Protective Relays

A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of

electrical circuit and closes its contacts. These contacts in turns close
and complete the circuit breaker trip coil circuit hence make the
circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the
electrical circuit from rest of the healthy circuit.
 Classification of Relays
• The protective relay may be defined as an electrical device
interposed between the main circuit and the circuit breaker in
such a manner that any abnormality in the circuit acts on the relay,
which in turn, if the abnormality is of a dangerous character,
causes the breaker to open and so to isolate the faulty element.
• All the relays have three essential fundamental elements, as
illustrated in figure:
1. Sensing element, sometimes also called the measuring element,
responds to the change in the actuating quantity, the current in a
protected system in case of over current relay.
2. Comparing element serves to compare the action of the actuating
quantity on the relay with a preselected relay setting.
3. Control element accomplishes a sudden change in the control
quantity such as closing of the operative current circuit.

1. According to principle of operation and construction:

a) Electromagnetic attraction type: ( for ac and dc both)
i. Attracted armature type relay: It depends on the movement of
an armature under the influence of attractive force due to
magnetic field set up by the current flowing through the relay
winding.
ii. Solenoid type relay : It depends on the movement of an iron
plunger core along the axis of solenoid.
b) Electromagnetic induction type: ( for ac only)
movement of a metallic disc or cylinder free to rotate by induced
currents and alternating magnetic fields produced by them.
c) Electro dynamic type: ( for dc only)
moving member consist of a coil free to rotate in an
electromagnetic field.
d) Electro thermal type: ( for ac and dc both)
Relay moment depends on the action of heat produced by the
current flowing through element of a relay.
e) Physico electric type: (E.g. Butchholz relay)
f) Static relay: Employs transistors and amplifiers and will be
discussed in the next chapter.
2. According to connection of sensing element:
a) Primary relays: Sensing elements are directly connected in the
circuit or element they protect (low voltage applications)
b) Secondary relays: Measuring elements are connected to the
circuit they protect through instrument transformers. (used in HV
lines)
3. Depending on how relay act upon circuit breaker:
a) Direct acting relay: Control element act mechanically to operate
the circuit breaker.
b) Indirect acting relay: Control element operates and auxiliary
power source circuit to control the circuit breaker. (most
commonly used with secondary relays as secondary relays do not
have sufficient power to operate circuit breaker.
4. Type of contacts when relay winding is not energized:
a) Normally open (NO) contacts
b) Normally close (NC) contacts
5. According to applications:
a) Overvoltage, Over current and Overpower Relay
b) Under voltage, Undercurrent and Under power Relay
c) Directional or Reverse current Relay
d) Directional or Reverse Power Relay
e) Differential Relay: The relay operates when some specified phase
or magnitude difference between two or more electrical
quantities occurs.
f) Distance Relay: In this relay the operation depends upon the ratio
of the voltage to the current.
6. According to timing characteristics:
a) Instantaneous Relay: (t<2sec)
b) Definite time lag Relay: Operating time is independent of the
magnitude of the current or of other quantity causing operation.
c) Inverse time lag Relay: (time is inversely proportional to the
magnitude of operating quantity)
d) Inverse definite minimum time lag Relay(IDMT): time of operation
is inversely proportional to eh smaller values of operating
quantity and tends to be a definite minimum time as the value
increases without limit.
 Electromagnetic Attraction type relay
• All of these relays operate on the same principle i.e., in such relays
the operation is obtained by virtue of an armature being attracted
to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a
solenoid. The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving
element is proportional to the square of flux in the air gap or the
square of the current flowing through the coil.
 Limitations
In case of ac quantity the electromagnetic force developed is
given as:
Solutions
 Electromagnet induction Relay
An induction type relays work on the principle of the induction
motor or an energy meter. In these relays a metallic disc is allowed
to rotate between the two electromagnets. The coils of the
electromagnets are energized with the help of alternating
currents. The torque is produced in these relays due to the
interaction of one alternating flux with eddy currents induced in
the rotor by another alternating flux. The two fluxes have same
frequency but are displaced in time and space. Based on the
construction, the various types of the induction type relays are:
1. Shaded pole type
2. Watt hour meter type
3. Induction cup type
 Torque Production
The alternating currents supplied to two electromagnets produce
the two alternating fluxes Φ1 and Φ2. These two fluxes have same
frequency but they have a phase difference of Ө in between them
such that Φ2 leads Φ1 . Thus the two fluxes can be mathematically
expressed as,
Φ1= Φ1msinwt………………..(1)
Φ2= Φ2msin (wt+ Ө)…………(2)
These alternating fluxes cause
the induced emfs in the rotor.
Due to the induced emfs, the
eddy current i1 and i2 are
circulated in the disc. The two
eddy currents react with each Fig shows how the forces are
other to produce a force which produced in a section of rotor
acts on the rotor. due to the alternating fluxes.
Observations:
1. Force or Torque is independent of frequency, hence torque is
constant at all instants.
2. Greater is the angle Ө, greater is the force. Force will be
maximum when angle Ө is 90 degree.
 Types of Electromagnetic induction Relays
1. Shaded pole structure: It is usually actuated by current flowing in
a single coil wound on a magnetic structure containing an air gap.
The air-gap flux produced by the actuating current is split into
two fluxes displaced in time and space by a shading ring. The disc
is normally made of aluminum so as to have low inertia and,
therefore, needs less deflecting torque for its movement.
2. Watt- hour meter structure: It consist of an E- shaped
electromagnet and a U- shaped electromagnet with a disc free to
rotate in between a phase displacement between the fluxes
produced by the two magnets. The E-shaped electromagnet
carries two windings, the primary and the secondary. The primary
winding carries relay current I1 while the secondary winding is
connected to the winding of U-shaped electromagnet. The
primary current induces emf in the secondary and so circulates a
current I2 in it. The flux Φ2 induced in the U-shaped or lower
magnet by the current in the secondary winding of the E- shaped
or upper magnet will lag behind flux Φ1 by and angle Ө.

The two fluxes Φ1 and Φ2 induced in upper and lower magnets

respectively differing in phase by angle theta will develop a
driving torque on the disc proportional to Φ1 Φ2sin Ө.
3. Induction cup Relay: These relays operate on the same principle
as the induction motor. The relay has two, four or more
electromagnets energized by the relay coils. A stationary iron core
is placed between these electromagnets. The rotor is a hollow
metallic cylindrical cup which is free to rotate in the gap between
the electromagnets and the stationary iron core.

The rotating field is produced by two

pairs of coils wound on four poles as
shown. The rotating field induces
currents in the cup causing it to
rotate in the same direction. A
control spring, and the back stop are
attached to the spindle of the cup so
as to prevent the continuous
rotation.
 Buchholz relay
• Buchholz relay is a gas actuated relay. It is practically universally
used on all oil immersed transformers having rating more than 500
KVA. Such relay can only be fitted to the transformers equipped
with conservator tanks as it is installed in between the conservator
tank and the main tank. It provides protection only against
transformer internal faults.
 Construction
• It consists of hinged float and flap in a metallic chamber located in
the pipe connection between the conservator and the transformer
tank. One of the floats is near the top of the chamber and actuates
the mercury switch connected to the external alarm circuit. The
flap is opposite the orifice of the pipe to the transformer and
actuates the mercury switch connected to the tripping circuit.
 Operation
• When a minor fault occurs, heat is produced due to current
leakage, some of the oil in the transformer tank evaporates and
some vapours collect in the top of the chamber while passing to
the conservator tank. When a predetermined amount of vapours
accumulate in the top of the chamber, the oil level falls, the
mercury type switch attached to the float is tilted and so closes
the alarm circuit and rings the bell.
• When a severe fault occurs large volume of gas is evolved so that it
hits the flap and a mercury switch mounted on it is tilted and the
trip coil is energized . There after the transformer is removed from
the service.
 Induction type over current relays
• An induction type over current relay giving inverse-time operation
with a definite minimum time characteristic as shown in fig. It
consists essentially of an ac energy meter mechanism with slight
modification to give required characteristics. The relay has two
electromagnets. The upper electromagnet has two windings, one
of these is primary and is connected to the secondary of a CT in
the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals. The tappings
are connected to a plug setting bridge by which the number of
turns in use can be adjusted, thereby giving the desired current
setting.
• The second winding is energized by induction from the primary,
and is connected in series with the winding on thee lower magnet.
By this arrangement, leakage fluxes of upper and lower
electromagnets are sufficiently displaced in space and phase to set
up a rotational torque on the aluminum disc suspended between
the two magnets.
The toque is given by the expression
T=K1I2rms –K2
Where Irms is the current through the coil and K2 is the
restraining torque of the spring.
 Concept of PSM and TSM
• PSM stands for plug setting multiplier. The plug bridge is usually
arranged to give seven sections of tappings to give over current
range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25%. If the relay is required to
response for earth fault the steps are arranged to give a range
from 10% to 70%. The values assigned to each tap are expressed in
terms of percentage of full- load rating of CT with which the relay
is associated and represents and value above which the disc
commences to rotate and finally closes the trip circuit. Thus pick –
up current equals the rated secondary current of CT multiplied by
current setting.
• The time required for operation can be changed by adjusting the
initial location of moving contacts w.r.t fixed contacts called as
time setting multiplier (TSM). The dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 (0
to 360 degrees). TSM is used to calculate the actual time of
operation by multiplying the time obtained from time-PSM curve
with TSM.
 Calculation based on PSM and TSM
1. An IDMT type over current relay is used to protect a feeder
through 500/1 A CT. The relay has a PS of 125% and TMS=0.3.
Find the time of operation of the relay if a fault current of 5000A
flows through the feeder. Make use of the following
characteristics.
PSM 2 3 5 8 10 15
Time for unity TMS 10 6 4.5 3.2 3 2.5
(100% current =1A)
2. Reference to Fig., given that
Fault current=2000 A; Relay 1 set on 100%; CT ratio=200/1; Relay
2 set on 125%. For discrimination the time gradient margin
between the relay is 0.5 second.

Determine the time of operation of the two relay assuming that

both relays have the characteristics as shown in the following
table and the relay no. 1 has a time multiplier setting=0.2
PSM 2 3.6 5 8 10 15 20
Time for unity TSM 10 6 3.9 3.15 2.8 2.2 2.1
Also determine the time setting multiplier of relay no. 2
 Directional power relay
• The directional relay means the relay operates for the specific
direction of the actuating quantity in the circuit. Here torque is
produced due to interaction of the fluxes produced from both
voltage and current of the circuit. The upper magnet carries a
voltage coil or potential coil which is energized from P.T while the
lower magnet carries a current coil which is energized from C.T in
the line to be protected.
• The number of tappings are provided to the current coil with
which desired current setting can be achieved. The restraining
torque is provided by the spiral spring. The spindle of disc carries
the moving contacts which make contact with tripping circuit
terminals when the disc rotates.
• The torque developed on the disc suspended between the two
magnets is proportional to VI. When the power flows in the
normal direction, the torque developed on the disc assisted by
the spring tends to turn away the moving contact from the fixed
trip circuit contacts. Thus the relay remains inoperative. A reversal
of current in the circuit reverses the torque produced on the disc
and when this is large enough to overcome the control spring
torque, the disc rotates in the reverse direction and the moving
contact closes the trip circuit. This causes the operation of the
circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty section.
 Directional Over current and earth fault relay
• The directional induction type over current relay uses two relay
elements mounted on a common case. These elements are:
1. Directional element which is directional power relay
2. Non directional element which is non directional over current
relay.
Directional element: The directional element is nothing but a
directional power relay which operates when power in the circuit
flows in a particular direction. The voltage coil of this element is
energized by a system voltage through a potential transformer.
The current coil on the lower magnet is energized by the system
current through a current transformer. The trip contacts of this
relay are connected in series with the secondary winding of non
directional element.
Non directional element: The current coil of the directional
element is connected in series with the primary winding of non
directional element. The plug setting bridge is provided in this
element to adjust current setting as per the requirement. The trip
contacts are in series with winding on lower magnet of non
directional element. So unless and until trip contacts are closed by
the movement of the disc of directional element, the non
directional element cannot operate. Thus the movement of the
non directional element is controlled by the directional element.
Concept of Unit protection/differential
protection

•At external fault, I1=I2, Relay will not operate

•At internal fault, I2 magnitude may be greater or may be
reversed due to which current flows through relay and operates.
•Magnitude and phase angle of both current should be same in
order to ensure relay will not operate.
 Problems associated with differential protection:
1. Difference in length of pilot wires:
difficult to maintain equipotential points.
Solution: Connect adjustable resistors in series with pilot wires.

2. CT Ratios: Accurate matching of CT characteristics is very

difficult in practice due to difference in magnetic circuits and
saturation.
• This leads to mismatch in secondary current and operate at
undesirable condition.
•Overcome by percentage differential relay
1. Advantage of Unit Protection over Non- Unit
Protection Scheme
• In unit system, since grading of time with other protection is not
required, the tripping times of unit protection are related only to
their relay operating times which can be made as low as 110 ms
the lowest possible tripping time. This is considerable gain over
time graded system of protection.
• Because of the possibility of almost instantaneous tripping of each
of the protected unit independent of the other unit, the system
disturbance is extensively reduced and the damage due to power
arcing is eliminated completely.
• In addition, the system is sensitive to internal faults only and
stable on the condition of healthy and external fault. This leads to
the extraordinary discriminative and reliable features of the
system
2. Application of Unit Protection Scheme to HV
feeders.
• In unit protection scheme applied to the long radial feeder the
current transformers to be installed at each end will usually be at a
considerable distance apart several kilometers. The secondary
wiring system connecting the relay to the two ends will also too
long and need to be of large cross section for effective circulation
of current. It wouldn’t be practical to install relay at the mid point
with tripping circuits extending to far ends.
• The practical arrangement will be to install a relay at each end in
the breaker and to arrange the circuitry, so that the
interconnecting secondary winding can be small cross section so
as to reduce its cost. This connecting winding is now called the
pilot wiring and is usually run as a separate cable called pilot cable
alongside the HV feeder it is protecting.

• The relays are in series on the third core and it can be seen from
the diagram that under healthy or external fault conditions the
two ends of the third core cable will be at the same potential and
therefore will be no operating current in the relays. However,
under the fault conditions between the CTs, the current at one
end either changes in direction or become larger than other end
and thus producing the voltage across the ends of the third core
and operating current in the relays.
3. Unit Protection Scheme applied to Generator

Figure shows the constructional details of the unit protection for a

generator. There are two sets of three current transformers, one set
being mounted in the neutral earth connections usually in the
alternator pit and the other set being mounted in switch gear
equipment i.e. in CB. A combined over current and earth fault relay is
shown which is mounted on the switch gear equipment.
To ensure that the relay doesn’t operate when fault occurs
externally to the protected zone, a stabilizing resistor may be fitted
in series with each of the operating coil. While normally such
incorrect operation is improbable, there may be condition where
one set of current transformers saturate during an external fault
and the stabilizing resistors of appropriate value will prevent such
unwanted operation. The current transformers set connected at
each end should have similar characteristics from those at the
neutral end, relatively large spill-currents may flow through the
relay winding and may cause the operation on the fault external to
protected zone.
Analysis of Bias Protection over Simple
differential protection
4. Biased or Percentage Relay and its application to
Transformers.
Transformers:
• The differential relay actually compares between the primary and
secondary current of power transformer. If any unbalance is found
in between primary and secondary currents the relay will actuate
and trip out both the primary and secondary CB of transformer.
• CT are installed at both primary and secondary side of transformer.
The secondary's of these both CTs are connected in such a manner
that secondary current of both CTs will oppose each other. In other
word secondary's of both CTs should be connected to the same
current coil of differential relay in such a opposite manner that
there will be no resultant current in that coil in normal working
condition of the transformer. But if any major fault occurs inside
the transformer due to which the normal ratio of transformer is
disturbed then the secondary current of both transformer will not
remain same and one resultant will flow through the current coil
of differential relay which will actuate relay and inter trip both
primary and secondary CB.
Generators:

The relay consists of two restraining coil and one operating coil per
phase. The torque produced by the operating coil, which tends to
close the relay contacts is opposed by the restraining coil torque.
Under through-fault condition i.e. external faults outside the
protected zone, the relay setting is increased by the restraining coil
torque so that spill current will not cause relay operation. However
for in-zone faults, the torque produced by the restraining coil is
ineffective and the relay close its contacts by the torque produced
by the operating coil.
 Numerical related to bias protection of
Transformers
1. A 3-phase 33000/6600 V transformer is connected in star/delta
and the protecting current transformer on low voltage side have a
ratio of 300/5. What will be the ratio of the current transformer
on the high voltage side?
2. A 3-phase, 200MVA, 11/0.4 KV transformer is connected in
delta /star. The protection transformer on the o.4 KV side has
the turn ratio of 500/5. What will be the CT ratio on HV side?
 Voltage Balance Relay

• The relays are connected in series opposition with pilot wires one
at each end.
•The relative polarities of CT’s are such that no current flows in the
pilot wires under normal conditions and external fault.
•The voltage induced in secondary's of CT must be proportional to
primary current even under fault conditions. This can be achieved
by using air cored CT’s.
• For internal faults, the voltages of secondary of CT’s are different
and hence the current passes through relay coils and operates the
Relay.
• To avoid mal operation due to mismatch in characteristics of CT’s,
the relays are over current type and operate when the current
crosses the threshold value.
• In this system no restraining coil and balancing resistors are
required.
• Only disadvantage of this scheme is: As CT’s do not carry any
secondary current, acts as open circuited secondary and inserts a
high impedance to the circuit.
Comparison between Current Differential and
Voltage Differential Protection
• Current differential relays are convenient when both ends of
the protected element are close together. Ex: Generator,
Motor, Transformers, Bus-bars.
• For feeder protection of several Km long, secondary current of
greater or equal to 5A flows through the pilot wires of high
resistance. This burden is impractical for any economic design
of C.T.
 Universal Relay Torque Equation
• Protection relay mostly consist of some arrangement of
electromagnets. These electromagnet have either current winding
or voltage winding and in some cases both the winding. Current
through the winding produces magnetic fluxes and the torque is
produced by interaction between the fluxes of the same winding
or between the fluxes of both the winding.
• By assigning plus or minus signs to certain of the constants
and letting others to zero and sometimes by adding other
similar terms the operating characteristics of all types of
protective relay can be obtained.
 Distance Relay Protection
• Distance protection is the name given to the protection, whose
action depends upon the distance of the feeding point to the fault.
The time of operation of such protection is a function of ratio of
voltage and current i.e. impedance. This impedance between the
relay and fault depends upon the electrical distance between
them. Principle types of distance relays are impedance relays,
reactance relays & admittance or mho relays.
A) Impedance type distance relay
• An impedance relay is a voltage restrained over current relay. The
relay measures impedance up to the point of fault and gives
tripping command if this impedance is less than the relay setting Z.
Relay setting Z is known as replica impedance and is proportional
to the set impedance i.e. impedance up to the reach of relay. The
relay monitors continuously the line current I through CT and the
bus voltage through PT and operates when the V/I ratio falls below
the set value
The principle of operation is illustrated in figure. The voltage
element of relay is excited through a PT from the line under
protection and current element of relay is excited from a current
transformer (CT) in series with the line. The portion AB is the
protected zone. Under normal operating condition the impedance
of protected line is Z. The impedance, ratio of the bus voltage and
fault current (V/I), between the point where the relay is located and
point of fault will be less than Z in case of F1 so the relay operates.
But in case of F2, the V/I will be more than Z, so relay contacts don’t
operate.
• The impedance relay is a double actuating quantity relay and
essentially consists of two elements current operated and voltage
operated. The current element produces a positive or pick-up
torque while the voltage elements develops a negative or reset
torque.
• Taking effect of spring, the torque equation becomes:

Where V and I are rms

value of voltage and
current respectively.
B) Reactance Relay
• Reactance type relay is a very high speed relay. It consists of
two units- an over current element developing positive torque
and a current voltage directional element which either aids or
opposes the over current element depending on the phase
angle between current and voltage. This means a reactance
relay is an over current relay with directional restraint. The
directional element is arranged to develop maximum negative
torque when its current lags behind its voltage by 90°.
• It has four pole structure carrying operating, polarizing and
restraining coils as shown in figure. The operating torque is
developed by the interaction of fluxes due to current carrying coils
i.e. interaction of fluxes of poles 2, 3, 4 and the restraining torque
is produced by the interaction of fluxes due to the poles 1, 2, 4.
Thus the operating torque will be proportional to I2 while the
restraining torque will be proportional to VI Cos( θ -90°). The
desired torque angle is obtained with the help of resistance,
capacitance circuits as shown.
C) Mho type distance relay
• Mho relay is also high speed relay and is also known as
admittance relay. It is also sometimes called an angle
impedance relay. In this relay operating torque is obtained by
the volt-ampere element and restraining torque is developed
due to voltage element. It means mho relay is a voltage
restrained directional relay.
• The operating torque is developed by the interaction of fluxes due
to the poles 2, 3, 4 and the restraining torque due to poles 1, 2 and
4.