Semiconductor Devices
Semiconductor Devices
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Formation of p-n Junction Diode
Junction diode is formed by placing a p-type crystal in contact with n-type crystal
and subjecting to high pressure so that it becomes a single piece.
The assembly so obtained is called p-n junction or junction diode or crystal diode.
The surface of contact of p and n-type crystals is called junction. A p-n junction is
shown in Fig. 1.
The p-type region has (positive) holes as majority chargecarriers. Similarly, the n-
type region has (negative) electrons as majority charge carriers.
In addition to these majority charge carriers, there are a few minority charge carriers
in each region.
The p-region contains a few electrons while the n-region contains a few holes.
Thus we find that at the junction there is a decreasing hole concentration from left to
right which makes the holes diffuse from p-side to n-side.
Similarly electrons diffuse from right to left across the junction. Holes leaving and
electrons entering the p-side make it negative. Similarly holes entering and electrons
leaving the n-region make it positive. Thus, there is net negative charge on the p-side
of the junction and net positive charge on the n-side.
This produces an electric field across the junction as if a fictitious battery is connected
with its positive terminal to n and negative terminal to p section. Equilibrium is
established when the field becomes large enough to stop further diffusion of the
majority charge-carriers.
The field, however, helps the minority carriers to move across the junction. The
region on either side of the junction which becomes depleted (free) of the mobile
chargecarriers is called the ‘depletion region’.
The thickness of this region is of the order of 10−6 m. The potential difference across
the depletion region is called the ‘potential barrier’.
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1.Forward Bias.
When a battery is connected to the diode with p-section connected to positive pole
and n-section to the negative pole, the junction diode is said to be forward biased (Fig.
1).
If the forward bias is greater than the potential barrier, the majority carriers move
towards the junction and cross it.
The current which flows due to majority carriers is called forward current. It
increases with forward bias.
2. Reverse Bias.
Fig1 Fig2
Graphs drawn between bias voltage and circuit current of a junction diode are called
characteristics of the diode.
This is obtained by plotting a graph between forward bias voltage and circuit current.
The circuit used is shown in Fig. The milliammeter mA measures the current.
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The voltmeter V measures the p.d. across the diode. The forward voltage is gradually
increased in steps and corresponding milliammeter readings are noted.
A graph is then plotted between voltage and current (Fig). Practically no current flows
until the barrier voltage is overcome.
Once the external voltage exceeds the barrier potential, the current increases rapidly,
approximately exponentially.
Connections are made as shown in Fig. The reverse voltage is gradually increased in
steps and corresponding micro ammeter readings are noted.
A graph is then plotted between voltage and current (Fig.). With reverse bias the
reverse current remains very small over a long range, increasing very slightly with
increasing bias.
If the reverse bias is made very high, the covalent bonds near the junction break
down and a large number of electron-hole pairs are liberated. The reverse current
then ( above Fig )increases abruptly to a relatively large value. This is known as
“Avalanche breakdown”, and may damage the junction by excessive heat generated
unless the current is limited by external circuit. This phenomenon is used in making
zener diodes.
A junction diode allows a current to flow through it when it is forward biased. This property
of diode is used for rectification.
A half-wave rectifier is one which converts AC. voltage into a pulsating DC voltage using
only one half cycle of the applied AC. voltage.
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A full wave rectifier is one which converts AC. voltage into a pulsating DC voltage using full
cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.
Construction.
Fig. shows the circuit for a half-wave rectifier. T is a transformer. The primary of the
transformer is connected to the ac mains. The diode D is connected across the
secondary in series with a load resistance �� .
Working.
Then, the instantaneous output current through the load resistance �� is given by
��
�� =
�� + ��
� 2�
1
��� = �� sin (�� ) � �� + 0 × �(��)
2� 0 0
��
��� = [ − cos �� ]�0
2�
�� 1 ��
∴ ��� = = ………(4)
� � �� + ��
��
��� = ��� × �� = � ……. (5)
� �
(ii) D.C. power output. The dc power output across the load �� is
�2
D.C. power output = ��� = �2�� . �� = ��2 . �� ………(6) {� = �2 �}
1
� 2� 2
1
���� = �2����2 �� � �� + 0. �(��)
2� 0 0
1
�
1 2
���� = �2� ���2 �� � ��
2� 0
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��
∴ ���� = ……. (7)
2
(iv) A.C. power input : The power supplied to the circuit from the ac source is given by
�2�
��� = �2��� �� + �� = � + �� ……. (8)
4 �
(v) Efficiency of Half wave rectifier:
It is defined as the ratio of dc output power to the total ac power supplied to the rectifier.
�.� power supplied to the load
�= ����� �.� ����� �����
×100%
���
�=
���
×100%….(*)
��� = �2�� �� …… 1
��
��� =
�
…(2)
�� 2
��� = ��
�
�� 2 ��
��� = � 2
….(3)
Now consider
2
��� = ���� �� + ��
�� 2
��� = ��
2
�� 2 ��
��� =
4
……(6)
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4(�� )
�= � 2(�� )
×100%
� = 0.406 = 40.6%
The ripple factor is the ratio of r.m.s. value of A.C. component to the D.C. component in the
rectifier output, i.e.,
2 2 2
���� = ��� + ���
2 2 2
��� = ���� − ���
���� 2 − ��� 2
�=
���
���� 2 − ��� 2
�=
��� 2
���� 2
�= −1
��� 2
��
���� 2 �
= �� =
��� 2
�
� 2
�= −1
2
� 2
�= − 1 = 1.21
4
Full-Wave Rectifier
In a full-wave rectifier both halves of the input-cycle are used. There are two types of
full-wave rectifiers:
(1) Centre tapped full-wave rectifier, and (2) Bridge rectifier.
Centre tapped full-wave rectifier.
A full wave rectifier circuit consists of two diodes D1 and D2 connected to the
secondary of the step-down transformer. The input A.C. signal is fed to the primary of
the transformer (Fig. 1).
Working.
During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, one end of the secondary, say
A, becomes positive and end B becomes negative. So the diode D1 is forward biased,
and diode D2 is reverse biased.
As a result of this, the diode D1 conducts current whereas the diode D2 does not
conduct.
Current through the load resistance flows from C to D producing output voltage V0.
The current is shown by solid arrows. (below fig2)
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Let the diodes D1 and D2 be identical and have the same dynamic resistance Rf . At any
instant, let the magnitudes of AC voltages applied to the diodes be each equal to
Let �� = dynamic forward resistance of the diode. The current pulses in the two diodes are
given by
� 2�
1
��� = �� sin �� � �� + −�� sin �� �(��)
2� 0 �
�
�� � 2�
��
��� = − cos �� 0 + − cos �� � = [2 + 2]
2� 0 2�
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2��
��� =
�
…….(2)
1
� 2� 2
1
���� = �2� ���2 �� � �� + �2� ���2�� �(��)
2� 0 0
��
���� = 2
….(3)
The a.c. power input to the rectifier from the supply is given by
2 �� +�� I2�
��� = ���� �� + �� = 2
…….(4)
4�� I2�
��� = �2�� �� = ……(5)
�2
In a rectifier, the useful power output is the d.c. power which is developed across the load RL.
Therefore, efficiency
�.� power supplied to the load
�= ����� �.� ����� �����
×100%
���
�=
���
×100%....(*)
��� = �2�� �� …… 1
2��
��� = �
…(2)
2�� 2
��� = ��
�
2�� 2��
��� = � 2
….(3)
Now consider
2
��� = ���� �� + ��
4 �� 2 ��
� 2
�= �� 2 ��
×100%
2
4(�� )
�=
� 2(�� )
×100%
� = 81.2%
The ripple factor is the ratio of r.m.s. value of A.C. component to the D.C. component in the
rectifier output, i.e.,
���� 2 2 2
= ��� + ���
2 2 2
��� = ���� − ���
���� 2 − ��� 2
�=
���
���� 2 − ��� 2
�=
��� 2
�� 2
���� 2
2
�= −1= −1
��� 2 2�� 2
� = 0.482
The ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier is 0.482 and is much smaller than that of half-wave
rectifier. Hence, in actual practice, a full-wave rectifier is preferred to a half-wave rectifier.
Bridge Rectifier
The circuit is shown in Fig. 1. The diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are arranged in the
form of Wheatstone Bridge network.
The two opposite ends A and C of the network are connected to the ends S1 and S2 of
the secondary of transformer T. The ends B and D are connected to the load resistance
RL.
The primary P of the transformer is connected to the ac mains. When an AC voltage is
applied to the primary, at some instant the positive half of the input cycle passes
through the secondary, keeping the point A positive and C negative. Diodes D1 and
D3 conduct and a current flows in the direction ABRL DC S2 S1 A.
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At the same time D2 and D4 will not be conducting, since they are reverse biased.
During the next half cycle, the point A is negative and C is positive.
Therefore in this case diodes D2 and D4 conduct and current flows in the direction
CBRL DA S1 S2 C. But now D1 and D3 will not be conducting.
Therefore during both the halves of the input cycle, current flows through the load RL
in the same direction. Thus a DC output is developed across RL and we have full
wave rectification
The diode which operates in the reverse breakdown region with a sharp breakdown
voltage is called a Zener diode (Fig.). It is an ordinary P-N junction diode except that
it is properly doped to have a very sharp and almost vertical breakdown.
It is exclusively operated under reverse bias conditions. It is designed to operate in
breakdown region without damage.
By adjusting the doping level it is possible to produce zener diodes with a breakdown
voltage ranging from 2V to 800 V.
Zener diode primarily depends for its working on Zener Effect. In a heavily doped
diode, the depletion region is very narrow.
When the reverse bias voltage across the diode is increased, the electric field across
the depletion region becomes very strong. When this field is ≈ 3 × 107 V/m, electrons
are pulled out of the covalent bonds.
A large number of electron-hole pairs are thereby produced. The reverse current rises
steeply. This is Zener effect. The external applied voltage accelerates the minority
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carriers in the depletion region. These carriers gain sufficient energy to ionise atoms
by collision.
The electrons produced thereby accelerate to sufficiently large velocities to be able to
ionise other atoms. This creates a sort of chain reaction. The cumulative effect of this
chain reaction is the avalanche effect.
The zener effect is more prominent at breakdown voltages less than 4 V. The
avalanche effect is more prominent above 6 V.
Between 4 V and 6 V both effects are present. But, ordinarily, all diodes which are
operated in the breakdown region of their reverse characteristics are called zener
diodes.
In a voltage regulated power supply unit, the output voltage is constant and it is
independent of the variations of input supply voltage and load resistance.
The circuit diagram of a diode voltage regulator is shown in Fig.
The unregulated dc is applied across the diode through a series resistor R, which
limits the input current.
The value of the series resitor R is so chosen that initially the diode operates in the
breakdown region.
The P-junction of the Zener diode is connected to the negative of the input voltage
and N-junction to the positive.
Thus the Zener diode is reverse biased. The output voltage �0 remains essentially
constant (equal to �� ) even though the input voltage �� and the load resistance ��
may vary over a wide range.
Working.
Let I be the current drawn from the supply source, Iz the current through the Zener
diode and IL that across the load resistance RL. Applying Kirchhoff ’s laws, we get
� = �� + �� ….(1)
�� = �� − ��……(2)
�� = �� �� ….(3)
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The variation in the output voltage may be due to two causes. First, the load current
may vary. Second, the input voltage may
vary.
Variation of load current : Suppose the load resistance RL varies and the input
voltage Vi remains constant. Since the output voltage V0 tends to remain constant,
Eq. (2) gives
δI = 0 ( Vi and R are constant)
Filter Circuits
In this type of filter circuit, choke L is connected in series with the output of a
rectifier and capacitor C is connected parallel to the load RL (Fig. 58.20).
The series inductor L readily passes the d.c. components from the rectifier output but
offers a high impedance (ωL) to the ac pulsations.
Any pulsations in current that remains after it passes through L are largly by passed
by the capacitor which offers a low impedance (1/ωC) to them, but an infinite
resistance to dc.
The current flowing in the load is therefore very nearly steady. In a full-wave rectifier
with inductor input filter, ripple factor
0.47
�= 2
4� �� − 1
Here, ripple factor is independent of load resistance. It is used in large current power
supply
Junction Transistor
The junction transistors are of two types : p-n-p transistor and n-p-n transistor.
Fig.(a) shows an n-p-n transistor and its symbol. Fig.(b) shows a p-n-p transistor and
its symbol.
consider only the n-p-n transistor. A transistor has the following sections :
(i) Emitter. This forms the left hand section or region of the transistor. The main
function of this region is to supply majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes)
to the base. Hence it is more heavily doped in comparison to other regions. Electrons
are the charge-carriers within the n-p-n transistor, whereas holes are the charge-
carriers within a p-n-p transistor.
(ii) Base. The middle section of the transistor is called base. This is very lightly doped
and is very thin (10−6 m) as compared to either emitter or collector so that it may pass
most of the injected charge carriers to the collector.
(iii) Collector. The right hand side of the transistor is called collector. The main
function of the collector is to collect majority charge carriers through the base. This is
moderately doped. The junction between the emitter and base is called emitter
junction. The junction between the collector and the base is called collector junction
In normal operation of a transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased while
the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
The direction of each current is opposite to the direction of motion of the electrons.
The electrons being majority carriers in the emitter are repelled due to forward bias
towards the base.
The base contains holes as majority carriers and some holes and electrons combine in
the base region. Since the base is lightly doped, the probability of electron-hole
combination in base region is very small (5%).
The remaining electrons cross into collector region, and enter into the positive
terminal of the battery ��� connected to the collector. At the same time an electron
enters the emitter from the negative pole of the emitter-base battery��� .
Thus, in n-p-n transistors, the current is carried inside the transistor as well as in the
external circuit by the electrons. If �� , �� and �� are respectively the emitter current, the
base current and the collector current, then �� = �� + ��.
It is also called as grounded base configuration. Emitter is used as a input terminal whereas
collector is the output terminal.
Input characteristics:
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input current whereas
output voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage ��� is kept constant at zero
and emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing ��� .This is repeated for higher
fixed values of ��� .
A curve is drawn between emitter current and emitter base voltage at constant collector base
voltage is shown in figure. When��� is zero EB junctions is forward biased. So it behaves
as a diode so that emitter current increases rapidly.
Output Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current
whereas input current is constant.
To determine output characteristics, the emitter current IE is kept constant at zero and
collector current Ic is increased from zero by increasing ��� .This is repeated for higher
fixed values of IE.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IE, Ic is independent of ��� and
the curves are parallel to the axis of ��� .
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As the emitter base junction is forward biased the majority carriers that is electrons from the
emitter region are injected into the base region.
In CB configuration a variation of the base-collector voltage results in a variation of the
quasi- neutral width in the base.
The gradient of the minority-carrier density in the base therefore changes, yielding an
increased collector current as the collector-base current is increased. This effect is referred
to as the Early effect.
2. CE CONFIGURATION
Input Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input current
whereas output voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage ��� is kept constant at zero
and base current IB is increased from zero by increasing ��� .This is repeated for higher
fixed values of ���
A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage at constant collector base
voltage is shown in figure. Here the base width decreases. So, curve moves right as
VCE increases.
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Output Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current
whereas input current is constant.
To determine output characteristics, the base current �� is kept constant at zero and collector
current �� is increased from zero by increasing ��� .This is repeated for higher fixed values
of �� .
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of �� , Ic is independent of ��� and
the curves are parallel to the axis of ��� .
Fig. shows the common emitter amplifier circuit using n-p-n transistor. The emitter is
common to both the input and output circuits.
The emitter is forward biased by using base emitter battery ��� . Due to the forward
bias, the resistance of input circuit is low. The collector is reverse biased by using
collector-emitter battery ��� .
The low input voltage signal is applied in base-emitter circuit (input circuit). The
amplified output is obtained across the collector and emitter.
In a common-emitter circuit, the collector-current is controlled by the base-current
rather than the emitter-current.
We know that in a transistor a large collector-current corresponds to a very small
base-current.
Therefore, with input signal applied to the base, a very small change in base-current
produces a much more larger change in the collector-current.
Thus, a very substantial current-gain is obtained.
(a) D.C. current gain : It is the ratio of the collector current to the base current. It is denoted
by β.
I
∴ d.c. current gain β = I c
B
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It is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current at
constant collector voltage. It is denoted by βac
ΔIc
βac =
ΔIB VCc
Its value is quite large as compared to 1 and lies between 150 and 50.
It is the ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in input voltage. It is denoted by
AV.
In the common-emitter amplifier the output signal is in anti phase with the input signal.
The ratio of the change in the collector current to the change in the emitter current at constant
collector-base voltage (VCB) is called the current amplification factor α.
ΔIc
Thus α = ΔIE V
CB
By definition,
ΔIc
α= ΔIE V
and
CB
ΔIc
β=
ΔIB VCE
IE = IB + Ic
Dividing by ΔIc ,
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∆IE ∆IB
= +1
ΔIc ΔIc
1 1
= +1
α β
α
β=
1−α