Elementary Concepts and Definitions re After studying this chapter, students will be able to LO1 Define electrical quantities and their units LO2 Understand the relationship between charge, voltage, current and power Lo3 el ae and AC current and voltage; characteristics of sinusoidal waveform universally used for AC currents and voltages LO4 Explain resistor and Ohm's law, vi relationship of inductor and capacitor LOS Deal with independent and dependent sources LO6 Employ basic circuit laws—Kirchhoff's Current Law [KCL] and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL] 1.1 INTRODUCTION Electric energy is convenient and efficient for production of light, mechanical energy and in information processing. For the first two uses, it can be transported in a clean fashion (as compared to transporting coal, for example) and economically over long distance lines so as to be available at the point of use. Electric energy also can transport information over tremendous distances, with or without wires, equally efficiently and economically. There is almost no competitor to electric energy in these fields. Electric energy does not occur naturally in usable form and must therefore be centrally generated and instantly transported to myriad points of use spread geographically over vast areas, even beyond the state or national boundaries. It cannot be stored in large enough quantities for any major use. Electric energy generation is generally a three-step process—naturally occurring chemically-bonded energy (as in fossil fuels—coal and oil) or nuclear energy is converted to heat form by combustion/nuclear fission, the thermodynamic cycle converts it to mechanical form (rotational) which then is employed to run an electric energy generator. For limited use, electric energy is directly obtained from chemical energy. as in batteries, or solar energy is converted to electric energy as in a solar cell. The trend in electric energy generators is towards mega sizes, due to economy in large scales. Information, usually visual or audio signals or coded messages, have to be processed and/or transported by the intermediate form of electric energy. Speed of processing and economy dictate that electric energy for these purposes must be in minutest possible quantities—in either continuous form or bit form (moder trend). Hence, the trend is towards micro sizes. Range and variety of such use of electric energy is varied and wide— ‘Video and audio systems, control processors, computers, etc, Fibre op t beginning to offer stiff competition to electric energy for purposes of p e ‘energy form of such systems would, for a long time to come, continue2 Bosic Electrical and Electronics Engineering ‘ indamental laws of electricity and consery This being the first chapter, it begins by eae ahd electric sources and power are clarified is samy cece, ee ue oe ag eect ere capacitor and inductor—are introduced —_ 7 Imeronnection of crit lames lends tote concep of lc tel The two fundamental ci laws la the foundation stone of the cc theory to whic he ia ax chaps of hs Bok are deve ‘The chapter ends with the principle of superposition, homogeneity and concept of linearity, The importance of circuit theory can be judged from the fact that almost all electric and electronic devices, ansiucers, transmission lines, energy and information processing systems, et, are modeled ia the form of a circuit with sources forthe purpose oftheir analysis and design. Circuit modelling cannot be applied s such o very high frequency devices (microwave equipment, ete), where travelling wave concen is a must for their modelling, In view of the above account, the electric circuit theory is fundamental to all the fiel engineering. Even some mechanical systems can be modelled by an electric circuit on an ds of electrical analogic basis, 1.2. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER Work Work is done whenever an object moves in a field of force, F (unit of force is newton, N). If the object moves in the direction of force, work is done by the force. However, if the object moves in a direction opposite to the force, work is done by an external agency that moves the object. Energy Itisthe capacity for doing work. When amassis lifted against the gravity, work done by an external Fee iting i gts stored in the mass as potential energy (by virtue of its position in the gravitational force field). If the mass is allowed to fall Energy. (W) = force (N) x distance moved (m) ‘Theor energy, W smeasured in wit of joules, Jor newton ere N-m. Principle of Conservation of Energy In non-relativistic processes, energy ; iustaed in the above example” ®¥*T 88 destroyed it gets converted from one form to anothera Power Itis the rate of doing work (i.e,, te of : a es) Instantaneous power is P=Gp Ys or wats (Wy an Average power is given by “ (1.2)Elementary Concepts and Definitions 3 ‘The integral forms of Eq, (1.1) are w= [> dt (1.3) Pay)= roa (4) 1.3. BASIC MANIFESTATIONS OF ELECTRICITY Fundamental electric charge carrying particles are electrons harge! r (negative charge) and protons (positive charge). The unit of electric charge is coulomb, (C). In terms of this unit, the electronic charge is 1.602 x 10-” C (-ve for electron and +ve for proton), Since coulomb is a large unit, it is more practical to use micro-coulomb, (iC). An electric field is established in the space surrounding an electric charge and is manifested in the form of force exerted on another charge brought into the field. This force is given by the Coulomb's law as QO: are N as) Where Q,, Q, are charges in coulomb, d is the distance between them in metres and € is the permittivity of the medium (= €¢,; lative permittivity of medium and &, = permittivity of free space = 8.85 x10"). When we deal here with a stationary charge, the field is called electrostatic field. The field at any point is measured quantitatively in terms of the force exerted on a unit positive charge and is called electric field intensity E which is a directed quantity (vector). Potential Difference _It is the work (J) done when a unit positive charge is moved from a point b in afield to another point a. As in the gravitational field, the potential difference or voltage difference between two points is a scalar quantity, independent of the path chosen. The unit of potential difference is volts (V) 1V = 1 unit positive charge. The symbol of potential difference (or voltage) is v or V. If work must be done on the charge (energy input to the charge) as it moves from b to a, the voltage of iis higher than that of b (voltage rises from b to a) and is indicated as v,, (a above b) (Fig. 1.1). In this case, if the charge moves from a to b, energy is output. Obviously ye =e ice, the voltage drops in moving from a to b. There are two ways of indicating the voltage difference on a diagram, as shown in Fig. 1.1, It can be indicated by a line with an arrow pointing towards the point whose voltage is higher than that of the other point (no arrow) by the symbol indicated on the arrow as in Fig. 1.1(a), or by arrows at both ends with + and ~ sign placed at the ends (points) as in Fig. 1.1(b). Vs db a b a [oe : @ © Fig. 1.1 Potential difference (voltage difference) ‘of electric energy is associated with the motion of charges. In our circuit study, we will tion of ch 0 ith constituted of materials that are good conductors, ty are known as insulators and are used toy ™~ 4. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering a Current Electric current is the rate of flow of charge through a conducting path as shown in Fig. 1.2, positive direction of current is the direction in which the positive charge flows; this direction is opposite s that in which electrons flow. Unit of current is ampere, A. One ampere is the charge flow rate of 1 Cyse, The symbol used for current is / or /. The symbol for charge is g. Average current over a period of time is A ‘ave) =F (1.64) id ‘Conductir a onduting oe path ® . @ ® Fig. 1.2 Direction (or flow) of Current while the instantaneous current is defined as de aa (1.6) ‘The paths of interest along which the charges move (flow) are known as circuits. The charge transferred from time f, to tis q= fia a7 As in Fig. 1.2(a), a reference positive direction is chosen for the current. The current in the opposite direction would then be negative as in Fig. 1.2(b). If a current is flowing from a point a to b, it may be indicated by the symbol i,, (a to b). Obviously, We shall generally avoid such double suffix symbolisation. Unidirectional current is known as direct current (dc) and, unless otherwise indicated, itis assumed to hhave constant value with time as shown in the graphical representation of Fig. 1.3. ‘t 0 —= Time, t Fig. 1.3 Direct current (dc) Alternating current or ac, is cyclic in nature, with current flowing in positive direction in half the cycle and in negative direction in the other half, as shown in Fig. 1.4, The current wave shape shown in Fig. 1.4 is sinusoidal which is a very common occurrence in circuits. It can be expressed as 2x i(d = Ico 7 as) sili. eswhere, T fe period of a one cycle in g J, = maximum (peak) current Iteasily follows that the frequency 1 I= > Ha (cyclesis); Hz = hertz a9) Equation (1.8) can now be rewritten as i = 1, cos 2 We can express angular frequency w as a Siew © = 2nf, frequency in rad/s aay so that i =1, cos wr 12) ‘4 Fig. 1.4 Alternating current (ac)—sinusoidal Itis convenient to plot alternating current in form of Eq. (1.12) with ordinate wt as in Fig. 1.5. 4 Fig. 1.5. Alternating current—sinusoidal Mathematically, Eq, (1.12) (as well as Eq, (1.8)) can have any reference point so that in general i(t)=1,, cos (or + 6) (1.13) where, 6 can be either positive or negative as shown in Fig. 1.6(a) and (b). @ is known as the phase angle of to right (lag) or left (lead) in time..al and Electron 6 Basic Electric if ‘ | {:\ (aes fy |, cos (at - 0); lagging phase angle cos (ut +B) leading phase angle Fig. 1.6 (2) (bit) = nnsider the sinusoidal voltage Relative Phase Angle Co" v= V,, sin ot (114) and v= V, sin (wt + 8) (1.15) For phase angle comparison, we choose any corresponding points on the two waves. It is convenient to choose first zero value of v,(#) which occurs at «or = 0. The corresponding 26r0 value of v,(t) occurs at -urs earlier in angle by @ rad or in time by 6/a (ot +0) =Oorat ot =-8. We find that the zero point of v,(f) occ! ‘seconds from the corresponding point of v,(1). It means that wave v,(t) leads v,(t) by angle rad or time Hla seconds, The two waves are sketched in Fig. 1.7 and the angle @ is indicated therein. yt ke v(0)=V,sin ot La zy Bi wal v{t=V,sin (ot +) ¥, a Fig. 1.7. v,(t) leads v,(t) by angle @ necessary to sketch the sine wave to determine the phase angle. Consider v,(@)= V, sin (wt - 0) The first 2ero occurs at (wt — ‘coder apes ee ., later than the reference sine wave by angle 8. The both the waves as sines or cosines.a In engineering applications, the phase angle 0 i a sacrmuaes jucmnned it shouldbe convened tora, ile @ is expressed in degrees. If the corresponding Elementary Concepts and Definitions 7 Converting Sines to Cosines and Vice Versa ‘The sine and cosine ate essentially the same functions except for the 90° phase difference, Thus, cos (wt 90°) = sin wt @ It means that cos wt with a lagging angle of 90° is sin wt. In other words, cos wt leads sin wt by 90°. ‘Add 90° on both sides of Eq. (i), we find sin (ot + 90°) = cos wt —— which means sine with 90° lead is cosine. See figure . ‘Adding or subtracting 360° to the argument of cosine and sine does not cause any change in their value, ms ‘Adding or subtracting 180° to the argument of cosine and sine causes a sign reversal. Thus, cos (cor — 90° + 180°) = ~c0s (wt 90°) = -sin OF Example ¥,(0 = V,, cos (15t + 20°) = V,,, sin (15t-+ 90° + 20°); sine with 90° lead is cosine = V,, sin (151 + 110°) Compare it with V4(1) = Vig Sin (151 30°) We find v, leads v, by (110° + 30°) = 140°. If we subtract 360° from argument of v,, we have v, = V,, sin (15t— 250°) which equivalently means v, is lagging v, by (-250° + 30° = -220°). Itis preferable to express the phase angle between sinusoids as an angle less than 180°. Find the angle by which (lags vif v, = 100 cos (1001 — 40°) V and i, equals (b) 1.5 sin (100 - 60°) A. (a) 4.cos (1001 + 20°) A fe Solution (a) Bothare cosines. From Fig. 1.8 (a), we.can see, leads v, by (20° + 40°) = 60° Ret (&) For phase comparison, we conver j, from sine to cosine form, ‘ 1.5 sin (1001 — 60°) = 1.5 cos (1001 ~ 60° — 90°) Fig.1.8 (@) = 1.5.cos (1007 -150°)ee 10 Basic Electric pene sce ssi L CIRCUIT ELEMENTS 1.6 IDEA jon ofa circuit element is drawn in Fig 1.10, Ithas voltage [074 HB wt aeross variable (AV) and the pliner and hngigg, ‘The general representati seat i'd eorrent associated with it, The voltage & y & , Surrent isa through variable (TV). Any one of these variables could be regarded ea ‘e other as the dependent variable Nepeiet i as the independent variable, and th a” A circuit element is ideal, when its vo! Element + constant of proportionality, oF « differential or integral relationship Il oka relationships can be shown to be linear which means that Z ; behaviour. Figo Kea tage and current are related by These an ideal circuit element has lineat Resistance* When a voltage is applied across a metallic conductor (say copper), the electric field created accelerates Jectrons collide with the metal ions of the crystal lattice (ofthe the conduction of (free) electrons. These e tretal) and lose part of their energy as heat. Repeated accelerations and collisions cause two compon wr electron motion, the drift (average velocity) and the random motion. It is the drift of electrons that v aattues the electric current in the conductor (the conventional current flows in the opposite direction) which is associated with energy loss in the form of heat. Therefore, the resistance isa dissipative element, which converts electric energy into heat, when the current flows through it in any direction, This process of energy conversion is irreversible, Figure 1.11 shows the schematic representation of resistance. The element has #0 terminals (also called nodes). Tt conducts current from any one node to the other and in the process, voltage drop occurs cross the element in the direction of current flow (the terminal at which the current enters acquires positive polarity with respect to the terminal at which the current exits) Ohm's Law It states that the voltage across the two terminals of a conducting material is proportional to the current flowing through it as na js v=Ri (1.23) ‘The constant of proportionality Ris the resistance, represented i in Fig 111. The unit of resistance is ohm (V/A = 1), abbreviated <———-—-\WWWW"_—* ey as capital omega, 2. ae By virtue of the polarities indicated on the resistance of Flg-1-11. Schematic representation of resistance Fig. 1.11, the charge loses energy in passing t i nec passing through the resistance ‘tick ppcan ral ee oe Property of resistance is called a resistor. Power dissipated by the resistance (Fig. 1.11) is ae ¥ pavizP RaW a2 Equation (1.23) can also be i (1.25) “Refer Appendix B —— ee _12 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Energy Stored in Capacitance ‘The power fed into capacitance is dy snzeve b dachlegh der. (1.30) Integrating Eq. (1.30) and assuming initially uncharged capacitance (v = 0 at ¢= 0), the stored energy is found to be or a3) wea f vv ° ‘Observe that the energy stored in a capacitance is a function of its (instantaneous) voltage magnitude and is independent of the history of how this voltage is reached. ‘As the voltage is reduced to zero, all the energy stored in the eapacitor is returned to the circuit in which the capacitor is connected. ‘A practical element possessing the property of capacitance is known as a capacitor. Itis constructed of two parallel plates (in various forms) with an intervening dielectric. ‘The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by C=«,¢,(4), with units Farads (F) (1.32) permittivity of free space = 8.85 x 10" lative permittivity of medium ‘A= area of each plate (m’); d = distance between the plates (m). To get a capacitance of 1 F, let us calculate the value of (A/d) for e, = 1 (in air). From Eq. (1.32) A 1 >t peep 3 x10 where, €, If we assume d= 1 mm, then A= 0.113 x 10x 107m? = 113 km* Its obvious from this figure that itis not practicable to construct a capacitor of 1F value. It is still an impossibility even if we use €, = 8. In view of the above, the practical value of a capacitor is in units of microfarad (jlF) = 10 F. Capacitors with some jF value are made from two thin aluminium films wrapped round a dielectric material. Larger values are obtained with electrolyte dielectric medium. Capacitors needed for solid-state microchips are built from silicon or other semiconductors. These may be in ranges, of nanofarad, nF = 10° F or even picofarad, pF = 10"? F. As an example, consider a capacitor of 10 UF to which is 0.4 ms as shown in Fig. 1.13(a). The capacitor is given by q= fi d=50 far=50dr ‘The charge increase linearly tillat'=O0.4ms = 50 mA x 0.4 ms = 20 pC ipplied 50 mA rectangular pulse of duration @Elementary Concepts and Definitions 15 ‘This interchangeability is known as the concept of duality. Let us now examine a resist ce element for which ve Ri i= Gv Duality is extended to resistance by interchanging, ReoG A practical inductance is called an inductor. It isa coil wound on a magnetic core (may be an air} core for small values of inductance). A magnetic core inductor has constant inductance only inalim- 4 s ; ited range of current (at high current the core satu- rates and inductance reduces, see Chapter 5). i This means that itis linear in a limited range “yt of currents. In electronic circuits, the use of inductor is avoided except in high power circuits. In fact, inductance cannot be fabricated as such in a semiconductor integrated circuits. Consider that an inductance of 1 H is excited with current waveform sketched in Fig 1.15(a). + During voltage waveform upto 1s, the i(t) rises from 0 to 4 A at the rate 4 A/s. So the aid voltage v= 1.4 .4=4V is constant. From 1 to 3s, the rate of change of current is zero ‘and so is the voltage. From 3s to 4s, the cur- rent reduces to zero at the rate of 4 A/s. So the voltage is constant —4 V. The voltage wave- form is sketched in Fig. 1.15(b). + Power waveform is the product v, and is sketched in Fig. 1.15(c). The maximum power is 4x4 = 16 W. + Stored energy waveformis wi = 3? = 57, It rises by square law upto 1/2 x 4° = 8 5 at Is, remains constant from 1s to 3s as iis constant. It then decays to zero from 3s 104s (square law) as shown in Fig. 1.15(@). (@) ae Fig. 1.15 Waveforms of (a) current (b) voltage Independent Source (© power and (d) energy in an While the two storage elements (capacitance and inductance ‘ inductance) studied earlier can absorb energy and deliver back the same, an independent source can deliver or absorb energy continuously (without any limit), Such elements are called active elements. ‘An independent voltage source is shown in Fig. 1.16(a) and (b) along with its polarity markings. The source voltage is assumed to be completely independent of the current (ideal source). If current flows out of the positive terminal, the source is delivering energy (and power) to the circuit in which it is connected. On the other hand, if current flows into the positive terminal of the source, it absorbs power. There is no limit tothe, I absorb. :16 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering an lds un wi (a) ) Fig. 1.16 Independent voltage source (two-terminal device) (a) delivering power (b) absorbing power In a practical voltage source, energy is obtained or absorbed by a conversion process from another energy form. For example, in a battery source, chemical energy is converied to electrical form whes me source is delivering, and vice versa when the source i absorbing. In a practical source, the terminal vllage is curent dependent, though in the useful current range this dependence is limited. Further, a procter source can handle only a certain maximum power called rated power. Similarly, an ideal independent current source can supply (or receive) 4 specified current independent of its voltage. Such a source is represented in Fig. 1.16(c). Its terminal voltage is determined by the conditions in the circuit to which it is connected. Such sources occur in the electronic ‘® mo circuits. In a practical current source, current is voltage dependent but is Practically independent of it in the useful range. a ‘Supplying/Absorbing Power It is not only the sources that can supply or Fig. 1.16(¢) Independent absorb power, any element can in fact supply or absorb power. In Fig. 1.17(a), ‘Current source the element is supplying power and in Fig. 1.17(b), itis absorbing power. Capacitor and inductor can absorb OF suf circuit to which their terminals are connect If the element is a resistor, it abso bs power only for positive value of resistance. However, an active clectronic circuit can exhibit negative resistance and so supply power Ply power, and thereby store or give away stored energy to the (@) Element supplying power (b) Element absorbing power Dependent Sources (Ideal) ‘The voltage/current of a dependent voltage/current source is determined by voltage/current at another point in the circuit. The law of dependence is linear, say, a constant of Proportionality. Figure 1.18 shows the “presentation of such dependent souree*. Such sources are encountered in modelling of eleetonin dere, ae “The concept of dependent sources ‘useful in modelling transistors and other active devices in electronics.M ay 4 My 3 =) : (a) (b) é § w Pom 4 ia —— |. o bo Elementary Concepts and Definitions 17 © (@) Fig. 1.18 (a) Voltage dependent voltage source (b) Current dependent current source (Voltage dependent current source (d) Current dependent voltage source Summary Ideal circuit elements we have studied are of two kinds: Passive Elements (R, L, C) Resistance is the dissipative element. Capacitance and inductance can store and deliver energy without any loss of energy in the process, but their energy handling capacity is limited. Practical passive elements would possess all the three properties (resistance, capacitance and inductance) but depending upon their design, one of these properties will predominate. A practical element can be mod- elled using ideal R, L and C. Active Element (Sources) Ideal sources (independent, dependent) can handle infinite power and energy. But practical sources can handle finite (rated) power but infinite energy. Certain Properties of Ideal Circuit Elements (R,L,C) These elements are: + Linear (already explained) + Bilateral + Time invariant + Lumped Bilateraland Unilateral _R, L, C ideal elements’ behaviour is independent either of the terminal (node) at which the current is fed in or of the direction of voltage applied at the terminals. If the terminal connections of an element in a circuit are reversed, it would not make any difference to the circuit response. This is the bilateral property of R, L, C elements. If an element or circuit does not possess the above property, it is said to be unilateral. For example, for the dependent voltage source of Fig 1.18(a) the input voltage controls the output voltage. However, a voltage ‘not control the voltage at the input terminals. This is the ich is inherently unilateral.\ Elementary Concepts and Definitions 19 1.7 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS FOR ELECTRIC CIRCUITS A circuit isin general composed of several ideal elements whose nodes (terminals) - are connected in various ways. Several (two or more) elemental nodes may merge to forma single node. For convenience of tracking, nodes are labelled (usually by numbers). Shown in Fig. 1.20 is a circuit composed of five resistances and two voltage sources. We shall now define certain terms, Node is a junction where two or more elemental points meet. Path is the traversal through elements from one node to another without going through the same node twice. Branch is a path between two adjoining nodes. Loop is a closed path where the transversal ends upon the starting node. Mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop or within it. Figure 1.20 shows three meshes identified by mesh currents i, i, and i, Independent Meshes M M=B-N+1 37) where, B= number of branches (N= number of circuit nodes In the circuit of Fig. 1.20M=7-5+1=3 ‘Apart from the Ohm's law already stated for a resistive element, we shall now enunciate two fundamental circuit laws (Kirchhoff's laws) which follow rationally from the nature of electrical ‘quantities. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Algebraic sum of currents going away from and coming towards a node is zero. If the current going away from the node is taken as positive, current coming towards the node is negative or vice versa. This law is a simple and obvious consequence of the fact that no charge can accumulate at a node, Consider the node in Fig. 1.21. Itimmediately follows that i,-i,4i,-i,+1,=0Elementary Concepts and Definitions 21 With reference to Fig. 1.23, we are given from Eq, (1.27) KCL equation at the node is ~i+i, from Eq. (1.33) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) The algebraic sum of voltage drops (or rises) a round a loop (closed path) or mesh in a specified direction is zero. If voltage drop is taken as positive, voltage rise is negative or vice versa. This law is a consequence of the fact that in a loop transversal, we return to the starting node. Consider a two-mesh network in Fig. 1.24, Express the currents in the three resistances in terms of mesh currents and then write the KVL equation, Bie poss Fig. 1.24 in Fig. 1.24. The currents in the resistances are mii,Elementary Concepts and Definitions 23 Substituting in Eq. (i) ~10 sin + 2.cos t~ 10 cos t= v,= | or 8 cos t= 10sint 5 (8 cos ¢~ 10 sin) using Eq. (1.27) =5.cos 144 sint Let 4=A cos 6 5=Asin@ Solving A= /41.0= tant = i,= VAT sin (t+ 0) = Vi sin (t= tan 3) In the circuit of Fig. 1.26, find R and V,. Also find the power output of the source V,- Solution By application of the Ohm's laws, we get voltage across 4 © resistance (3 V) which also appears across 12 0 resistance (these are in parallel) and as a consequence current through the 12 Q resistance is V4 A (Fig. 1.27). Fig. 1.27 Apply KCL at node 2 ania Current through R= 4 +4 =1A Applying KVL around the middle mesh 6+ 1KR44X1D=0 R=30 1 Qresistance = 1+ 1=2A.wl 24 Bosic Elecricol and Electronics Engineering Applying KVL a round the left mesh, Vi+1x246 or v, Current out of the positive terminal of V, (apply KCL at node 1) = 2A. Power output of V, source = 8 x 2 = 16 W, a For the circuit in Fig. 1.28, i, =-2e" A. Find V,. ai 2H Fig. 1.28 Solution Gf ic de =— [20° at = 20°" v0) =0 Assuming initial voltage across capacitor is zero, ie. v0) =0 This voltage appears also across 2 Q resistance (R and C in parallel). Therefore, 2ettet=—etA Voltage across L, Voltage across R, Applying KVL around the mesh, we have eT Det + 2e*= 0 or 1.8 CONCLUSION Circuits are composed of six basic types of ideal elements—three passive R, L, C, and three active elements, voltage/current sources and a dependent source. A circuit is used to model the behaviour of physical clectricaV/electronic systems. The laws governing the ideal elemental behaviour (1-i relationships) are Proportional, differential and integral relationships or merely constant values. These laws obey the principle of superposition and homogeneity and are hence, linear. Circuits which are composed of elements which obey the principles of superposition and homogeneity are linear circuits. Since currents and voltages are set up in circuit elements because of the presence of sources, the source voltage/current is called excitation (something that excites the circuit elements).ai = 28 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering \ feo 4 / > x ip / ; va , se ea capper ppp 2 ] iar \ ; Fig. 1.35 (©) Instantaneous power P= vi = 200 ¥/2 x 0.888 sin (314 4) cos (3141) Using trigonometric identity, 2 sin 0cos 0 = sin 20, we can write P= 125.56 sin (6281) W We find that the instantaneous pow er oscillates at twice the fr current frequency, The average pos quency (i. 628 rad/s) ofthe voltage wer is zero, Conclusions 1 2. Instantaneous power drawn b 9 8 capacitor oscillates at twice the frequency of applied voltage. 3. Average power drawn by a ‘The current in a capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90° oe “itor is zero. The energy oscillates back and forth between the capacitor and the voltage source. CRB eas A resistor R = 800 Q.is shown in Fi ‘ig. 1.36, Calculate the power absor (i= 506% mA (by bed by Rat r= 0 cos 25 1 V (© vi=10Ps VA O.1s when ls 0 e'=18.4 mA # R= [1.84 x 1097 x 800 =271 mw Paes i Pa = GA? «aw oF 2,000 mw (©) vi=10 x (0.1) = 10 x 3.16 x 10° W: in resistance VA = W =31.6mWw92 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering itl + % a 3.2 13.64 a “aA 1-1454 (b) © Fig. 1.39 Solution < (@) The cumentis flowing ito the postive terminal. Thus, the power being absorbed ig P (absorbed) = 230 x 10° x 4.8 = 11.04 W (©) The current is flowing out of the positive terminal. Thus, the power generate is P (gen) = ~3.2 x (1.45) = 44.64 W (©) The current is flowing out of the positive terminal, Thus, P (supplied) = 8e™ x 3.6 = 28.8 es w Atr=10ms P (supplied) = 28.8 e°5 = 17.45 w For the circuit in Fig 1.40, write the expressions for v, and 7 Solution ¥(0 = Ri=1.R sin ot @ = sin otma vl) = LE = 14 ttysin =1,(Lw) cos wt Gi) _Bample.a3 — Seis Inexample 1.22, if we are given 1, =250 mA, « = 100 rad/s, R = Then at r= 25 ms, find the (@) power dissipated in resistor (©) power absorbed or given out by inductor (©) the energy stored in inductor (4) the minimum and maximum energy stored in inductor Solution We will use the expressions derived in Problem 1.22, At 1=25 ms, wt = 100 x 25 x 107 = 2.5 rad or 143,2° 4 (25 ms) = 250 sin 143.2° = 149.6 mA v, (25 ms) = 149.6 10° x4 =0.6V v, (25 ms) = 250 x 10° x 100 x 50 x 10° cos 143,2° =-1V Q,L=50mH34. Bosic Electrical and Electronics Engineering For the circuit shown in Fi 1.42, find power delivered/received by sources and resistance. Solution eh Applying KVL, 2M4- 1251-1 hair: tw A ) e s =24Vx12A a AW Fig. 1.42 12 V source receives power = 12 Vx 12. A 44. W Power consumed by 1 Q=/?R =12?-1 =144W For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.43, find V. Solution vi 52 vats In Fig. 1.43, there is only one path for current as, from V. Qtov “- = 2 Q. Current in 12 Q and 4 Q resistances is zero as their second terminals are open circuited Fig. 1.43 Hence applying KVL V=1S +2) =2(7)=14V For the circuit shown in Fig, 1.44, find power consumed by R. Solution 16a In circuit equivalent resistance seen by the source is, 100 1110+ R=9.09+R 100.0 102 200 Es 12164 9.09+R Fig. 1.44 4 R=340 P(3.4) = PR = 185,95 W V.=4 sin 314%, find V,.Elementary Concepts and Definitions 35 solution ‘Applying KCL, 2A+1A+i, lc dy A+1Ati= Cm DAFIAti= CF d ~4sin 31. asin 314 = 1256 cos 3144 di ai. Vi= LG, =4% 10x £1256 cos 3141 -1507 sin 314¢ Find Jin the circuit shown in Fig. 1.46, 129 129 5a wT age AG te Fig. 1.46 Solution For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.46, equivalent resistance in series with 12 Q is =(08114) + 511110 8x4 =|$%445)10-4340 [es |i Equivalent resistance in series with 2. Qis j4x6 = (4.34412) jois=s634] 6 =234Q Figure 1.47 shows reduced equivalent network , elie rr 1sov = 2980 7 242.34«The direction in which positive charges The di een apa charges move shows the direction of positive current; alternatively, positive current flow is in the direction opposite to that in which the electrons are moving, + Any element or source is said to supply power if the positive current flows out of the positive terminal. Any element or source absorbs (receives) power if the positive current flows into its positive terminal + There are six sources: the independent voltage source, the independent current source and four possible dependent sources. + The ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it ie. v=iR + Power dissipated in resistance is given by p = vi = PR = — = Gy? Watts R dy + Capacitor v-ielationship, = C=; integral form can also be use initial d voltage to be accounted for. Stored energy, w, = 5- Cv* Joules + Inductance v - i relationship, di = LF imtegral form can also be used: initial current to be accounted for the Stored energy; w 1 Li Joules + Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of current leaving (or entering) a mode is Zero: « Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltage drops (or rises) around any closed path is zero. Be + Sinusoidal waveform (voltage or current), v = V,, cos o V,, = maximum or peak value T= time period (usually in seconds) or v=V, cos 2a ft 1 nz where, fis frequency in Hertz [Hz]. i... cycles/s or / cos wt 2rf ; frequency in rad/s «+ For comparing the phases of two sinusoidal waveforms, itis convenient to express oth phases in cosine or in sine form with a positive sign. Of course, both must have same frequency. (EE Review Questions potential difference between (wo point charges (q Coulomb) of opposite sign displaces 1. Derive the expression for by distance d apart. LOI 0@O LO2 00® 2. Sketch the current and voltage waveform if i= sin (wt - 60°) v= Veos (wt + 30°) What is the phase difference between the two and which one leads the other?38 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2 3, A capacitor of C Farads is charged with q Coulomb. What is the stored energy? LO? Oe 4, State the principles of superposition and homogeneity. ta 06 : 3 Gj i ; cuit element. 5. Show that an inductor is a linear circuit : ie 6. Inan inductor L Henry, charge is flowing atthe rate of q Coulombs/sec. What is its stored energy? 7. State the conditions for a source or element to supply or absorb power. 103 080 8. A capacitor C Farads at an instant has voltage V which is reducing at the rate # Is it supplying or absorbing power and how much? 106 006) it 9, State the Ohm's law. Eos oes 10. State KCL and the underlying logic. [106-080] 11. State KVL and the underlying logic. LO6 080 12, Define a node and mesh. eee 13. Differentiate between independent and dependent sources. LOS 008 Problems LA Consider a 230 V, 100 W incandescent lamp. Determine Toroe (a) the lamp resistance (b) the lamp current (©) the energy consumed by the lamp in 8 h 1.2 Figure 148) shows a black box that contains a single ideal circuit element. Three voltage-current relationships for this black box are shown in Fig. 1.48(b), (c) and (4) (@) Identify the circuit element in each case and its value in appropriate units. (b) Find the peak energy storage/power dissipation. (©) _Inresistive case, find also the total energy consumed. 13 Voltage 200 V2 sin 314r is applied across a capacitor of 100 HP. (a) Determine the capacitor current as a function of time. (b) Sketch voltage and current waveforms. What conclusion do you draw? (c) Sketch instantaneous Power as a function of time. What do you observe? |LO4 @00, 1.4 Repeat Problem 1.3 for an inductance of 500 mH. LO4 @00) 15 Repeat Problem 1.3 fora resistance of 1 KO. LOS @00 16 Current i= /e passes through a resistance R from t= 0 onward. Whats the total energy dissipated inthe resistance up to f = 007 L03 0@0 17 Examine Fig. 1.49, |LO6 O@O (@) Express the voltage across each resistor in terms of V, V, and V,, (b) Witte the necessary KCL equation atthe nodes in terms of V, V, and Y., (©) Solve for V, and V,. 18 For the resistive circuit shown in Fig. 1.50, J, =4.A,1,=1 A, R, =R,=R,=1Q. 2 ae ie 7 R=R aR, 'L06 000) (©) Determine the currents and voltages across R, and R,, (©) Find v,