the International Journal Volume 17

on Marine Navigation Number 4

http://www.transnav.eu and Safety of Sea Transportation December 2023

DOI: 10.12716/1001.17.04.22

Simulation Environment in Python for Ship Encounter

Situations
Ł. Stolzmann1 & J. Szłapczyńska2
1 Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland
2 Gdańsk University of Technology, Gdańsk, Poland

ABSTRACT: To assess the risk of collision in radar navigation distance-based safety measures such as Distance
at the Closest Point of Approach and Time to the Closest Point of Approach are most commonly used. Also Bow
Crossing Range and Bow Crossing Time measures are good complement to the picture of the meeting situation.
When ship safety domain is considered then Degree of Domain Violation and Time to Domain Violation can be
applied. This manuscript provides a description of a ship encounter simulation software tool written in Python
accompanied by a case study, implementing all the measures mentioned above. It offers a radar-like Graphical
User Interface (GUI), is able to track AIS-based traffic or encounter scenarios stored in local files. The tool
features several additional functions e.g. Variable Range Marker (VRM) or Electronic Bearing Line (EBL). The
simulator might be a test sandbox for advanced collision avoidance algorithms.

1 INTRODUCTION implemented in variety of on-board hardware and

software tools. Sometimes they can be supplemented
Safe operation of both traditional manned ships and by Bow Crossing Range (BCR) or Bow Crossing Time
unmanned or autonomous vessels cannot exist (BCT). But if one is about to apply some more
without appropriate collision avoidance systems sophisticated indicators or metrics like e.g. domain-
based on reliable safety indicators staying in line with based Degree of Domain Violation (DDV) [2], a
IMO’s COLREGs rules [1]. To be sure whether a problem appears that virtually no tool is available
proposed solution is valuable for the aforementioned implementing this indicator. Thus, a necessity arose to
collision avoidance system, first it is necessary to build such a ship traffic monitoring and simulation
determine their suitability for currently operated tool, having access to AIS data stream and
manned ships. For this purpose, it is important to implementing selected safety measures. The tool
design a navigation support tool capable of mapping would allow to monitor the encounter situation by
the encounter situation, calculating the proposed utilizing these measures, thus resulting in improved
safety indicators in the context of a given collision situation awareness. That would also make possible to
avoidance situation and presenting the result that can test some newly designed collision avoidance
be interpreted by the navigator. algorithms designed for traditional or unmanned
(MASS) vessels. This paper documents exactly such a
When safety indicators in ship encounters are traffic simulation tool implemented in Python.
considered, the most obvious choice are Distance at
the Closest Point of Approach (DCPA) and Time to The manuscript is organized as follows. Section 2
the Closest Point of Approach (TCPA). They both are presents basic information on AIS as a source of data

953
 of nearby traffic. Section 3 briefly recalls definitions of the message transmitted by them is incomplete or
basic risk-related metrics applicable in ship encounter there is a format distortion or data errors, its
situations. Section 4 introduces the Python simulation transmission is discriminated, i.e. the allocated
tool including details on its initial assumptions, elementary frame will be received and the entire
applied technologies, GUI design and key features. transmission schedule ceases to exist. This frame, if
The section concludes with possible further necessary, is allocated to another AIS having a
development of the tool. A case study with exemplary stronger signal. In order to eliminate the problems
encounter situation analysis with assistance of the tool associated with the reception of weak or distorted
is presented in Section 5. The final section concludes signals from distant devices, messages transmitted by
and summarizes the material presented. AIS at distances greater than 100 nautical miles are
automatically discriminated.
Additionally, the following transmission access
2 AIS AS SOURCE OF INFORMATION ON methods are distinguished:
NEARBY TRAFFIC − ITDMA - extended TDMA (Incremental Time
Division Multiple Access) system,
− RATDMA - access to TDMA (Random Access
Ship situation awareness seems a crucial element of Time Division Multiple Access),
her safety when maritime traffic is considered. The − FATDMA – frequency multiple access (Fixed
situation awareness is especially important for Access Time Division Multiple Access),
autonomous vessels. Typically for such marine units, − SOTDMA - self-organizing time division multiple
they can gather information on the other vessels in the access.
vicinity based on their radar and ARPA displays.
However, due to its analogue roots, radar/ARPA can Depending on the adopted method of access to
suffer e.g. from the shadow effect and are able to transmission, the following AIS work methods are
cover a limited range around a ship. Thus, in practice distinguished:
the most common way of building the situation − autonomous also called continuous - transmitting
awareness for autonomous vessels is by utilization of at time intervals:
Automatic Identification System (AIS). − static - every 6 minutes and on request,
− dynamic - at intervals depending on the
The AIS is a radio device enabling automatic: situation,
− transmission to suitably equipped shore stations, − regarding travel - every 6 minutes, on request
other vessels and aircrafts: data identifying the and after each change of any data,
ship and its type, and specifying its current − safety information - after entering and on
position, course, speed, navigation status and request.
transported dangerous goods, as well as short − assigned mode - the frequency and time moments
safety information, of transmission of position reports are determined
− receipt of such information from similarly automatically by an authorized base device acting
equipped vessels, independently or via a so-called relay device (AIS
− position monitoring and vessel tracking, transponder),
− data exchange with devices ashore. − pooling mode - the ship's AIS transmits the data
The AIS device can be installed: upon receipt of an interrogation signal sent by the
− on ships, AIS of another vessel or aircraft or by the base unit.
− on the shore as a so-called base and relay device, As not all vessels operating at sea are subject to the
− at the centre of the Vessel Traffic Control Service
Downloaded from mostwiedzy.pl

SOLAS convention [3], the ship AIS equipment has

(VTS), been divided into two basic classes, namely:
− on Aids to Navigation (AtoN). − Class A, intended for sea-going ships, on which
AIS devices are equipped with a Very High the device is required in accordance with the
Frequency (VHF) receiver operating on: provisions of Regulation 19.2.4.1-3 "Carriage
requirements for shipborne navigational systems
− channel 70 using the Digital Selective Calling and equipment", Chapter V of the 1974 SOLAS
(DSC) technique, International Convention for the Safety of Life at
− channel 87B or 88B using the Time Division Sea.
Multiple Access (TDMA) technique. − Class B, intended for units on which the
AIS utilizes special technique to provide an equipment does not have to be installed in
algorithm that distributes transmit frames to accordance with the requirements of the SOLAS
individual time devices. The transmission time is regulation (ships of less than 300 gross tonnage
divided into time frames. A single frame lasts one engaged on international voyages, ships of less
minute, and its beginning and end coincide with the than 500 gross tonnage not engaged on
beginning and end of the UTC minute. international voyages, and fishing vessels).
All receivers must have the same reference time,
because it is used to number the elementary frames in
which these devices work. In the case of a non- 3 RISK-RELATED METRICS IN SHIP ENCOUNTER
uniform time pattern, there could be a different SITUATION
numbering of elementary frames, which would cause
transmission conflicts, such as overlapping. This When situational awareness is achieved by means of
phenomenon can occur when receiving a weak signal available AIS data, then risk of possible collision or
transmitted by a device at a considerable distance. If damage in an encounter situation can be estimated.

954
 Usually, instead of a direct risk estimation, the = Vrx + Vsinψ
VTx
navigator utilizes sets of accompanying distance and
= Vry + Vcosψ
VTy
time metrics. Among them the most popular are
Distance at the Closest Point of Approach (DCPA) V=
rx VTx − Vsinψ
together with Time to the Closest Point of Approach
V= VTx − Vcosψ
(TCPA). When bow distance is taken into account ry

then one can apply Bow Crossing Range (BCR) and

Bow Crossing Time (BCT). However, when ship Now, it is possible to apply the following
safety domain is considered none of the above metric formulas:
applies perfectly. In such situation one can utilize
Degree of Domain Violation (DDV) and Time to XVry − YVrx
Domain Violation (TDV). The following subsections DCPA =
briefly recall definitions for all of the abovementioned Vr
metrics. XVrx + YVry
TCPA = −
Vr2
3.1 DCPA & TCPA
The most popular approach parameters - DCPA and
TCPA have long been present in every radar 3.2 BCR & BCT
equipped with ARPA. To this day, they are an
Early 1980s saw the implementation of the BCR &
important component of risk assessment during
BCT ship to ship collision risk indicators in radar
seagoing encounters. The advantage is the simplicity
systems. BCR stands for Bow Crossing Range and is
of their determination, but at the cost of the lack of a
understood as the distance at which one ship crosses
perfect representation of the situation. To begin
ahead of another’s bow (or astern, if negative) [5].
determining the formulas for DCPA & TCPA, it is
BCT, in turn stands for Bow Crossing Time and is the
assumed that calculations concerning the above
time when BCR occurs.
mentioned are carried out in the Cartesian coordinate
system. This has the following benefits [4]: Even though BCR & BCT pair is listed as a safety
− simplicity of the equations of motion, indicator that should be used and appropriately
− reduction of circular and trigonometric functions interpreted by the OOW (Officer On the Watch), in
that carry some accuracy errors. the official, required IMO's Model Course on Radar
Navigation at Operational Level it is only a feature of
Let’s assume that the Cartesian coordinate system
INS (Integrated Navigation Systems) that is optional.
with its own ship in its centre is a movable plane
Today navigators use it as a secondary indicator of the
tangent to the earth's surface. The objects in the area
type of ship-ship encounter as a supplement to DCPA
of interest will be plotted on the adopted system by
safety measure utilization. As shown in Fig 1, BCR &
means of a geographic projection made with the use
BCT are used to describe the distance (and time to
of WGS-84, the result of which will be X coordinates
reach it) between two ships when they are crossing
for longitude and Y for latitude. Thus, let the vector of
one another.
true velocity along the x axis be Vtx and along the y
axis Vty. Similarly with the relative velocity vector: Vrx
for the x axis and Vry for the y axis.
The relations between the own ship's motion
Downloaded from mostwiedzy.pl

parameters and the object's motion parameters are as

follows [4]:

= Vrx + Vx
VTx
= Vry + Vy
VTy

=
VT VTx2 + VTy2

=
Vr Vrx2 + Vry2

where Vx,Vy are own ship movement parameters,

Vx = Vsinψ
Vy = Vcosψ

=
V Vx2 + Vy2

where ψ is a course over ground of own ship. Figure 1 Visual representation of BCR & BCT
It follows from the above:
On the basis of the distance criterion, a meeting
situation is recognized as an instance of BCR.
Although the general recommendation is to take into

955
 account distances not less than 1 NM, the rigorous therefore
range of values, as in the case of DCPA, is not
imposed. However, there is no strict literature BCRTS perspective
concerning sustained conditions in encounter BCT =    .
situations [6] and the scientific literature contains TS SOG
diverse values [7].
It is important to recognize that the crossing is a
specific kind of encounter that occurs when one ship 3.3 DDV & TDV
approaches another from the COLREG visibility
sector (regardless if ahead or astern) of just one When distance-based ship safety domain [8] is
sidelight. Head-on encounters and overtaking are not considered, neither DCPA & TCPA nor BCR & BCT
regarded as instances of the Bow Crossing Range. are able to provide apt and direct information on
Therefore, it becomes clear that BCR might be a useful possible domain violation. Thus, in [2] Szlapczynski
measure when neither of the aforementioned and Szlapczynska proposed a brand new pair of
statements is accurate. The BCR & BCT value (positive domain-based risk metrics, namely Degree of Domain
or negative) informs the navigator of the ship passing Violation (DDV) and Time to Domain Violation
ahead or astern and their respective COLREG Rule 15 (TDV). They provided there analytical formulae for
requirements [6]. DDV & TDV calculation for a standard Coldwell’s
elliptical domain. These metrics have been recently
For BCR & BCT all calculations are made in the applied to near-miss analysis and Collision Alert
two-dimensional space of Cartesian coordinates: System frameworks in [9].
relative bearing to TS is assumed as In order to calculate values of DDV & TDV for
configurable Coldwell’s domain (with a, b, da and db
=
brg rel ( OS ) brgtrue( OS ) − hdgOS ( t ) parameters) it is assumed that the coordinate system
is a two-dimensional Cartesian one with its own ship
in its centre, as presented in Fig 2. Please note that the
where rotation angle α is calculated unlike in sea navigation
i.e. counter clockwise from the X axis.
  Y  
brgtrue( OS ) wrap _ angle  deegres  arctan    − 180° 
  X  

where

= X OS ( t ) − X TS ( t )
X   
= YOS ( t ) − YTS ( t )
Y   

aspect is assumed as

 brg rel (TS ) − 360°   

if brg rel (TS ) > 180°
aspect = 
brg rel (TS )    if brg rel (TS ) ≤ 180°

where
Figure 2 Assumptions for DDV & TDV: elliptical domain
=
brg brgtrue(TS ) − hdgTS ( t ) presented in Cartesian coordinate system with own ship in
rel (TS ) its centre

where Therefore:
(X, Y) – relative position of a target,
  Y   (Xe, Ye) – relative position of the centre of an ellipse
brgtrue(TS ) wrap _ angle  deegres  arctan    − 180°  being the target's domain,
  X   Xe = X + h
h= ∆acosα+ ∆bsinα
where Ye = Y + k
k= ∆asinα- ∆bcosα
= X TS ( t ) − X OS ( t )
X    (Vx, Vy) – components of the relative velocity of a
target,
= YTS ( t ) − YOS ( t )
Y    α – the rotation angle of the target's domain (being
equal to course angle of the target), measured
counter clockwise from X axis to the tip of a target's
According to [6] BCR is understood as true speed vector

BCR = nearest _ points (( X bow( OS ) ,Ybow( OS ) ) , hull (TS )) The elliptic domain moves with the relative speed
of a target:

956
 X e ( t ) = X + hf + Vx t cos 2α sin 2α
=A1 +
Ye ( t ) =Y + kf + Vy t b2 a2
 1 1 
= B1 2 sinα cosα  2 − 2 
The parametric equation of a rotated ellipse with a a b 
centre in (Xe(t), Ye(t)) as a function of time is:
sin α cos α
2 2
=
C1 +
a2 b2
( e( ) () ) ( e( ) () )
2 2
X t cosα +   
Y t sinα X t sinα − Y t cosα
e e
2
+ 2
=
1
a b
To determine TDV it is necessary to solve
following equations:
The parametric equation of the f-scaled ellipse
(with the same centre) as a function of time is:
 −B − B32 − 4 A3C3 − B3 + B32 − 4 A3C3 
t1 = min  
3
,  
( X e ( t ) cosα +   Ye ( t ) sinα ) ( X e ( t ) sinα − Ye ( t ) cosα )  
2 2
2 A3 2 A3
+ =
1  
f (t ) a2 f ( t ) b2
2 2
 −B − B32 − 4 A3C3 − B3 + B32 − 4 A3C3 
t2 = max  
3
,  
Solving the latter gives a formula for f(t), as  2 A3 2 A3 
 
presented in:
assuming that:
− ( B21 + B22 t )  
± D1t 2 + E1t + F1
f1,2 ( t ) =
2 A2 A3 =A1Vx2 + B1VxVy + C1Vy2

where
(
B3= 2 ( A1 X eVe + C1YeVe ) + B1 X eVy + YeVx )
C3 = A1 X e2 + B1 X eYe + C1Ye2 − 1
A2 = A1h + B1hk + C1k − 1
2 2

=
D 2
− A2 C23 where t1<t2,
1   4
B22
t1 – the time remaining to entering the target’s
=E1 2 B21 B22 − 4 A2 C22 domain,
= 2
F1   4
B21 − A2 C21 t2 – the time remaining to leaving the target’s domain.
According to [2] there are three possible cases here:
where t1<0 and t2<0 says that a domain has already been
entered and left,
t1≤0 and t2≥0 says that a domain has already been
B21 = ( 2 A1 X + B1Y ) h + ( 2C1Y + B1 X ) k
entered but not left,
t1>0 and t2>0 says that a domain will be violated in
with time t1 and left in t2.

− E2 ± E22 − 4 D2 F2
,
Downloaded from mostwiedzy.pl

tmin1,2
2 D2 4 PYTHON-BASED SHIP ENCOUNTER
SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT
where
This section describes a simulation tool for ship
encounters implemented using Python language. We
=D2 ( 2
D1 B22 )
− D1 have chosen Python as one of the most popular high
level languages these days, offering a wide range of
=E2 E (B
1
2
22 −D ) 1 built-in functions and easily available open source
modules or packages covering various applications.
=
F2 2
F1 B22 − E12 Moreover, the tool being described here has been a
part of a wider software and hardware solution, built
where in the course of ENDURE project. Thus, a unified
policy towards software implementation was an
(
B22 = 2 A1Vx + B1Vy h + 2C1Vy + B1Vx k) ( ) important factor here.
Obviously, there are numerous tools available, e.g.
[11-17], offering similar ship traffic simulation or ship
whose f(t) minimum over time t is the approach factor
navigational decision support functionality. Some of
fmin. DDV is then obtained by substituting the fmin to
the recent ones are also implemented in Python, the
DDV=max(1-fmin,0). We assume that the following
other are written in C/C++, MatLab or other high level
should be substituted:
languages. Majority of the solutions are not in the
public domain nor have open source licence and even
if they are open sourced, they have got a non-
compatible functional range [11]. Thus, it was
necessary to design and implement our own tool,

957
 fully customizable, offering the exact functionality interface was inspired by the interfaces of radar
that was required in the course of the ENDURE devices and ECDIS. The advantage of this solution is a
project. relatively intuitive and easy-to-use interface for
navigators.
The tool described here is able to monitor live
encounter traffic situation AIS data. It is also possible Figure 3 shows an overview of the program’s GUI.
to utilize offline situation data stored in a local file. In the central part, on the azimuth dial, target vessels
Moreover, the tool implements the following risk- visible in a given range are displayed.
related measures: TCPA, DCPA, BCR, BCT, DDV and
TDV, their values can be monitored throughout the
encounter. The following subsections present initial
assumptions of the tool, the applied technologies, GUI
and key features of the tool and finally directions for
further tool development.

4.1 Initial assumptions

The application was designed with utilization of
Model-View-Controller design pattern. The model
consists of the application operation logic that
interacts with an external source of information (AIS,
database). It includes functionality responsible for
data management and processing. All data that will
be presented to the user is contained here. The view
consists of all interactive and non-interactive objects Figure 3. Overview of the program’s GUI
that will be displayed to the user. It is a set of features
responsible for the visualization of data managed by The range and the orientation as well as motion
the model. The controller is a set of features mode are configurable parameters. The range can be
responsible for intermediation between the view and set between 0.75 and 48 NM, motion mode parameter
the model. This is where events are captured and offers relative or true motion options, while the
carried out. orientation can be north up or head up. By default, the
range is set to 12 miles and displayed in relative
The application can be autonomous, provided that motion north up as this is the IMO recommended
it receives AIS reports. In the case of this software, setup for collision avoidance purposes.
user intervention is not obligatory for the program to
function. The role of the program operator can only be As shown in Figure 4 it is possible to use in this
based on observing a self-updating decision support tool Variable Range Markers (VRM) and Electronic
program. The program allows the user to customize Bearing Lines (EBL) simultaneously. They provide the
the way information is displayed by changing the ability to quickly measure bearing and distance to any
display, and to use additional tools to facilitate visible object.
navigation.
All the presented algorithms assume that vessels
are in sight of one another and no other special
Downloaded from mostwiedzy.pl

circumstances (e.g. restricted visibility) apply.

4.2 Applied technologies

The software was developed using Python version 3.
The pygame graphic module was used which made
graphic visualization possible, the module is a set of
Python submodules designed for writing video
games. The vast majority of the simulation tool was
written from the scratch using pure Python. However,
the need to use the following python modules turned
out to be indispensable:
− pyais for encoding and decoding AIS message, Figure 4. Usage of Variable Range Markers (VRM) and
− pandas for data analysis and manipulation, Electronic Bearing Lines (EBL)
− numpy for arrays handling and linear algebra,
− pyproj for cartographic projections and coordinate Variable range marker is a navigational aid for the
transformations, operator. After clicking the VRM button it displays a
− geopy for calculation of geographic distances. circle that allows to quickly measure the distance to
an object without the need to take it for an acquisition.
The electronic bearing line activated with the button
4.3 GUI and key features of the application indicated in the Figure 4 is another tool supporting
the navigation process, which allows, similarly to
The software is a window application with a user VRM, without the need to acquire a target ship, to
interface operated by the mouse. The application determine the bearing to any object.

958
 information contained in the type 4 report.
Additionally, the CADCA (Collision Avoidance
Dynamic Critical Area), presented in the Figure 7, can
be drawn for a fully initialized vessel. CADCA [10] is
a deterministically defined area that geometrically
limits the manoeuvring area of the vessel for which it
is designated. The CADCA shape and size depends
on the movement parameters of the vessel such as
rudder angle, initial forward speed, or planned
alteration of the course. The main assumption of the
CADCA concept is to support navigational decisions
in collision situations. For a detailed description,
please refer to the article [10].

Figure 5. Range rings, true motion mode

Similarly to radars, the option of displaying

distance circles has also been introduced. As
presented in Figure 5, the range rings are drawn after
pressing the RINGS button. The distance rings enable
better orientation of the spatial position of objects,
because they divide the range of the displayed area
into six equal parts.

Figure 7. Collision Avoidance Dynamic Critical Area

(CADCA)

Figure 6. Acquisition of fully initialized target vessel

In this software, target ship acquisition is done

differently from the ARPA equipped radar. Since the
Downloaded from mostwiedzy.pl

source of the data is AIS, and not the radar pulse as in

the case of a radar, it is not necessary to wait a certain
amount of time for the target echo to start being
tracked. The information is available immediately Figure 8. Acquisition of partially initialized target ship
after clicking the cursor on the desired triangle
symbolizing the target ship. To be precise, it is almost
available because, as described in section 2, the target
ship data is transmitted in two separate reports. One
relates to the dynamic information of the ship, the
other to static information, transmitted less
frequently. For this reason, ships that have not
received a matching type 5 report containing static
data will be referred to as not fully initialized and will
be marked with a white circle in the centre of their
triangle symbolizing the ship’s abstract silhouette.
Although the vessel is not fully initialized, indicators
such as DCPA & TCPA and BCR & BCT are
calculated. The difference between fully initialized
ships and those without a static data report received is
shown in the Figures 6 and 8.
For a fully initialized target, besides DCPA/TCPA Figure 9. Trial manoeuvre
& BCR/BCT, the software is possible to calculate DDV
& TDV as this requires the length of the target ship, The situation in which a ship is taken for the
which can be calculated on the basis of the acquisition that is not fully initialized (with a white

959
 circle on a triangle) is shown in the Figure 8. In this 4.4 Possible further development of the tool
case, the calculations of the DDV & TDV safety
Further possible application development includes
indicators are omitted due to the lack of all data. In
this situation, however, it is suggested to rely on implementation of the functionality enabling the
visualization of electronic maps. This would allow the
DCPA & TCPA until report of type 4 is received and
program to be used in difficult navigational areas
consequently the required safety indicators are
without the risk of a collision with a stationary object.
calculated.
Considering the development of the maritime
The tool offers the trial manoeuvre calculations for industry, it is possible to adapt the existing software
planning the collision avoidance manoeuvre. After functionality to the requirements of collision
clicking the TRIAL button, three controls appear to avoidance systems of unmanned ships. However, this
allow the user to change: course, heading and speed. is a topic for the long run.
The word TRIAL appears on the screen, which
indicates that all changes to the parameters of the own An interesting aspect of the software is its open
architecture. It allows the application to be used as a
ship's movements are carried out on a trial basis,
test environment enabling relatively simple
without actually changing them. The functionality of
the trial manoeuvre here consists in presenting the implementation of, for example, experimental safety
indicators. A potential prospect for the development
changes in the relative motion vectors of the target
of the application may also be the use of the current
ship and the change in the value of safety indicators
depending on the planned course, heading or speed operating logic to create a proprietary functionality
consisting in the analysis of the movement of ships
change. The manoeuvre has no time delay, all
using AIS. There are many possibilities, but the issue
planning is done live, the own vessel and target
vessels continue to move during the planning process, of their use in the era of rapid scientific and industrial
development is a topic for a separate discussion. At
according to the received AIS reports. Figure 9 shows
present, the program may turn out to be useful as an
an example of a trial manoeuvre. The own ship as
well as the target ship moves at a given speed and experimental decision support system, which may be
of interest to the scientific community, the maritime
heading. After the planned increase of the own ship's
industry as well as enthusiasts of new technologies.
speed, the appearance of the vector of the relative
speed of the target ship in relation to the own ship, in
the form of a cyan line, symbolizing future positions
in given moments of time, is observed. 5 CASE STUDY – ANALYSIS OF A CROSSING
ENCOUNTER BY THE SIMULATOR TOOL

This case study presents an encounter of crossing

from the port side. According to COLREG Rule 15
when two power-driven vessels are crossing so as to
involve risk of collision, the vessel which has the other
on her own starboard side shall keep out of the way
and shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, avoid
crossing ahead of the other vessel [1]. The encounter
situation, recorded in the Stavanger area of the North
Sea is depicted in Figure 11. Duration of the entire
recorded meeting is about 26 minutes. The encounter
took place on November 7th, 2022 at 18:08 CET. The
Downloaded from mostwiedzy.pl

meeting parameters of the vessels involved in the

considered situation are presented in Table 1. As for
Figure 10. Filtering of target vessels based on DCPA value the ship domain Coldwell’s one is assumed with
parameters: a=0.794NM, b=0.397NM, da=0.198NM
The software features a function of filtering target and db=0.099NM.
ships due to their potential collision risk. The filter is
based on the DCPA value - when this value drops
below 1 NM, the target ship against which the DCPA
is measured is considered as potentially dangerous. In
the filtering mode, ships that do not pose a threat are
marked in grey, while potentially dangerous ships
appear in magenta as in the Figure 10. When filtering
is disabled, all ships are treated as potentially
dangerous and display magenta coloured by default.
When filtering is enabled, all ships that do not
meet DCPA < 1NM are not considered as dangerous
ships. However, it should be considered that the ships
currently not posing a threat may pose a potential
threat in the future - then the program would catch
this and update the information displayed. The value
of the filter is of course customizable.
Figure 11. Case study – situation overview: crossing from
starboard

960
 According to the COLREGs, the give-way vessel is
the target ship, while the stand-on vessel is the own
ship. The situation requires that the target ship keeps
clear of the own ship by making a clear course
manoeuvre to starboard. However, no such course
change took place in the first 6 minutes of encounter.
Thereafter, minimal course changes are made, which
contradicts the COLREG recommendation to use
significant course changes. As shown in Figure 12, the
DCPA(t) graph indicates that the vessels have kept a
minimum distance of 0.5 NM from each other during
entire meeting. The upward trend of DCPA indicates
that the target vessel was performing a speed increase
manoeuvre. The effect of this manoeuvre become
clearly visible from about 14 minutes. In comparison
with DCPA as the main predictor of collision risk, the
confidence that the risk decreases was obtained after
about 14 minutes - at this point the distance at the Figure 13. Case study – BCR values during the encounter
closest point of approach (DCPA) grows
exponentially. Considering the graph of the BCR(t),
shown in Figure 13, the target vessel crossed the
course of the own vessel at a distance of 1.6 NM.
Table 1. Case study – parameters of the ships in meeting
________________________________________________
Own ship Target ship
________________________________________________
Name m/t “Bit Power” “Viking Prince”
Length 116.9 m 89.6 m
Beam 18.0 m 21.0 m
Initial coordinates
59° 3' 18'' N 59° 5' 55.0608'' N
004° 10' 44.112'' E 004° 8' 37.1544'' E
Final coordinates 59° 7' 15.6036'' N 59° 5' 7.1736'' N
004° 10' 41.7'' E 004° 16' 36.768'' E
Initial COG 358.0° 101.0°
Initial SOG 9.8 kn 11.5 kn
________________________________________________

The conclusion resulting from the comparison of

the two safety indicators so far is that used
individually, they are a poor way to assess the risk of Figure 14. Case study – DDV values during the encounter
a collision. It can be safely said that using only BCR it
is possible to determine only the type of meeting Slightly different tendency is presented by the
situation, and in a rather vague way. On the other DDV indicator, depicted in Figure 14. It is noticeable
hand, using only DCPA it is possible to ascertain only that DDV measure provides useful information in less
the effect of the situation. Combining these two time than the previously considered DCPA and BCR.
indicators together, we get a more complete picture of It was also observed that this indicator was more
Downloaded from mostwiedzy.pl

the situation, including the type of encounter situation sensitive to changes in the parameters of the ship's
and the effect that will be achieved with the current motion and its position. It is particularly visible in the
movement parameters. time interval 0 - 2.5 minutes, where the shape of the
curve indicates a sudden change in the nature of the
situation and the successive decrease in the risk of
collision (the Degree of Domain Violation decreases).
In this scenario in case of DCPA, the reliable
collision risk assessment was possible after 12
minutes. In the case of BCR – it was possible after
approximately 8 minutes. In this particular scenario
based on DDV one is able to assess the collision risk in
no more than 4.5 minutes. As depicted in Figure 14,
there is an immediate suggestion (at the start of the
recorded situation) of a DDV value of around 0.5,
which shows a severe domain violation, moreover
with upward trend of DDV values during first 2 min.
of the encounter. After reaching the value of 0.9 in
about 3 minutes of observation, the situation
improves until reaching the value of DDV equal to 0,
meaning no domain violation. Thus, one might
Figure 12. Case study – DCPA values during the encounter
conclude that relying on the DDV value alone in the
risk assessment, the situation in this case was safely
cleared up after approximately 4.5 minutes.

961
 For the examined crossing case, for which the Eng., vol. 126, pp. 47–56, 2016, doi:
situation allowed the use of DCPA and BCR 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2016.08.030.
indicators for comparison purposes, it is clear that [3] “SOLAS Convention.”
DDV proves its superiority. The DDV answers the https://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/Pages/Inter
national-Convention-for-the-Safety-of-Life-at-Sea-
question of whether there is a risk of collision not only
(SOLAS),-1974.aspx
in a binary way, but, when the risk does exist, [4] A. Lenart, “Approach Parameters in Marine Navigation
provides also the risk magnitude. – Graphical Interpretations,” TransNav, Int. J. Mar.
However, the use of the DDV indicator is not Navig. Saf. Sea Transp., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 521–529, 2017,
doi: 10.12716/1001.11.03.19.
without its drawbacks. Application effectiveness of
[5] Ł. Stolzmann, “Bow Crossing Range Correlation of Small
metrics like DDV or BCR is indirectly limited by the Vessels - Ais Data Analysis With Prospective
use of AIS as its base source of data. One of the Application To Autonomous Ships.,” Sci. J. Gdynia
serious limitation here is the specification of the AIS Maritme Univ., vol. 6988, no. 121, pp. 41–52, 2022, doi:
itself. For example, the user is forced to wait for a 10.26408/121.04.
static data report because the length of the target [6] M. Gil, P. Kozioł, K. Wróbel, and J. Montewka, “Know
vessel is required for the DDV or BCR calculation. It is your safety indicator – A determination of merchant
not uncommon that during a collision avoidance vessels Bow Crossing Range based on big data
manoeuvre every minute saved might be crucial, thus analytics,” Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf., vol. 220, 2022, doi:
waiting for an AIS report with static data in a critical 10.1016/j.ress.2021.108311.
[7] A Guide to the Collision Avoidance Rules. Elsevier, 2012.
situation may end up at best with a conflict with
doi: 10.1016/C2010-0-68322-2.
COLREG Rule 8. The conclusion is that any ship- [8] R. Szlapczynski and J. Szlapczynska, “Review of ship
length dependant indicator, as e.g. the DDV or BCR safety domains: Models and applications,” Ocean Eng.,
metrics, should be used with caution in real-time vol. 145, no. January, pp. 277–289, 2017, doi:
collision avoidance systems. 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2017.09.020.
[9] R. Szlapczynski and J. Szlapczynska, “A ship domain-
based model of collision risk for near-miss detection and
Collision Alert Systems,” Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf., vol. 214,
6 SUMMARY no. May, p. 107766, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.ress.2021.107766.
[10] M. Gil, “A concept of critical safety area applicable for
an obstacle-avoidance process for manned and
The presented here ship encounter simulation and autonomous ships,” Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf., vol. 214, p.
traffic monitoring tool offers features allowing for 107806, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.ress.2021.107806.
easy customization and making possible to test [11] S. Blindheim, T. A. Johansen, "Electronic Navigational
various collision avoidance solution within its Charts for Visualization, Simulation, and Autonomous
graphical environment. It is worth noticing that the Ship Control," IEEE Access, vol. 10, pp. 3716-3737, 2022,
tool implements a number of safety indicators, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3139767.
namely DCPA, TCPA, BCR, BCT, DDV and TDV and [12] Z. Pietrzykowski, P. Wołejsza, Ł. Nozdrzykowski, P.
is ready for implementation any new metric, if such Borkowski, P. Banaś, J. Magaj, J. Chomski, M. Mąka, S.
necessity arise. As presented in the previous section, Mielniczuk, A. Pańka, P. Hatłas-Sowińska, E. Kulbiej, M.
Nozdrzykowska “The autonomous navigation system of
the tool has been validated on live AIS data stream
a sea-going vessel” Ocean Engineering, Vol. 261, 2022,
and real ship encounter scenario. It is planned to 112104, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.112104.
continue development of the tool towards integration [13] P. Wołejsza, J. Magaj, R. Gralak “Navigation Decision
with the s-57 map and/or with the s-100 map. Also it Supporting System (NAVDEC) — testing on full mission
seems promising to extend the tool in future by simulator” Annual of Navigation 20(1), 2013,
including weather forecast, hydrographic information https://doi.org/10.2478/aon-2013-0010.
Downloaded from mostwiedzy.pl

and ship stability decision support. [14] J. Lisowski, "Dynamic Games Methods in Synthesis of
Safe Ship Control Algorithms", Journal of Advanced
Transportation, vol. 2018, Article ID 7586496, 8 pages,
2018. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7586496.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [15] A. Lazarowska,”Evaluation of a deterministic real-time
path planning algorithm for autonomous ships using
radar data” Procedia Computer Science, Vol. 192, 2021,
The study described has been performed as part of the pp. 863-872, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2021.08.089.
Detection, prediction, and solutions for safe operations of [16] Ł. Kuczkowski, R. Śmierzchalski, (2017). Path planning
MASS (ENDURE) project (number algorithm for ship collisions avoidance in environment
NOR/POLNOR/ENDURE/0019/2019–00), supported by the with changing strategy of dynamic obstacles. In:
Polish National Centre for Research and Development and Mitkowski, W., Kacprzyk, J., Oprzędkiewicz, K., Skruch,
financed by Research Council of Norway. P. (eds) Trends in Advanced Intelligent Control,
Optimization and Automation. KKA 2017. Advances in
Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol 577. Springer,
REFERENCES Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60699-6_62.
[17] Y. Huang, L. Chen, R. R. Negenborn, P.H.A.J.M. van
Gelder “A ship collision avoidance system for human-
[1] IMO, “Convention on the International Regulations for machine cooperation during collision avoidance” Ocean
Preventing Collisions at Sea,” COLREG. Engineering, Vol. 217, 2020,
[2] R. Szlapczynski and J. Szlapczynska, “An analysis of https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2020.107913.
domain-based ship collision risk parameters,” Ocean

962