness

    Form Drag
    How do we know if an object is streamlined?
    Nature, wind tunnel testing, conformal mapping

    If these shapes are so aerodynamic, why arent race cars shaped this way????

    Induced Drag
    Equal to horizontal component of lift
    Therefore increases with AoA

    Actually caused by the wing tip vortex discussed earlier Reduced with use of a high AR wing Can be reduced with the use winglets

    Tradeoff: Skin Friction vs Form


    Turbulators: prevent the B.L. from separating Increases skin friction Decreases form drag For slow aircraft; tradeoff is beneficial Found on sea animals, new swim suits, and golf balls

    Turbulator Examples

    Aircraft Stability
    Static Stability: When disturbed, the aircraft returns to original flight path
    Longitudinal, Lateral, Roll

    Dynamic Stability: Returns to original flight path without excessive oscillation

    Longitudinal Stability
    Longitudinal Stability: Locate the Neutral Point behind CG Creates a correcting moment To move the Neutral Point backwards, increase the horizontal tail area

    Lateral Stability
    Largely depends upon tail size CLA: Center of lateral area Size tail to locate the CLA 25-28% of tail length behind the CG Prevents Spiral Instability
    Side gust rotates plane One wing speeds up Creates more lift

    Directional Stability
    Also depends upon tail size and CLA A high wing adds stability
    The plain acts like a pendulum Naturally returns to stable position

    Aircraft Control
    Longitudinal, Lateral, and Directional Control surfaces generate forces These forces create moments that rotate the plane Proper location and sizing results in excellent control Stall must always be considered
    Ailerons are located at the wing tips

    KSU Aero Design Team 2005 Ft. Worth, Texas

    3rd Place

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