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Semiconductor Devices

A p-n junction diode is formed by placing a p-type semiconductor crystal in contact with an n-type crystal. When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, majority carriers can cross the junction and forward current flows. When reverse biased, very little reverse current flows due to minority carriers. A diode allows current to flow easily in one direction, acting as a rectifier to convert alternating current into pulsating direct current.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
30 views24 pages

Semiconductor Devices

A p-n junction diode is formed by placing a p-type semiconductor crystal in contact with an n-type crystal. When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, majority carriers can cross the junction and forward current flows. When reverse biased, very little reverse current flows due to minority carriers. A diode allows current to flow easily in one direction, acting as a rectifier to convert alternating current into pulsating direct current.

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sanjay s
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© © All Rights Reserved
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AK 1

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Formation of p-n Junction Diode

 Junction diode is formed by placing a p-type crystal in contact with n-type crystal
and subjecting to high pressure so that it becomes a single piece.
 The assembly so obtained is called p-n junction or junction diode or crystal diode.
 The surface of contact of p and n-type crystals is called junction. A p-n junction is
shown in Fig. 1.
 The p-type region has (positive) holes as majority chargecarriers. Similarly, the n-
type region has (negative) electrons as majority charge carriers.

 In addition to these majority charge carriers, there are a few minority charge carriers
in each region.
 The p-region contains a few electrons while the n-region contains a few holes.
 Thus we find that at the junction there is a decreasing hole concentration from left to
right which makes the holes diffuse from p-side to n-side.
 Similarly electrons diffuse from right to left across the junction. Holes leaving and
electrons entering the p-side make it negative. Similarly holes entering and electrons
leaving the n-region make it positive. Thus, there is net negative charge on the p-side
of the junction and net positive charge on the n-side.
 This produces an electric field across the junction as if a fictitious battery is connected
with its positive terminal to n and negative terminal to p section. Equilibrium is
established when the field becomes large enough to stop further diffusion of the
majority charge-carriers.
 The field, however, helps the minority carriers to move across the junction. The
region on either side of the junction which becomes depleted (free) of the mobile
chargecarriers is called the ‘depletion region’.
 The thickness of this region is of the order of 10−6 m. The potential difference across
the depletion region is called the ‘potential barrier’.
AK 2

Forward and Reverse Biasing of a Junction Diode

1.Forward Bias.

 When a battery is connected to the diode with p-section connected to positive pole
and n-section to the negative pole, the junction diode is said to be forward biased (Fig.
1).
 If the forward bias is greater than the potential barrier, the majority carriers move
towards the junction and cross it.
 The current which flows due to majority carriers is called forward current. It
increases with forward bias.

2. Reverse Bias.

 When a battery is connected to junction diode with p-section connected to negative


pole and n-section connected to the positive pole, the junction is said to be reverse
biased (Fig. 2).
 SSWhen reverse bias is applied, the majority carriers do not cross the junction.
However a very little amount of current flows due to the motion of minority carriers.
 This current is called reverse current. This current increases with increasing
temperature.
 Thus we see that the junction diode offers a low resistance for the current to flow in
one direction (under forward bias) but a very high resistance in the opposite direction
(under reverse bias). It thus acts as a rectifier.

Fig1 Fig2

V-I Characteristics of a Junction Diode

Graphs drawn between bias voltage and circuit current of a junction diode are called
characteristics of the diode.

1. Forward Bias Characteristic.

 This is obtained by plotting a graph between forward bias voltage and circuit current.
 The circuit used is shown in Fig. The milliammeter mA measures the current.
AK 3

 The voltmeter V measures the p.d. across the diode. The forward voltage is gradually
increased in steps and corresponding milliammeter readings are noted.
 A graph is then plotted between voltage and current (Fig). Practically no current flows
until the barrier voltage is overcome.
 Once the external voltage exceeds the barrier potential, the current increases rapidly,
approximately exponentially.

2. Reverse Bias Characteristic.

 Connections are made as shown in Fig. The reverse voltage is gradually increased in
steps and corresponding micro ammeter readings are noted.
 A graph is then plotted between voltage and current (Fig.). With reverse bias the
reverse current remains very small over a long range, increasing very slightly with
increasing bias.

(a) Avalanche breakdown.

 If the reverse bias is made very high, the covalent bonds near the junction break
down and a large number of electron-hole pairs are liberated. The reverse current
then ( above Fig )increases abruptly to a relatively large value. This is known as
“Avalanche breakdown”, and may damage the junction by excessive heat generated
unless the current is limited by external circuit. This phenomenon is used in making
zener diodes.

P-N Junction Diode as Rectifier:

Rectification is the process in which is AC components converted into DC components. The


device which is used for rectification is called a rectifier.

A junction diode allows a current to flow through it when it is forward biased. This property
of diode is used for rectification.

A half-wave rectifier is one which converts AC. voltage into a pulsating DC voltage using
only one half cycle of the applied AC. voltage.
AK 4

A full wave rectifier is one which converts AC. voltage into a pulsating DC voltage using full
cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

Diode as a Half-Wave Rectifier

Construction.

 Fig. shows the circuit for a half-wave rectifier. T is a transformer. The primary of the
transformer is connected to the ac mains. The diode D is connected across the
secondary in series with a load resistance �� .

Working.

 The primary of the transformer is connected to the ac mains.


 An ac voltage will be induced across the secondary. This voltage can be represented
by Vi = Vm sin ωt.
 Fig. 2 shows the variation of this input voltage with time. Vm is the peak value.
 During the first half cycle of a.c., one end of the secondary, say A, becomes positive.
 Then the diode is forward biased. Hence current flows through the load RL in the
direction of arrows (Fig. 1).
 The diode offers very little resistance when forward biased. Hence the p.d. across it is
very small.
 The voltage across the load RL is therefore practically the same as that across the
secondary of the transformer, i.e., Vi .
 During the next half cycle, the end A becomes negative. The diode is now reverse
biased.
 Therefore, no current flows through the load RL. The voltage across the load is zero.
The shape of the output voltage is shown in Fig. 2. This voltage in not a perfect dc.
But it is unidirectional.
The input voltage applied to the diode is given by
�� = �� sin ��…..(1)

Then, the instantaneous output current through the load resistance �� is given by

�� = �� sin ��…..(2) when 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π

And �� = 0 ….(3) when π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π


AK 5

��
�� =
�� + ��

Here, �� = Peak value of the current

�� = Dynamic Forward resistance of the diode.

(i) D.C. (average) value of output current

The average d.c. current over one complete cycle is given by


2�
1
��� = ��� = �� �(��)
2� 0

� 2�
1
��� = �� sin (�� ) � �� + 0 × �(��)
2� 0 0

��
��� = [ − cos �� ]�0
2�
�� 1 ��
∴ ��� = = ………(4)
� � �� + ��

The dc voltage developed across the load �� is given by

��
��� = ��� × �� = � ……. (5)
� �
(ii) D.C. power output. The dc power output across the load �� is

�2
D.C. power output = ��� = �2�� . �� = ��2 . �� ………(6) {� = �2 �}

(iii) R.M.S. (effective) value of output current

The root mean square value of the current, by definition, is given by


1
2� 2
1 2
���� = �� �(��)
2� 0

1
� 2� 2
1
���� = �2����2 �� � �� + 0. �(��)
2� 0 0

1

1 2
���� = �2� ���2 �� � ��
2� 0
AK 6

��
∴ ���� = ……. (7)
2
(iv) A.C. power input : The power supplied to the circuit from the ac source is given by

�2�
��� = �2��� �� + �� = � + �� ……. (8)
4 �
(v) Efficiency of Half wave rectifier:

It is defined as the ratio of dc output power to the total ac power supplied to the rectifier.
�.� power supplied to the load
�= ����� �.� ����� �����
×100%

���
�=
���
×100%….(*)

In half wave rectifier

��� = �2�� �� …… 1
��
��� =

…(2)

Where �� is peak value of A.C.

Using (1) and (2)

�� 2
��� = ��

�� 2 ��
��� = � 2
….(3)

Now consider
2
��� = ���� �� + ��

Where ��is a diode resistance, where �� ≫ �� then �� + �� ≈ ��

So ��� = ���� 2 �� ……(4)


��
Now ���� = 2
…(5)

Substitute (5) in (4)

�� 2
��� = ��
2
�� 2 ��
��� =
4
……(6)
AK 7

Substitute (6) and (3) in (*)


�� 2 ��
� 2
�= �� 2 ��
×100%
4

4(�� )
�= � 2(�� )
×100%

� = 0.406 = 40.6%

Efficiency is maximum when �� ≫ �� .

Theoretical maximum efficiency η = 0.406 = 40.6%

(vi) Ripple Factor:

The ripple factor is the ratio of r.m.s. value of A.C. component to the D.C. component in the
rectifier output, i.e.,

�. �. � ����� �� �. �. ��������� �� �ℎ� ������ �������


�=
�. �. �������� �� ������ �������
� �
� = ��� = ��� ….(1)
�� ��

The effective (r.m.s.) value of total load current is given by,

���� = ��� 2 + ��� 2

2 2 2
���� = ��� + ���
2 2 2
��� = ���� − ���

��� = ���� 2 − ��� 2 …….(2)

Using (2) in (1)

���� 2 − ��� 2
�=
���

���� 2 − ��� 2
�=
��� 2

���� 2
�= −1
��� 2

For a half-wave rectifier


AK 8

��
���� 2 �
= �� =
��� 2

� 2
�= −1
2

� 2
�= − 1 = 1.21
4

Full-Wave Rectifier

 In a full-wave rectifier both halves of the input-cycle are used. There are two types of
full-wave rectifiers:
(1) Centre tapped full-wave rectifier, and (2) Bridge rectifier.
Centre tapped full-wave rectifier.
 A full wave rectifier circuit consists of two diodes D1 and D2 connected to the
secondary of the step-down transformer. The input A.C. signal is fed to the primary of
the transformer (Fig. 1).

Working.

 During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, one end of the secondary, say
A, becomes positive and end B becomes negative. So the diode D1 is forward biased,
and diode D2 is reverse biased.
 As a result of this, the diode D1 conducts current whereas the diode D2 does not
conduct.
 Current through the load resistance flows from C to D producing output voltage V0.
The current is shown by solid arrows. (below fig2)
AK 9

Fig. 2 Full-wave Rectifier


 During the negative half cycle of AC input, end A becomes negative and end B
positive. So the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode D2 is forward biased.
 As a result, the diode D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts current. Again current
flows from C to D through the load resistance RL producing output voltage V0.
 The current is shown by the dotted arrows. Thus, during both the half cycles, current
flows through the load in the same direction.
 The output voltage is developed across the load RL during the entire cycle. It is a
pulsating D.C. voltage containing both A.C. and D.C. components. The input and the
rectified output wave-forms are shown in Fig. 2

Let the diodes D1 and D2 be identical and have the same dynamic resistance Rf . At any
instant, let the magnitudes of AC voltages applied to the diodes be each equal to

�� = �� sin �� �� is the peak input voltage.

Let �� = dynamic forward resistance of the diode. The current pulses in the two diodes are
given by

�� sin �� for 0 < ω t < π


�= …….(1)
−�� sin �� for < � < 2π
��
Here, �� = �
� +��

(i) D.C. (average) value of output current.

The output dc current ��� is given by


2�
1
��� = �� �(��)
2� 0

� 2�
1
��� = �� sin �� � �� + −�� sin �� �(��)
2� 0 �


�� � 2�
��
��� = − cos �� 0 + − cos �� � = [2 + 2]
2� 0 2�
AK 10

2��
��� =

…….(2)

(ii) R.M.S. (effective) value of load current.

The r.m.s. value of total output current is given by


1
2� 2
1
���� = �� 2 �(��)
2� 0

1
� 2� 2
1
���� = �2� ���2 �� � �� + �2� ���2�� �(��)
2� 0 0

��
���� = 2
….(3)

(iii) Power supplied to the circuit.

The a.c. power input to the rectifier from the supply is given by

2 �� +�� I2�
��� = ���� �� + �� = 2
…….(4)

(iv) Average power supplied to the load RL.

The d.c. power output across the load RL is given by

4�� I2�
��� = �2�� �� = ……(5)
�2

(v) Rectifier efficiency.

In a rectifier, the useful power output is the d.c. power which is developed across the load RL.
Therefore, efficiency
�.� power supplied to the load
�= ����� �.� ����� �����
×100%

���
�=
���
×100%....(*)

In half wave rectifier

��� = �2�� �� …… 1
2��
��� = �
…(2)

Where �� is peak value of A.C.

Using (1) and (2)


AK 11

2�� 2
��� = ��

2�� 2��
��� = � 2
….(3)

Now consider
2
��� = ���� �� + ��

Where ��is a diode resistance, where �� ≫ �� then �� + �� ≈ ��

So ��� = ���� 2 �� ……(4)


��
Now ���� = 2
…(5)

Substitute (5) in (4)


2
��
��� = ��
2
�� 2 ��
��� = 2
……(6)

Substitute (6) and (3) in (*)

4 �� 2 ��
� 2
�= �� 2 ��
×100%
2

4(�� )
�=
� 2(�� )
×100%

� = 81.2%

Efficiency is maximum when �� ≫ �� .

Theoretical maximum efficiency η = 81.2%

(vi) Ripple factor.

The ripple factor is the ratio of r.m.s. value of A.C. component to the D.C. component in the
rectifier output, i.e.,

The ripple factor γ is given by

�. �. � ����� �� �. �. ��������� �� �ℎ� ������ �������


�=
�. �. �������� �� ������ �������
��� ���
�=
���
=
���
….(1)
AK 12

The effective (r.m.s.) value of total load current is given by,

���� = ��� 2 + ��� 2

���� 2 2 2
= ��� + ���
2 2 2
��� = ���� − ���

��� = ���� 2 − ��� 2 …….(2)

Using (2) in (1)

���� 2 − ��� 2
�=
���

���� 2 − ��� 2
�=
��� 2

�� 2
���� 2
2
�= −1= −1
��� 2 2�� 2

� = 0.482

The ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier is 0.482 and is much smaller than that of half-wave
rectifier. Hence, in actual practice, a full-wave rectifier is preferred to a half-wave rectifier.

Bridge Rectifier

 The circuit is shown in Fig. 1. The diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are arranged in the
form of Wheatstone Bridge network.
 The two opposite ends A and C of the network are connected to the ends S1 and S2 of
the secondary of transformer T. The ends B and D are connected to the load resistance
RL.
 The primary P of the transformer is connected to the ac mains. When an AC voltage is
applied to the primary, at some instant the positive half of the input cycle passes
through the secondary, keeping the point A positive and C negative. Diodes D1 and
D3 conduct and a current flows in the direction ABRL DC S2 S1 A.
AK 13

 At the same time D2 and D4 will not be conducting, since they are reverse biased.
During the next half cycle, the point A is negative and C is positive.
 Therefore in this case diodes D2 and D4 conduct and current flows in the direction
CBRL DA S1 S2 C. But now D1 and D3 will not be conducting.
 Therefore during both the halves of the input cycle, current flows through the load RL
in the same direction. Thus a DC output is developed across RL and we have full
wave rectification

The Zener Diode:

 The diode which operates in the reverse breakdown region with a sharp breakdown
voltage is called a Zener diode (Fig.). It is an ordinary P-N junction diode except that
it is properly doped to have a very sharp and almost vertical breakdown.
 It is exclusively operated under reverse bias conditions. It is designed to operate in
breakdown region without damage.
 By adjusting the doping level it is possible to produce zener diodes with a breakdown
voltage ranging from 2V to 800 V.
 Zener diode primarily depends for its working on Zener Effect. In a heavily doped
diode, the depletion region is very narrow.
 When the reverse bias voltage across the diode is increased, the electric field across
the depletion region becomes very strong. When this field is ≈ 3 × 107 V/m, electrons
are pulled out of the covalent bonds.
 A large number of electron-hole pairs are thereby produced. The reverse current rises
steeply. This is Zener effect. The external applied voltage accelerates the minority
AK 14

carriers in the depletion region. These carriers gain sufficient energy to ionise atoms
by collision.
 The electrons produced thereby accelerate to sufficiently large velocities to be able to
ionise other atoms. This creates a sort of chain reaction. The cumulative effect of this
chain reaction is the avalanche effect.
 The zener effect is more prominent at breakdown voltages less than 4 V. The
avalanche effect is more prominent above 6 V.
 Between 4 V and 6 V both effects are present. But, ordinarily, all diodes which are
operated in the breakdown region of their reverse characteristics are called zener
diodes.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

 In a voltage regulated power supply unit, the output voltage is constant and it is
independent of the variations of input supply voltage and load resistance.
 The circuit diagram of a diode voltage regulator is shown in Fig.
 The unregulated dc is applied across the diode through a series resistor R, which
limits the input current.
 The value of the series resitor R is so chosen that initially the diode operates in the
breakdown region.
 The P-junction of the Zener diode is connected to the negative of the input voltage
and N-junction to the positive.
 Thus the Zener diode is reverse biased. The output voltage �0 remains essentially
constant (equal to �� ) even though the input voltage �� and the load resistance ��
may vary over a wide range.

Working.

 Let I be the current drawn from the supply source, Iz the current through the Zener
diode and IL that across the load resistance RL. Applying Kirchhoff ’s laws, we get
� = �� + �� ….(1)

�� = �� − ��……(2)
�� = �� �� ….(3)
AK 15

 The variation in the output voltage may be due to two causes. First, the load current
may vary. Second, the input voltage may

vary.

 Variation of load current : Suppose the load resistance RL varies and the input
voltage Vi remains constant. Since the output voltage V0 tends to remain constant,
Eq. (2) gives
δI = 0 ( Vi and R are constant)

Then Eq. (1) gives


δI = δ�� + δ�� = 0
or
δ�� = – δ�� .
 Thus, if the load resistance increases, when the supply voltage is fixed, the load
current �� decreases and the Zener diode current �� increases by an equal amount.
Thus the voltage V0 across the load will tend to remain constant.
 Variation in input voltage : Now suppose that the load resistance �� remains constant
and supply voltage Vi varies. Since V0 tends to remain constant, we get from Eq. (2),
δVi = R δI (�� is constant)
 Also Eq. (3) gives, δ�� = 0
∴ Eq. (1) gives, δI = δ��
 Thus when the supply voltage varies but the load resistance remains constant, the
total current I and the Zener current �� change equally to keep the load current ��
constant.
 Thus if total current I decreases by δI, the diode current �� also decreases by the same
amount, so that load current �� remains constant and the voltage V0 across the load
will tend to remain constant.

Filter Circuits

 The output of a rectifier is a unidirectional voltage (or current), which is pulsating. It


can be considered as consisting of a pure d.c. voltage with superposed a.c.
components, known as “ripples”.
 In electronic circuits we require a constant d.c. supply. Therefore, the ripples must be
removed or minimised from the rectifier output.
 This can be done by introducing an electrical circuit consisting of choke coils and
capacitors between the rectifier and the load. Such a circuit is known as a ‘filter
circuit’. There are several types of filters. Here we study a few of them
AK 16

The L-section or Inductor Input Filter.

 In this type of filter circuit, choke L is connected in series with the output of a
rectifier and capacitor C is connected parallel to the load RL (Fig. 58.20).


 The series inductor L readily passes the d.c. components from the rectifier output but
offers a high impedance (ωL) to the ac pulsations.
 Any pulsations in current that remains after it passes through L are largly by passed
by the capacitor which offers a low impedance (1/ωC) to them, but an infinite
resistance to dc.
 The current flowing in the load is therefore very nearly steady. In a full-wave rectifier
with inductor input filter, ripple factor
0.47
�= 2
4� �� − 1
 Here, ripple factor is independent of load resistance. It is used in large current power
supply

The π-section (capacitor-input) filter.

 This type of filter is shown in Fig.

 It may be considered to be made up of the following two components :


(i) Capacitor filter formed by capacitor C1.
(ii) Inductor input filter formed by choke L and capacitor C2.
 The capacitor C1 is periodically charged to almost the peak value of the rectifier
output
 Between successive charging pulses, the voltage across C1 falls off somewhat due to
its slow discharge through the L-section filter and the load, but remains very near the
peak value.
 The remaining pulsations in the current are opposed by the series inductor L and
bypassed to ground by capacitor C2. In this way the ripple in the output voltage is
reduced to a large extent.
AK 17

 In a full-wave rectifier with π filter, ripple factor


1
�=
32 2�3 �3 �1 �2 ���

Junction Transistor

 The junction transistors are of two types : p-n-p transistor and n-p-n transistor.
 Fig.(a) shows an n-p-n transistor and its symbol. Fig.(b) shows a p-n-p transistor and
its symbol.
 consider only the n-p-n transistor. A transistor has the following sections :
(i) Emitter. This forms the left hand section or region of the transistor. The main
function of this region is to supply majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes)
to the base. Hence it is more heavily doped in comparison to other regions. Electrons
are the charge-carriers within the n-p-n transistor, whereas holes are the charge-
carriers within a p-n-p transistor.
(ii) Base. The middle section of the transistor is called base. This is very lightly doped
and is very thin (10−6 m) as compared to either emitter or collector so that it may pass
most of the injected charge carriers to the collector.
(iii) Collector. The right hand side of the transistor is called collector. The main
function of the collector is to collect majority charge carriers through the base. This is
moderately doped. The junction between the emitter and base is called emitter
junction. The junction between the collector and the base is called collector junction
 In normal operation of a transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased while
the collector-base junction is reverse biased.

Working of an n-p-n Transistor.

 The emitter-base junction is forward biased by the battery ��� (Fig.).


 The collector-base junction is reverse biased by the battery��� . The directions of the
emitter, base and collector currents are as shown in the figure.
AK 18

 The direction of each current is opposite to the direction of motion of the electrons.
The electrons being majority carriers in the emitter are repelled due to forward bias
towards the base.
 The base contains holes as majority carriers and some holes and electrons combine in
the base region. Since the base is lightly doped, the probability of electron-hole
combination in base region is very small (5%).
 The remaining electrons cross into collector region, and enter into the positive
terminal of the battery ��� connected to the collector. At the same time an electron
enters the emitter from the negative pole of the emitter-base battery��� .
 Thus, in n-p-n transistors, the current is carried inside the transistor as well as in the
external circuit by the electrons. If �� , �� and �� are respectively the emitter current, the
base current and the collector current, then �� = �� + ��.

CONFIGURATION OF TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT

A transistor is a three-terminal device. But require '4‘terminals for connecting it in a circuit.


(i.e.) 2 terminals for input, 2 terminals for output.
Hence one of the terminals is made common to the input and output circuits. Common terminal is
grounded.
TYPES OF CONFIGURATIONS
Three types of configurations are available
1) Common base(CB) configuration
2) Common emitter (CE) configuration
3) Common collector (CC) configuration

1. COMMON BASE(CB) CONFIGURATION


In common base configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here base is grounded and it is used as the
common terminal for both input and output.
AK 19

It is also called as grounded base configuration. Emitter is used as a input terminal whereas
collector is the output terminal.

Input characteristics:

 It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input current whereas
output voltage is constant.
 To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage ��� is kept constant at zero
and emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing ��� .This is repeated for higher
fixed values of ��� .
 A curve is drawn between emitter current and emitter base voltage at constant collector base
voltage is shown in figure. When��� is zero EB junctions is forward biased. So it behaves
as a diode so that emitter current increases rapidly.

Output Characteristics

 It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current
whereas input current is constant.
 To determine output characteristics, the emitter current IE is kept constant at zero and
collector current Ic is increased from zero by increasing ��� .This is repeated for higher
fixed values of IE.
 From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IE, Ic is independent of ��� and
the curves are parallel to the axis of ��� .
AK 20

 As the emitter base junction is forward biased the majority carriers that is electrons from the
emitter region are injected into the base region.
 In CB configuration a variation of the base-collector voltage results in a variation of the
quasi- neutral width in the base.
 The gradient of the minority-carrier density in the base therefore changes, yielding an
increased collector current as the collector-base current is increased. This effect is referred
to as the Early effect.

2. CE CONFIGURATION

 In common emitter configuration circuit is shown in figure.


 Here emitter is grounded and it is used as the common terminal for both input and output. It
is also called as grounded emitter configuration.
 Base is used as a input terminal whereas collector is the output terminal.

Input Characteristics

 It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input current
whereas output voltage is constant.
 To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage ��� is kept constant at zero
and base current IB is increased from zero by increasing ��� .This is repeated for higher
fixed values of ���
 A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage at constant collector base
voltage is shown in figure. Here the base width decreases. So, curve moves right as
VCE increases.
AK 21

Output Characteristics

 It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current
whereas input current is constant.
 To determine output characteristics, the base current �� is kept constant at zero and collector
current �� is increased from zero by increasing ��� .This is repeated for higher fixed values
of �� .
 From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of �� , Ic is independent of ��� and
the curves are parallel to the axis of ��� .

The output characteristic has 3 basic regions:


- Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements.
- Cut-off region – region where the collector current is 0A
- Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of��� = 0V.
AK 22

Common-Emitter Transistor Amplifier

 Fig. shows the common emitter amplifier circuit using n-p-n transistor. The emitter is
common to both the input and output circuits.
 The emitter is forward biased by using base emitter battery ��� . Due to the forward
bias, the resistance of input circuit is low. The collector is reverse biased by using
collector-emitter battery ��� .
 The low input voltage signal is applied in base-emitter circuit (input circuit). The
amplified output is obtained across the collector and emitter.
 In a common-emitter circuit, the collector-current is controlled by the base-current
rather than the emitter-current.
 We know that in a transistor a large collector-current corresponds to a very small
base-current.
 Therefore, with input signal applied to the base, a very small change in base-current
produces a much more larger change in the collector-current.
 Thus, a very substantial current-gain is obtained.

(a) D.C. current gain : It is the ratio of the collector current to the base current. It is denoted
by β.
I
∴ d.c. current gain β = I c
B
AK 23

(b) A.C. current gain :

It is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current at
constant collector voltage. It is denoted by βac

ΔIc
βac =
ΔIB VCc

Its value is quite large as compared to 1 and lies between 150 and 50.

(c) A.C. voltage gain :

It is the ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in input voltage. It is denoted by
AV.

AV = βac × resistance gain.


Change in output power
(d) A.C. power gain = Change in input power

a.c. power gain =β2a.c × resistance gain

(e) Phase relationship.

In the common-emitter amplifier the output signal is in anti phase with the input signal.

Current amplification factor :

The ratio of the change in the collector current to the change in the emitter current at constant
collector-base voltage (VCB) is called the current amplification factor α.
ΔIc
Thus α = ΔIE V
CB

The current amplification factor is always less than 1.

Relation between α and β.

By definition,
ΔIc
α= ΔIE V
and
CB
ΔIc
β=
ΔIB VCE

For both the types of amplifier,

IE = IB + Ic

∆IE = ∆IB + ΔIc

Dividing by ΔIc ,
AK 24

∆IE ∆IB
= +1
ΔIc ΔIc
1 1
= +1
α β
α
β=
1−α

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