1242 IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 10, No.

3, July 1995

A NEW BLOCKING PRINCIPLE WITF i'HASE AND EARTH FAULT DETECTION

DURING FAST POWER SWINGS FOR DISTANCE PROTECTION.

A . Mechraoui and D.W.P. Thomas.

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Nottingham
Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.

a,= 2xfs nominal system angular frequency.

Abstract Re ( 1 Real part.
Any sudden change in the configuration or the loading of an Im ( 1 Imaginary part.
electrical network causes power swings between the load zone 1, zone 2, and zone 3 Distance Mho relay Characteristics .
concentrations of that network. In order to prevent the distance zone 3 / zone 6 Power swing buffer zone( area between zone 3 and
protection from tripping during such conditions, a power swing zone 6 characteristics ).
blocking device is often utilized. Conventional power swing
blocking devices cannot cope with very fast power swings of up to I. Introduction
5 Hz/sec.
This paper presents a new power swing blocking principle that has The principal relation of protective relays to the problem of power
stability is their vital role in clearing faults as rapidly as possible in
the ability to immediately clear the block when a fault occurs within
the relay trip zone. This is demonstrated for extremely fast swings order to maintain stability. The opening of a sound or healthy line,
( greater than 5 &/sec ) and even for two phase operation (during
during swings from which the system can recover, is nearly always
single pole tripping). This new principle is in a form which can be undesirable. It is apparent that relays should be required to
distinguish normal conditions, short circuits, swing of large
implemented on an existing digital distance protection relay.
Results are presented based on extensive simulation studies carried amplitude and out of step operation. They should also take the
out on a typical 400 kV system, using the ElectromagneticTransient desired action at the right time in each of these circumstances.
program( EMTF ) software.
Prevention of relay tripping during power swings
When a power swing occurs a change appears in the relative voltage
Definitions, and svmbols
phase angle 6 between an electrical machine or group of machines
Subscriuts and the power system voltage source. At a relay location the
a,b,c Phase A, B, C. measurable electrical quantities of voltage V, current I, apparent
0,1,7 Refer to the zero, positive, and negative phase sequence impedance 2,active power P and reactive power Q will then vary
comps~entsrespectively. as a function of the angle 6[1][21. When a fault occurs, however,
r Relay related components referred to the time variant frame. these quantities change suddenly. Such behaviours are used in
R Relay related component referred to the time invariant frame. distance protection as criteria to block or unblock the tripping.
f Fault related component referred to the time variant frame. Many blocking schemes use the following criteria:-
F Fault related component referred to the time invariant frame. * The time delay spent in the buffer area of the
Symbols. operating zone[l].
Ea,Eb Equivalent voltage behind machine A and B respectively. Monitoring the rate of change of rise of current[3].
R1M,m Distance ielay location machine side. Monitoring the rate of change I V cos(@)I [4].
RlS,R2S Distance relay location source side. Monitoring the rate of change of the resistance seen
f, Frequency (Hz). by the relay151.
i Instantaneous current at any node.
I Phasor current. The requirements imposed on the protection equipment, for the
v Instantaneous voltage at any node. stability of the system during a power swing, will be investigated
V Phasor voltage. to demonstrate that the above principles fail to block for a very fast
T Transformation matrices. pole slip up to 5 &/sec. These deficiencies in power swing
1,: positive sequence inductance of the protected line blocking are overcome with a new principle to block distance
rl: positive sequence resistance of the protected line. protection during fast power swings. It is also shown that it is
R, Apparent resistance seen by the relay location. possible to clear blocking if faults occur during a power swing.
X, Apparent reactance seen by the relay location. The proposed methods are both reliable and accurate, and are also
x distance to fault. demonstrated to work when a single pole is open for fault clearing
Z Sequence impedance of the protected line. on a transmission line. Tie results are based on extensive
F location at which faults will be applied. simulation studies, carried out using the ElectromagneticTransient
6 phase angle at any location with respect to a common Program (EM" ) [ 8 ] . The analysis and relay simulation were
reference of the same phase. achieved through programs written in a high level language.

2. Svstem descriution
95 W??033-1 PWRD A paper recommended and approved Results are presented for the system shown in figure 1. This
by the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee of the consists of a 800 MVA turbo generator supplying power to an
IEXF Power Engineering Society f o r presentation a t infinite bus. The generator is connected to the infinite bus via a A/Y
the 1995 IEEE/PES Winter Meeting, January 29, t o transformer and a 400 kV double circuit transmission line of length
Pebruary 2, 1995, New York, Np. Manuscript submitted 320 km. The lines are divided for convenience into sections of equal
July 27, 1994; made available for printing length. The distance relays considered are located at points R1M
November 30, 1994. and R2h4 in circuit 2. A disturbance is created by a three phase
fault at location F3 on circuit 1, which is cleared after a time interval
of 320 ms by disconnecting the faulted line at bus 1 and bus 3.

0885-8977/!35/$04.00 1995 IEEE

 1243

Such disturbances on the power system will cause the generator to This example demonskates that the effect Of a Power swing On the
relaying location On the centre Of the swing with
accelerateor decelerate resulting in a power swing or even, in Severe
cases, a pole slip. hfigthe following power swing another respect to the reach of the relay under consideration. When the
&turbance is swing centre is within the relay reach during fast power swings, the
on circuit by a fault between Bus and time spent by the impedance locus in the buffersOf " between
Bus 3. The parameters of the important components of the system
are listed in the appendix. zone 6 and zone 3" or " areas between zone 3 and zone 2 " is very
much smaller than the delay time used in many bloddng schemes
( 30.0 ms to 2 s).

Qerating Condition
CLRCurr 2 UJSS P
Zone1
Zone 3 I Zone 2
Zone 6 \ .L.

R (Ohms)
Figure 1 Single line diagram of the study system.

- studies
3. Power swing External Fault
For the power swing studies, the following assumptions are made
Power swing is considered as a balanced condition.
-100 LW
AII lines arcfully transposed.
Line charging capacitance is neglected.
Fault resistance is less than 20 ohms. Figure 2 Portion of Impedance loci seen by relays at location R1M
& R2M, during the first fault condition and the first swing cycle in
Effects of a Power Swing upon Distance Relays circuit 1. Time interval between points is 0.01 sec (Half cycle).
The swing loci of the apparent impedance 'c
seen by the relays at
X (Ohms)
the locations RIM and R2M, of the study system (figure l), are
plotted in figures 2 and 3. Figure 2 shows the first crossing of the 200
relay's characteristics at the start of the simulation and figure 3
shows the second crossing of the relay's characteristics during the
subsequent power swing. Figures 2 and 3 show the importance of
the relaying location with respect to the electrical centre of the
system [l] and at the same time demonstrates the ineffectiveness of
a conventional blocking scheme during very fast power swings.
It can be seen from detail portions of the swing impedance loci
that:-
For relay RIM, where the electrical centre of the swing is within the 1
operating region of the relay:- -1
*In figure 2, the impedance locus travels from the normal Swings
operating point, in a very short time due to the fault in
circuit 1, during this long reverse fault time (320 ms), the
locus travels from zone 6 to zone 3. 3. After removing the -100
fault by disconnecting circuit 1, the locus returns to a point
in zone 3, then it crosses zone 3 / zone 2 buffer in a very
short time ( 15 ms). The crossing time of zone 2 to zone 1 Figure 3 Portion of Impedance loci seen by relays at location RIM
buffer is even faster (12 ms). & R2M, for very fast swing ,during the second swing cycle after
fault clearance. Time interval between points is 0.01 sec (Half
In figure 3, the impedance locus travels in a very short cycle).
time across the different zones due to the speed of the swing
in its second cycle. It crosses zone 3 / zone 3 buffer in a 4. Descrbtion of the urouosed scheme
very short yime (12 ms 1. The crossing time of zone 2 to It is assumed that the three phase voltages and currents are sampled
zone 1 buffer is even faster ( less than 10 ms). at a rate of 72 samples per cycle. Using Fourier transforms with a
half cycle data window[6], the fundamental components of the
There is a possibility of maloperation of this relay if adequate
power system signals are extracted and can be expressed in the
measures are not taken in the first or in the second slip cycle, in complex form by revolving space vectors (Vr,Ir) given by:-
time.
vr = (vrle J . ( w a t + * d
For relay R2M which has an operating region away from the Ir = lIrl e i(o,t+ai,) (1)
electrical centre of the swing:-
* In figure 2 and figure 3, the locus crosses only zone This system can be rendered time invariant by using a recursive
6, it does not enter the other zones even for Fourier transform[fl which gives:-
subsequent swing cycles.

This means that the electrical centre is out of the operating zone of
this relay. The blocking is not required for this relay location.
1244

The voltage phasor diagram is given in figure 5.

The angle of the phasors can then be found from:-

The impedance measured by the distance relay will be:-

RR = R e (+)
(4)
xR = Im (3) Figure 5 Phasor Diagram of V, and VE in the time invariant
frame (d, q 1.

From figure 5, the tangent of the load angle S,is given by :-

The Principle of the New Power Swing Blocking Scheme
The basis of the proposed blocking scheme during power swings can
be explained in terms of a single phase system. Therefore, consider
figure 4 to represent a single phase system with relays RIM and R1S
forward reach set to protect the line of length x, . The load angle of the power transferred between the relay and the
end of the protected zone is evaluated at the relay location by taking
the arctangent of equation (9). The load angle can therefore be
found from quantities known to the relay.
Upon the assumption that the ratio of the real and reactive values
of the impedances of all parts of the circuit is the same. The total
impedance of the connecting circuit Z, is divided by the relay
location RIM ( figure 4 ) into two parts, mZ, and (l-m)Z, where
m is a real number less than 1. It can be shown that the impedance
" seen " by the relays[l] at RIM is:-

Figure 4 Equivalent circuit diagram of the system under study

after removing circuit 1.
where K,= 1E.I / lEbl; if m = 0 ,ie the relay is very near the
swinging machine, the magnitude of IZ,I given by Equation (10)
If the line capacitance is neglected then; during normal conditions, reduces to:-
the voltage at the zone end ( which will be called the " line end
voltage " V, 1 can be estimated from the relaying voltages and
currents V, and I, from:-
v, = v, - XT z I, (5)
If the blocking is required before or when the locus ZR enters and
Where Z is the impedance per unit length of the transmission line leave the zone 1 characteristics, the value of the angle 6RE may
and xTis the total length of the protected zone. evaluated from equation (11).
During power swings the line currents are no longer at synchronous The ratio y is approximately 1.0 and for the zone 1 the setting
frequencies ( 50 or 60 Hz 1, therefore equation (5) takes the following IZRI / IZJ = 0.8, thus:-
form:-
8,2 77.0 O (12)
V, = V, - xT ( aI, )
r I, + L -
at
It should be noted that such a large load angle will be close to the
stability limit ( S, = 90")[1] and so significant power swing will
Equation (6) transformed into the time invariant (d,q) frame, then became a real possibility.
gives:- It should also be noted that the swing impedance locus has to cross
the zone three buffer before entering the relay reach zones 1 and 2
V, = VDIB+ jv,, and during a power swing this occurs simultaneously with a slow
(7) increase in the load angle measured at the relay point.
= vR- x, e-joac ( r - j 3)
1 1, + L a t
Hence, the distance relay blocking scheme is therefore based on:-
Therefore equation (7) can be written in the form:- * Monitoring the load angle 8= continuously ( i?t every
sample ) and blocking for the condition 70" < S, < 290".
If the impedance seen by the relay crosses zone 3 while SRE
increases progressively, then also initiate blocking.
Note that for internal faults the change in the load angle hE will be
far too rapid for blocking to be implemented
 1245

Clearing Power Swing Blocking Through Accurate Fault Detection Equation (16) can then be transformed back into phase quantities
Once power swing blocking has been initiated it is possible to clear using the inverse transform for the sequence quantities which
the blocking the instant an internal fault occurs using the following gives:-
principle. In this scheme, two phase operation (due to a single pole
trip) can be covered through the use of symmetrical components.
It is also assumed that the power network can be reduced to a two
machine system as given in figure 4. During normal conditions the
three phase voltages [Va, Vb, Vc,] at a relaying point r along a
transmission line can be given in terms of the three phase voltages
of a point F, along the line [Va, Vbf, Vql and the line currents [Ia,, Let the transformation matrix [ T ] be given in the form :-
Ib,, IC,] from:-
l o

0 0 e-j(2n/3)

Note that the phase quantities have been rendered time invariant by
where Zs is the self impedance of a phase and Zm is the mutual the recursive Fourier transform [8]. The transformation matrix T
interphase impedance of the transmission line connecting the relay then simply brings all the phase phasors in line. The voltages at the
and the location F. fault location F and the relaying location R may be given in a
Equation (13)is the basis of distance schemes where it is assumed common time invariant frame from.-
that the fault voltage is negligible and the line impedance is
proportional to the distance to the fault x.

In symmetrical components this can be written as:-

[:] ]:=[
v2, v2, +fO 0 :I0 22 :][:‘]
I2,
(14) Equation (21) is valid even during a power swing and can be
written in the form:-

where ZO, Z1 and 22 are the transmission line per unit length zero,
positive and negative sequence impedances respectively.

To a good approximation it can be assumed that transmission lines

are fully transposed and we can put:-
Where:-
21 = 22 c: zok (15)
1 1 1-1
[A] = 2[ T ] 1 h h2
Equation (14)can then be reduced to:-
0 [I h2 h ]

(16) Although the distance to the fault x is unknown, x is a real number

so that the phase angles of the time invariant quantities of equation
(21) can be compared and used to indicate a fault.

(241
-k- am,-
at
an, (17)
7
ar2,
-
at The phasor voltages for the three phases may be expressed as :-
~

Va, = Va, + x (Al1 k IO, + A,, 11, + A,, n,) (25)

The sequence voltages and currents can be derived from the phase
quantities using the standard transformation [1]:-

Phase c :-
where h = e@’, and the same transform is applied to the current.
VC, = VcF + x (A31 k IO, + A,2 11, +-,A,, 12,) ( 2 7 )
1246

Three Phase Operation

Earth fault at location F, ( phase a / Ground In summary, the assumption that the voltage across the fault
Assuming the fault resistance is negligible, then for a phase a to resistance is negligible is as used for conventionaldistance schemes.
ground fault Va,= 0, therefore from equations ( 25 k- However it has been found that, for this application for clearing the
power swing blocking, only low resistance faults (few tens of ohms)
can be detected. The proposed algorithm is similar to a distance
phase comparison scheme with a zero fault resistance reach. Even
if blocking was cleared for high resistance faults, the relay may not
arcta
i m ( A , , k IO,
R e ( A , , k IO,
+
+
A,, 11,
A,, 11,
+
+
A13 12,)
A13 E!,) I trip as the impedance 'seen' by the relay can be outside the trip
zones 1 and 2 during a power swing.

5. DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS,

Let:-
To demonstrate the algorithm four separates conditions are
presented in each of the studies :-
1 Steady state condition lasting from 0 to 80 ms.
2 First fault condition to create a power swing
conditionlasting from 80 to 370 ms.
3 Swing condition lasting from 350 to 1200 ms.
4 Second fault condition during the power swing
The angles deduced in equation (29) are given totally in t e m of conditionlasting from 700 to 940 ms.
voltages and currents at the relay location.
Thus during faults the phase angle of the voltage phasor at the relay The phase voltages Wa, V, V,) and the phase currents (4, IbrI,) at
location 6, will equal the transmission line voltage drop phase angle any node are provided by the simulation program (EMTP).The
S,, and this can be used for clearing the power swing blocking. sampling rate used is 3600 Hz,ie 72 samples/cycle. A sampling rate
During power swings it has been found that S, = S, only when which is a multiple of the third harmonic Ii7 has particular
&=0 or 1c radians and this lasts only for a very short period properties in the extracting of the fundamental components using
(<<1/10of a cycle). the Fourier transform techniques and the sampling rate of 3600 Hz
In deriving this fault detection principle we have developed a reduces the frequency variation error occurring in the extraction of
the fundamental components of the signals during the swing
scheme which is similar to the usual phase comparison distance
schemes. The difference is that the scheme will be blocked by the conditionI61.
The results for the observation point at the relay locations RIM are
proposed blocking scheme if the relay voltage phase angle S,is at
presented here.
0 or U radians and there is zero resistive reach. A program was developed to implement the proposed principle and
Similarly for other fault types an appropriate phase angle
the distance relay operation during each of the stated conditions
comparison can be made (e.g. line values for a phase to phase fault)
and for different fault types.
so that all faults within the relay reach can be identified by the usual
distance schemes. But during power swings the resistive reach has Three different possibilities are shown :-
to be limited. 1 .)Three phase operation, Phase/Earth(b-E), intemal.
Phase to phase fault at location F, (phase b / phase c 2.)Three phase operation, Phase/Phase (b-c), intemal.
At the fault location of a phase b to phase c fault of negligible 3. )Two phase operation, Phase/Earth(b-E), internal.
resistances, Vbr = Vc,, therefore from equation (26) and (27):-
Variation of the angles 6, with respect to S, at the relaying
Va, - VCR = X [ (AZik 1 0 , + 4 2 11, + -423 n r ) (30) location R1M.
- (A3,k 10, + A3aIlr + A33nr) I Figures (6), (8) and (10 ) show the variations of the two angles S, ,
and 8RF measured at the relay location RIM using the relaying
voltages and currents at the relay location and equation (29) or (33).
It can be seen that :
During the steady state condition, the two measured
angles are different for the two operation modes (3
phase & 2 phase operation).
This can be written as:- During the power swing condition, they are equal to
each other only at pole slip = 1c and &=O radians.
VbR - VCR = x [ A A 1 [ I R 1 (32) For all the considered fault types, these angles S,
and S, are identical, during the fault.
Let:
Tripping decision at the relaying location R U I .
Figures (7), (9) and (11) show the tripping decision at relay location
RIM deduced from the measured values of the angles S,, S, and
6RF.
During the steady state condition, and when the measured
impedance is outside of the tripping characteristics of the relay, the
tripping decision is chosen as UNBLOCK.

The BLOCK decision is then given when the measured impedance

Then for a phase b to phase c fault the angles S, and S, given by enters zone 3 with a progressive increase in the load angle S, or
equation (33) are equal. tjREis greater than 70 and less than 290 '.
O

Two Phase Operation During an intemal or external fault, the blocking is released this
The one pole open condition will introduce the flow of the negative demonstrates that a fault condition is identified.
and zero sequence power and current in the sound phases and an It is clear that the blocking algorithm is adequately responding
increase in the angle of the phasor voltage. Since the above analysis during the fast power swings.
takes into account the flow of positive, negative and zero sequence
currents during any condition, the effect of the one pole open is
allowed for and the above approach can still be used.
 1247

Three phase Operation. Relay Decision

An Intemal Sinele Phase/Earth Fault

-U
3.20
2.56
1.92
v

%
' 1.28
0.64
0.00
-0.64
-1.28
-1.92
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1 .1 1.2
Time (sec)
-2.56
-3.20
Figure 9 Relay Tripping Decision for An Internal Phase to Phase
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 Fault in (b-c) with & =0.1 R ;Fault duration = 700- 940 ms.
Xme (sec)

Figure 6 Variation of S, and &,measured at relay location RlM,

Phase/Earth(b-E),intemal fault applied at F, at t= 700 to 940 ms.
Two Phase Operation.
Relay Decision An Internal Sinde Phase/Earth ( b-E 1

1"ILlmP It l--l
3.20
/
bRF

e
. 2.56
U

U
1.92

'
% 1.28
0.64
0.00
-0.64
-1.28
-1.92
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 .O 1 .1 1.2 -2.56
Time (sec)
-3.20
Figure 7 Relay Tripping Decision for An Internal single phase/Earth 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Time (sec)
Fault with Rp10 R, fault duration= 700-940 ms;
Figure 10 Variation of S, and S, measured at a relay location for
an Intemal Single Phase/Earth Fault &E) with R ~ l o . O n ,fault
AIITntemal Phase to Phase Faults duration= 700- 940 ms;

Relay Decision

3.20 r b L *

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Time (sec)
Figure 8 Variation of 6, and 6,, measured at a relay location for
An Internal Phase to Phase Fault (b-c) with RpO.lR, fault Figure 11 Relay Tripping Decision for An Internal Single
duration= 700- 940 ms. Pha*/Earth Fault @-E) with R, =10 R ; Fault duration = 700- 940
ms.For Two Phase Operation.
1248

7. Conclusions [31 C.V. Naray, “Influence of power swing on transmission line

In this paper, the effect of the fast power swing on the distance protection”, Brown Boveri REV . Nov/Dec 1966, Vol53, No 1, pp
841-848.
protection was investigated. It is demonstrated that the
141 F. Ilar, Baden,”Innovations in the detection of power swing in
conventional power swing blocking schemes are inadequate for
high pole slip rate up to 5 -/sec. To overcome this problem, a new electrical networks.” Brown Boveri REV .2-81, pp 87-93.
[51 2.d. Gad, G.B. Wang, “A new power swing block in distance
power swing blocking scheme has been developed for high speed
protection based on a microcomputer- Principle and performance
power swings. It is based on the monitoring of the voltage phase
analyses,” International Conference in Advanced power system
angle at the relay location. It has also been found that it is possible
Control, operationand management, Nov 1991, Hong Kong, pp 843-
to accurately clear power swing blocking for low impedance faults
847.
by comparing the phasor angles of the line voltage drop ZI with that
[61 G. Gangadharan,A Anbalagan, “Microprocessorbased three step
of the relaying voltage V,. Alternatively a distance phase quadrilateral distance relay for the protection of EHV/UHV
comparison scheme with a zero fault resistance reach can be used.
transmission line.’Transaction on power delivery, vol 7, No 1,
The scheme also works when single pole hipping is instigated, that J a n ~ a r y1992, pp 91-96.
is when one phase of the line is dead.
A. Phadke, M. Adamiak, ” A New Measurement Technique for
The proposed scheme operation was demonstrated on simulated Tracking Voltage Phasors, Local System Frequency, and Rate of
transients using the EMTP program and analysis software written Change Frequency ”,IEEE Transaction on PAS, Vol.PAslO2, Nr.5,
in a high level language. The clearance of power swings has proved May 83, pp 1025-1038.
to be problematical for high resistance faults (100-200 ohms). 181 EMTP Rule Book, Leuven EMTP Centre, Belgium, 1987.
However, even if blocking is cleared a radically different adaptive
distance scheme will be needed to adjust the measured impedance
during high resistive faults. 11. Biomavhv
Further work is being camed out to see if high resistance faults Ahmed Mechraoui was born in Laghouat, ALGERIA, on April 22,
(100 - 200 ohms can also be detected during power swings. 1952. He received a B.Sc(Hon 1degree in Electrical Engineering, and
M.Sc degree in Electric Power and Control from Nottingham
University, in 1976, and 1977 respectively.
8. Acknowlednement In 1978 he joined the Miniistry of Energy in Algeria where he held
Mr Mechraoui wishes to express his thanks to the Algerian High many senior position till 1984. From 1985 he joined the University
Education Ministry and his Family for the financial support. of Laghouat, Algeria where he held management and teachhg
position. In 1992 he joined the Electrical and Electronic Department
9. Avvendix of Nottingham University, U.K, where he is now working towards
Generator Data. the completion of his Ph.D in elqtrical Engineering. His interests
i) rated MW: 680 MW; ii) rated MVA 800 MVA include : Power System Protection, Simulation of Power Networks,
ii) rated power factor:0.85 ; vi) rated current :20360 Ampere; Power System Stability, and Numerical Modelling Techniques.
v) rated voltage@neline):22~ volts;
vi) rated frequency :50 HZ; vii) SCR :0.55 ; David W.P. Thomas was bom in Padstow, Cornwall, U.K., on
viii) Inertia Constant H=3.0 MW-sec/MVA; May 5,1959. He received a B.Sc. degree in Physics from Imperial
10. References College of Science and Technology, London, M.Phil. degree in Space
[l]E.W. Kimbark,”F’owersystem stability”,vol2,6 edition, April, 67, Physics from Sheffield University, and the Ph.D. degree from
John Wiley &sons edition. Nottingham University, in 1981,1987, and 1990 respectively.
[2] A. Mechraoui, D.W.P. Thomas,” The influence of power swing In 1984, he joined the Department of Electrical and Electronic
on transmissionline distance protection, measurementof power and Engineering at the University of Nottingham as a Research
voltage phasor oscillation at the relaying point” UPEC 93, Volume Assistant, where he is now a Lecturer.
2, September 93, pp 585-588.