Department of English StudiesS3 Grammar Lesson 1

2020-2021 Profs. Derraz& Diyen

What is a phrase?

“A phrase is defined as a group of related words that lacks both subject and verb.”
A phrase is a part of a sentence. It is a group of words (within a sentence) that does not contain both
subject and verb, and does not express a complete idea. A phrase can consist of just one word, but
usually it contains more than one. Examples include:
• John
• This one stupid mistake

Phrases are often classified into four basic types, taking their names from what is considered to be
the class of the most important word in the phrase. The following are word classes:
• the verb
• the noun
• the adverb
• the preposition
• the adjective

The class of the most important word in any phrase will decide what type of phrase it is. This
important word is often referred to as the head of the phrase. The head is the most important word in a
phrase. All the other words in a phrase depend on the head. The head of a phrase is the element that
determines the syntactic function of the whole phrase.
Properties of heads
– Head bears most important semantic information of the phrase.
– Word class of head determines word class of entire phrase.
In the following examples, the head word is given in bold:
• a. The unseen intruder
• b. She laughed.
• c. The food was wonderful.
• d. She dances beautifully.
• e. The dinner is on the table

The first phrase has a noun as its head word; it is, therefore, a noun phrase. In b the head word is a verb
laughed , so it a verb phrase. In c. the head is adjective, so it is adjective phrase. In d the head is adverb,
so it is adverb phrase . In e the head is preposition, so it is a prepositional phrase, etc.

On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various TYPES i.e. noun
phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinitive phrase,
participle phrase, gerund phrase, prepositional phrase and absolute phrase.

Main Types of Phrases

• Adjective Phrase : He is fast.

• Adverb PhraseHe runs fast.
• Infinitive Phrase : To run is very good for health.
• Gerund Phrase :Running is very good.
• Participial Phrase : Running every day, I feel healthy.
• Prepositional Phrase : I go running in the morning.
• Verb Phrase :He runs so fast.
1
• Noun Phrase: I met a girl.

2
 Noun phrases

A noun phrase consists of a noun or pronoun, which is called the head and any dependent words
before or after the head. Dependent words give specific information about the head. For example:

The moon, a gold ring, my own personal website, love, him …

Functions of a noun phrase

1. It can be THE SUBJECT of a verb.

• Love is such a beautiful thing. In this example, love is the subject.
• He is writing.
2- It can be the SUBJECT COMPLEMENT:
• Many of the players are my friends.
• Jill will become a doctor.
3. It can be THE DIRECT or INDIRECT OBJECT of a verb.
• My friend speaks English fluently. English is the direct object.
• He bought his son a bike. The verb buy takes TWO objects 'his son' , the indirect object and 'a
bike', the direct object.

A direct object answers the question "what?" or "whom?"

• David repaired his car → his car is the direct object of the verb repaired. (What did David
repair?)
• He invited Mary to the party → Mary is the direct object of the verb invited. (Whom did he
invite?)

An indirect object answers the question "to whom?", "for whom?", "for what?"...
• They sent him a postcard - him is the indirect object of the verb sent.(To whom did they send a postcard?)
4-A noun phrase can be the object complement
• Our Committee elected Mr Greene president.
• Dad called the salesperson a charlatan.

5. It can be the object of preposition

• I saw him in his office.
• The girl returns from school.
• She went up the stairs to her bedroom.

6. It can be AN APPOSITIVE with another noun:

That means that the noun can be DESCRIPTIVE OF ANOTHER NOUN OR A PRONOUN. The
word “apposition” means “placed side by side” Or “placed parallel to”
• The bookshelf, a modern piece of furniture, was moved into the house first.
• I, the president of this association, will take the decision.
• You, the eldest son of your parents, should assume all the responsibilities of your family.

7-Nouns and noun phrases can act as ADVERBIALS – that is, they can modify or add information
to a verb. When noun phrases act in such a role, they describe time, place, quantity, or manner.

So, what do adverbial noun phrases look like?

A couple of examples that describe our western film can help you see that adverbial noun phrases are
not as complex as you might think:
He arrived this morning.

He is riding home.

He travels a great deal.

Ask yourself what information these noun phrases provide. That can help you see that these noun
phrases are giving adverbial information.

Adverbial noun phrases might look like direct objects at first, but if you remember the kind of
information that adverbials give, you will not have any trouble.

Consider our examples:

He arrived (when?) this morning.

He is riding (where?) home.

He travels (how much?) a great deal.

Exercise

1-Identify the noun phrases in the following sentences and say their function.

1-My father wants to buy a new car.

2-The agency gave him a few numbers to ring.

3- I hate travelling to my hometown.

4- John performed very well in the exams.

5-Don’t waste your precious time on John.

6-The President supported the action.

7-The strike lasted for more than a week.

8-He is a professor. Subject complement

9-The country, Sweden, is very peaceful.

10-Did you bring me any ice cream?

Department of English StudiesS3 Grammar Lesson 3
2020-2021 Profs. Derraz & Diyen

Adjective phrases

An adjective phrase is a group of words that contains an adjective as a head in a sentence. An

adjective phrase always has an adjective acting as the head. The adjective phrase may also contain words
or phrases before or after the head (modifiers and complements):

An adjective phrase modifies (or tells about) a noun or a pronoun in a sentence.

• He is wearing a nice red shirt. (It is an adjective phrase modifying the noun shirt. It is a
premodifier)
• The chief lived in a house built of wood. (It is an adjective phrase postmodifying the noun
house.)
• I felt sad. (It is an adjective phrase functioning as a subject complement)
• This soup smells really wonderful. (It is an adjective phrase functioning as a subject
complement)

• Sitting in traffic drives me crazy. (It is an adjective phrase functioning as object complement)
• The fire has made the room much warmer.(It is an adjective phrase functioning as object
complement)
• Money doesn’t always make us happy. (It is an adjective complement functioning as an object
complement)

So, an adjective phrase can have one of the following functions:

• Premodifier in a noun phrase: He is wearing a nice red shirt.

• Postmodifier in a noun phrase: The chief lived in a house built of wood.
• Subject complement: I felt sad.
• Object complement: Money doesn’t always make us happy.

Exercises

I-Identify the function of each adjective phrase.

1. The former champion is now very ill.
2. He has a rare form of cancer.
3. The drugs he takes make him sick.
4. His body looks no different than it looked before.
5. His doctor has arranged preliminary tests to be carried out.
6. His general health is good, but surgery is always somewhat risky.
Department of English Studies S3 Grammar Lesson 4
2020-2021 Profs. Derraz & Diyen
Adverb phrases

What is an Adverb?

An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. e.g.
• That idea is simply ridiculous. (The adverb simply modifies the adjective ridiculous, so it is a
pre-modifier)
• She sings nicely. (The adverb nicely modifies the verb sing and functions as an adverbial.
• She did it really well. (the adverb really modifies the adverb well, so it is a pre-modifier)
Adverbs tell when, where, why or under which condition something happens or happened. Adverbs
frequently end in –ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in –ly serve an adverbial function
A –ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly,
neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:
• That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.

What is an adverb phrase?

The adverb is the head of the adverb phrase and can appear alone or it can be modified by other
words, as shown in the following examples:

In the following examples, the adverb phrases are in bold.

1. She loved him sufficiently. (sufficiently is the head; it is just one word, so it functions as an
adverbial )
2. A sufficiently long delay (sufficiently functions as a pre- modifier of the adjective long ; the head,
in this example is the noun delay)
3. She spoke sufficiently slowly. (sufficiently functions as a pre-modifier of the adverb slowly, which
is the head of the phrase that functions as an adverbial).

From these examples, an adverb phrase can be one or a group of words where the head is the adverb.

Consider the following examples:

• He spoke politely.
• Time goes very quickly.
• The day passed quickly enough.
• This works really well for its size.
• Luckily for us, the cost was not so high.
• We kept the new money quite separately from what we’d already collected.
All the bold words are adverb phrases; the words underlined are modifiers. In (a), the adverb phrase is
one word which is politely. In (b), the adverb phrase is composed of a pre-modifier (very) and the head
(quickly). In (c), the adverb phrase is composed of the head (quickly) and a post-modifier (enough). In
(d), the adverb phrase is composed of the head (well) preceded by a pre-modifier (really) and a post -
modifier (for its size). In (e), the adverb phrase is composed of the head (luckily) followed with a post
modifier (for us). In the last example, the head is separately preceded by a pre-modifier (quite) and
followed with a post-modifier (the clause).

Pre-modifiers and Post-modifiers in Adverb Phrases

1- Pre-modifiers in adverb phrases are expressed by intensifiers.

Intensifiers or adverbs of degree are adverbs that strengthen the meaning of other expressions and show
emphasis. Words that we commonly use as intensifiers include absolutely, completely, extremely,
highly, rather, really, so, too, totally, utterly, very…

• Your engine is running very/ absolutely/fairly smoothly.

• It takes far too long for us.
• He drives really carefully.

2 Post-modifiers in Adverb phrases are expressed by:

a. the adverbs enough and indeed only:

• He spoke distinctly enough.

Head words in Adverb phrases are basically adverbs, so they function as adverbial. The adverbs, very
and too, for example, are intensifiers that function only as pre-modifiers (very large, very carefully, too
small, too quickly),

• They are smoking very heavily. (very heavily is an adverb phrase composed of the head
heavily functioning as an adverbial and a pre-modifier very)
• They did not injure him that severely.

Adverbial is one of the most important functions of adverb phrases

• He runs slowly.
• We never stay late.
I-Underline the adverb phrases in the following sentences.

1.We walked very carefully across the floor.

2.Dad got home very late.
3.His pill will take away the pain temporarily.
4.That dog behaves incredibly stupidly!
5.It rained very heavily this summer.
6.Unfortunately for me, I can’t speak Italian.

II-Identify the functions of the adverb phrases in the following sentences

1. Small forks first appeared in eleventh-century Tuscany.

2. They were widely condemned at the time.
3. It was in late eighteenth-century France that forks suddenly became fashionable.
4. Spoons are thousands of years older than forks and began as thin, slightly concave pieces of wood.
5. Knives were used far earlier than spoons.
6. They have changed little over the years.
7. When meals were generally eaten with the fingers, towel-size napkins were essential.
8. When forks were adopted to handle food, napkins were retained in a much smaller size to wipe the
mouth.
9. A saucer was originally a small dish for holding sauces.
10. Mass production made the saucer inexpensive enough to be merely an adjunct to a cup.
Department of English Studies Grammar S3 Lesson 5
2020-2021 Profs. Derraz & Diyen

Prepositional Phrases

A preposition draws a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in a sentence. A
prepositional phrase includes a preposition, its object, and any modifiers of the object. The
preposition’s object is the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition.

Prepositional phrases can function as either adjectives or adverbs to modify other words in a sentence.
Common examples of prepositions include about, after, at, before, behind, by, during, for, from, in, of,
over, past, to, under, up, and with.

Consider the following example that contains two prepositional phrases:

• The steamy air in the kitchen reeked of stale food.

The first prepositional phrase--in the kitchen--modifies the noun air; the second--of stale food-
modifies the verb reeked. The two phrases provide information that helps us understand the sentence.

Why Are Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases Important?

Prepositions and prepositional phrases provide important details about the words they modify, such as
by answering the following questions: Which one? What kind? How? Where? When? To what extent?

A prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause,
the "object" of the preposition. The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to
describe it.

Here are some examples of the most basic prepositional phrase:

• At home (at = preposition; home = noun.)
• In time (In = preposition; time = noun)
• With me (with = preposition; me = pronoun)
• By singing (by = preposition; singing = gerund)
• About what we need (about = preposition; what we need = noun clause)
• From my grandmother (from = preposition; my = modifier; grandmother = noun)
• Under the warm blanket (under = preposition; the, warm = modifiers; blanket = noun)

Functions of prepositional phrases

Prepositional phrases perform three formal functions in sentences. They can act as an adjective
modifying a noun, as an adverb modifying a verb, or as a nominal when used in conjunction with the
verb form to be.

The term nominal refers to a noun or noun phrase or to any word or word group that functions as a noun.
It is also known as a substantive. Nominals can act just like nouns in a sentence.

Prepositional phrases used as adjectives

Adjective prepositional phrases follow the nouns they modify, unlike adjectives which generally go
immediately before and after the nouns they modify. Like adjectives, they tell which one, what kind,
how much, or how many.
 Read these examples:
• The book on the bathroom floor is swollen from shower steam.

Which book? The one on the bathroom floor.

The sweet potatoes in the vegetable bin are green with mold.
Which sweet potatoes? The ones forgotten in the vegetable bin.
• The note from Beverly confessed that she had eaten the leftover pizza.
Which note? The one from Beverly.

Prepositional phrases used as adverbs

As an adverb, a prepositional phrase will answer questions such as How? When? or Where?
• Freddy is stiff from yesterday's long football practice.
How did Freddy get stiff? From yesterday's long football practice.
Before class, Josh begged his friends for a pencil.
When did Josh do his begging? Before class.
Feeling brave, we tried the Dragon Breath Burritos at Tito's Taco Palace.
Where did we eat the spicy food? At Tito's Taco Palace.

Prepositional phrases functioning as nominals

Prepositional phrases of location and time most often perform nominal functions. They function as
subjects, subject complements, direct objects, object complements, indirect objects, and prepositional
complements. The following sections discuss the six nominal functions of prepositions.
The six nominal functions of prepositional phrases are:
1. Subject
2. Subject complement
3. Direct object
4. Indirect object
5. Object complement
6. Indirect object
7. Prepositional complement

Subject

Prepositional phrases first function as subjects. A subject is a word, phrase, or clause that performs the
action of or acts upon the verb. The following italicized prepositional phrases are examples of subjects:
• Behind the shed needs mowing.
• Before ten is a bad time to call me.
• Under the refrigerator is disgusting!

Subject Complement

Prepositional phrases secondly function as subject complements. A subject complement is a word,

phrase, or clause that follows a linking verb and describes the subject. The following italicized
prepositional phrases are examples of subject complements:
• The park is next to the hospital.
• The park appears next to the hospital.
 • The student is between an A and a B.
• The fight scene is before the second act.

Direct Object
Prepositional phrases thirdly function as direct objects. A direct object is a word, phrase, or clause that
receives the action of a transitive verb. The following italicized prepositional phrases are examples of
direct objects:
• We must clean under the bed.
• My mother scrubbed behind the freezer.
• Dad will decorate on top of the roof.

Note that prepositional phrases functioning as direct objects can sometimes also be analyzed as
adverbials. For example, in the first sentence, We must clean under the bed, the prepositional
phrase answers the questions both "what must we clean?" and "where must we clean?" Direct
objects answer the question "what?" while adverbials can answer the question "where?"

Indirect Object

Prepositional phrases fifthly function as indirect objects. An indirect object is a word, phrase, or clause
that indicates to or for whom or what the action of a ditransitive verb is performed. The following
italicized prepositional phrases are examples of indirect objects:
• My mom gave behind the freezer a good scrubbing.
• The decorator is giving inside the closet some serious consideration.
• My brother should give under his bed some thought.

Object Complement

Prepositional phrases fourthly function as object complements. An object complement is a word, phrase,
or clause that follows and describes the direct object. The following italicized prepositional phrases are
examples of object complements:
• The tour guides announced the most dangerous place to swim along the southern shore.
• The reviewer named the most organized classrooms in the English building.
• I declare my favorite time of the year during the fall.

Appositive

Prepositional phrases function also as appositives when they act as postmodifiers. Postmodification by
prepositional phrases can be classified according to the restrictive/nonrestrictive
• The course on English grammar starts tomorrow. [restrictive]
• This course, on English grammar, starts tomorrow. [nonrestrictive]
• The question of student grants was discussed yesterday.[restrictive]
• This question, of student grants, was discussed yesterday.[ nonrestrictive]

I-Identify the prepositional phrase and its function.

1-All the passengers aboard the runaway train were frightened.
2-The present inside the big box is mine.
3- I love to take my jeep off the road.
4-The clues within the first few chapters will lead to the murderer.
5-His is only one voice among many, but it will be heard.
6-Put the fresh flowers upon a high shelf.
7-Despite warnings, she tried to ski down Devil’s Run.
8-Against all odds, our team won the tournament.
9-The extra blanket is in the box under the bed.
10-The car beside the red one is the one I want to buy.
11-The tiger crept slowly over the grass.
12-We will order pizza during halftime
13-The area outside the boundary is dangerous to cross.
14-All rooms below deck are for sleeping.
15-Tell me the story about the dragon slayer.
16-Racing toward the finish line, Sarah realized she just might win.
17-My shopping list needs to be put into my purse.
18-Without a GPS, we will lose our way.
19-Until today, I had never heard that.
20-The balloon drifted up the stairs.
21-The book with the tattered cover has been read many times
22- I will climb up the highest mountain tomorrow.
23-Saul, unlike many others, will remain there.
Department of English Studies Grammar S3 Lesson 6
Derraz & Diyen

Infinitive phrases

An infinitive phrase will begin with an infinitive [to + simple form of the verb]. It will include objects
and/or modifiers. Here are some examples:

• To build the roof : The infinitive verb is to build. The complement is its direct object the roof.
They all make up the infinitive phrase.

• To write the text slowly: The infinitive verb is to write. The complement is its object the text. The
modifier is the adverb slowly. They all make up the infinitive phrase.

Infinitive phrases are used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Look at these examples:

Infinitive Phrases Used As Nouns

• He helped to build the roof.

(The infinitive phrase is used as a noun functioning as the direct object for the verb helped)
• He likes to hunt. (to hunt is the direct object of likes)
• They asked me to bring some food. (The infinitive phrase is the direct object of the verb
asked)
• The only solution is to lower the standards. (it functions as a subject complement)
• To dance was her passion. (To dance functions as the subject )

Infinitive Phrases Used As Adjectives

• Let him show you the best way to paint the door. It is an adjective because it modifies way
• I need a book to read on holiday. The infinitive modifies book. This means it is functioning as an
adjective.)
• Give him an ornament to polish. (The infinitive modifies ornament. This means it is functioning
as an adjective.)
Compare it to this:
• Give him an ornament that he can polish.
(The clause that he can polish is an adjective clause. This proves that the infinitive to polish is
being used an adjective.)
• I need a volunteer to take the minutes. (The infinitive modifies volunteer. This means it is
functioning as an adjective.)
Compare it to this:
• I need a volunteer who is prepared to take the minutes.
(The clause who is prepared to take the minutes is an adjective clause. Therefore, the infinitive to take
is being used an adjective.
An infinitive that acts as an adjective usually appears immediately after the noun it is modifying.

• I need a magazine to read on the train.

• There is a basket to put your exam in.
• I wish I had a friend to study with me.
• I want a tutor to help me study.

Infinitive Phrases Used As Adverbs

 Here are some examples of infinitive verbs as adverbs:
• The officer returned to help. (The infinitive modifies the verb returned. This means it is
functioning as an adverb.)
Compare it to this:
• The officer returned so he could help. (The clause so he could help is an adverbial clause.
This proves that the infinitive to help is being used an adverb.)
• He will complete the mission to set an example.
(The infinitive modifies the verb will complete. This means it is functioning as an adverb.)
Compare it to this:
• He will complete the mission so he can set an example.
(The clause so he can set an example is an adverbial clause. Therefore, the infinitive to set an example
is being used an adverb.

• I went home to study for math.

• He sat down to take the exam.
• To get into college, you need good grades.
• To ace the exam, I studied for hours.

Bare Infinitives (When Not Preceded by To)

Most infinitives are preceded by to, but after certain verbs like bid, watch, see, let, make, help and
hear , the to is dropped. They are called bare infinitives ,i.e. (infinitives without to).

• I bade him go.

• Let him sit there.
• She made me cry.
• I heard him sing a lovely song.
• He helped me carry the boxes. OR He helped me to carry the boxes.

Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should
be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.
To set an example, he will complete the mission.
He will complete the mission to set an example.

Exercises
I-Write the infinitive phrase from each sentence. Then identify its function in the sentence.
1. To be objective in my decision is hard.
2. Does Joan have enough change to make a phone call?
3. Always try to proofread your paper before you turn it in.
4. Ellen is able to swim six lengths of the pool.
5. The Harlow twins came to play with my little brother.
6. Would you like to warn me if anyone comes?
7. I was happy to give you a ride home.
8. To move to a larger house would be unwise for us now.
9. Fred was frightened to be alone in the old house.
10. Megan is trying to practice the piano an hour a day.
11. To be a doctor is Ann's ambition.
12. To win the presidency is Senator Brown's ambition.
13. Did you have time to feed the kitten?
14. Mr. and Mrs. Taylor plan to go to Maine this summer.
15. The mayor decided to call a press conference.
16. Dick always tries to do his best.
17. Sarah tried to paint the ceiling of her room.
18. The lecturer was asked to speak for half an hour.
19. Our plan is to go to Tennessee in October.
20. To play tennis every day is Jim's ambition for the summer.
21. The rugby team was ready to start.

II-Combine the sentences in each pair by forming an infinitive phrase.

1-Civil libertarians took to the streets and the courts. They wanted to achieve their goal.
2-They fought for the rights of all Americans. Now all Americans have voting rights.
3- Now each American has a responsibility. Every American must exercise that right to vote.
Department of English Studies Grammar S3 Lesson 7
Profs. Derraz & Diyen

Participle and Gerund phrases

Participles are nonfinite verb forms: that is, they cannot serve as main verbs in sentences, but they can
help form verb phrases or function as adjectives. Like finite verbs, they can take objects and modifiers
to form participial phrases. Present participles end in –ing (living, studying, flowing, driving, eating).
Past participles of regular verbs end in –ed (lived, studied, wasted); past participles of irregular verbs
often end in –n or –en (blown, driven, swum). Together with objects or modifiers, participles may form
phrases, as in the following:
Carrying a green toolbox, Jerry walked down the stairs.
Dressed in the warmest clothes, Kathie and Mark stepped out into the driving wind.
Participial phrases can almost always be placed either before or after the nouns they modify.
Consider the following examples:
• Her eyes glistening with tears, she stood up and turned away from the people.
• Eaten by mosquitoes, we wished that we had made hotel, not campsite, reservations.
Eaten by mosquitoes modifies the pronoun we.
In contrast to relative clauses, which ordinarily must follow immediately after the nouns they
modify, participial phrases can precede the nouns they modify. A participial phrase can usually be
placed at more than one point in a sentence:
• The old house, which was deserted twenty years ago and said to be haunted by the ghost of
its former owner, stood halfway up the hill. This is an adjective clause.
➢ Deserted twenty years ago and said to be haunted by the ghost of its former owner, the old
house stood halfway up the hill.
➢ The old house, deserted twenty years ago and said to be haunted by the ghost of its former
owner, stood halfway up the hill.

Function as an Adjective
For Example: Carrying a green toolbox, Jerry walked down the stairs.

Participles also function as adjectives, despite their verb like nature. The phrase “carrying a green
toolbox” describes Jerry. Even though the phrase denotes an action, the phrase tells us something
specific about the appearance or nature of Jerry. It tells us that we are concerned with a particular
Jerry — the Jerry carrying a toolbox, not with a Jerry eating a meal or a Jerry brushing his teeth.

Gerund phrases

A gerund phrase is created when a gerund – a verb that takes an –ing form and functions as a noun –
has a modifier, object or both.
• Reading books quietly is my favorite pastime.
• My favorite pastime is reading books quietly
 • I recommend reading books quietly to pass the time.

How to Tell the Difference between a Gerund and a Participial Phrase

Gerund and present participle phrases are easy to confuse because they both begin with an- ing word.
The difference is the function that they provide in the sentence. A gerund phrase will always behave
as a noun while a present participle phrase will act as an adjective. Check out these examples:

• Drinking beer heavily is bad for your health. (gerund phrase)

• Drinking beer heavily, Tom and Jim became more raucous. (not a gerund phrase)

.The second example is a participle phrase, which acts like an adjective. We can see this by replacing
the phrase with a noun and seeing that it does not make sense:

• Alcohol is bad for your health. (sentence still makes sense)

• Alcohol, Tom and Jim became more raucous. (sentence no longer makes sense)

Functions of gerund phrases

Subject: Sleeping through the night is difficult for me.

Direct object: I love sleeping through the night.
Indirect object: We make writing three poems a requirement to pass our course
Subject complement: My biggest difficulty is sleeping through the night.
Object of preposition: The doctor suggested drinking warm milk for sleeping through the night.
Appositive: her job, journalizing, is not easy.

I-Combine the sentences in each set below into a single clear sentence with at least one participial
phrase.
1-I stood on the roof of my apartment building at dawn. I watched the sun rise through crimson clouds.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. I was sitting on the ground in a shady corner. I was sitting with my back against the wall. Look at
the answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3- I was sitting on the window ledge. The ledge overlooked the narrow street. I watched the children.
The children were frolicking in the first snow of the season.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

II-Identify gerund phrases and write their functions

1-Manny argued strongly against recounting the vote. ……………………………..

2. Most of the time, swimming at the beach is safe. ………………………….

3. My job is making reservations for overnight guests at the hotel. …………………..

4. His greatest asset, typing two hundred words per minute, has earned him a better position at the
company.…………………………………..
5. Joe doesn't like getting up early on Saturdays. …………………………………..

6. After saving the dog's life, the young man was given an award. ………………..

7. Marion always enjoys smiling at the camera. ………………………..

III-identify the verbal as a present participle or gerund. If the verbal is a participle, write the noun
that it is modifying. If the verbal is a gerund, write its function.

1. The candidate getting the most votes wins the election. ……………………..
2. After resting for an hour, you will feel much better. ……………………

3. Reading a good novel always gives me pleasure. …………………….

4. Clearing his throat, Bill began to give his speech. …………………………………………

5. He has ruined his lungs by smoking. …………………………………….

6. Asking questions is easier than answering them. ……………………………
7. We saw a clown standing on his head. ………………………….
8. He hates spending money. …………………………………
9. Waving their hands, the spectators cheered the runners. …………………………..
10. We are fighting a losing battle. ……………………………………………
11. It is freezing cold. ………………………………………..
12. We are confident of winning the election. ………………………………..
13. The boy cried thinking that he would be whipped. ……………………………
14. Can you teach me painting? …………………………………….
Department of English Studies Grammar S3 lesson 8
2020-2021 Profs. Derraz & Diyen
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a group of words that include a subject and a verb, and it has the same functions
of the noun. A noun clause is a subordinate clause, which means it is not a complete statement.
As a dependent clause, it must connect to an independent clause (main clause). Noun clauses
usually begin with words such as how, that, what, whatever, when, where, which, who,
whoever, and why. The most common word among them is that.
For example:
• I like what I see.
• I know that the tide is turning.

Noun clauses can perform the following grammatical functions in English grammar:
• Subject
• Subject complement
• Direct object
• Indirect object
• Object complement
• Object of preposition
• Appositive
Examples of Noun Clauses
That-clauses / Wh-clauses
They can occur as:
Subject: That she is still alive is a consolidation.
How the book will sell depends on its author.
Subject complement: The assumption is that things will improve.
Harry's crowning achievement at school was when he became class president
Direct object: I told him that he was wrong.
I knew that he was wrong.
I can’t imagine what made him do it.
Indirect object: Don’t forget to send whoever attended the conference a follow-up email.
I will give whoever comes first a seat in the front row.
Object complement: The committee has announced the winner whoever finished the essay
first.
You may call your husband whatever you wish.
Object of preposition: He did not concentrate on what he was reading.
No one was consulted on who should have the prize.
Appositive: your assumption, that things will improve, is unfounded.
My original question, why he did it at all, has not been answered.

1-Identify the type of clauses and their functions

1. I wondered what he was doing there.
2. Could you tell me where the bookstore is.
3. That honesty is the best policy is a well-known fact.
4. I expected that I would get the first prize.
5. Do you know why he is late?
6. My brother doesn't know how tall he is.
7-I don’t know what he wants.
8. Pay careful attention to what I am going to say.
9. Darla's excuse for being late was that she forgot to set her alarm.
Department of English Studies Grammar S3 lesson 9
2020-2021 Profs. Derraz & Diyen

Adjective clauses

Adjective clauses are used to modify a noun or pronoun which is either the subject or the object
of a sentence. An adjective clause is a subordinate clause. Adjective clauses are used to provide
extra information. This information can either:
▪ define something (defining clause),
The girl who is standing there is a world champion in karate.
▪ or provide unnecessary, but interesting information (non-defining clause).
Michael Jackson, who was a famous singer, died of an overdose.
So, there are two main types of adjective clauses restrictive (defining) and nonrestrictive
(non-defining).
Restrictive Adjective Clauses
Restrictive (identifying or defining) adjective (relative) clauses give detailed necessary
information.
• An older person who dresses like a teenager is often an object of ridicule.
Here, the adjective clause restricts or limits the meaning of the noun it modifies (An older
person).
1. Restrictive Adjective Clauses are not put between commas.
• I know the man who is standing there.
2. These clauses are often used in definitions.
• A novelist is someone who writes novels.
3. Object pronouns in these clauses can be omitted (dropped.)
• The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is from New York.
Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses
Non- restrictive (non-identifying or non- defining) adjective clauses give interesting
additional information which is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. These clauses
are put between commas.
Example:
• Martin Luther king, who was known for his fight for the civil rights, was assassinated
in 1968.
Adjective (Relative) clauses can be introduced by:
1. A relative pronoun: who, whom, which, that, whose.
 • The man who is standing there is a famous writer.
2. A relative adverb: where, why and when.
• The restaurant where I have dinner is nice. Where -referring to a place.
• There are times when I feel so lonely. When - referring to a time.
• This is the reason why she refused the offer. Why -referring to a reason.
3 None of them.
• The man I met is extremely wealthy.
I-First identify whether the relative clause is defining or non-defining. Next, place
commas in the appropriate place if the sentence contains a non-defining relative clause.
1. The sun which shines on us every day is still largely misunderstood.
2. I bought the book which had the red cover.
3. Peter whose sister works at the supermarket loves to drive old-fashioned cars.
4. The grammar which we are studying is very boring.
5. She drives the car which is parked behind the building.
6. Antonio who comes from Florence is a renaissance man.
II- Identify the type of the following clauses and their functions in the sentence:
1 Do you remember the place where we caught the train?
2 Do you remember where we caught the train?
3 England won the World Cup in 1966. It was the year we got married.
Department of English Studies Grammar S3 lesson 10
2020-2021 Profs. Derraz & Diyen

Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that, like an adverb, modifies an adjective, an adverb,
or a verb. An adverb clause begins with words such as after, although, because, before, if, since,
than, until, when, and while.
1-Keiko’s report was the best because she did the most research. (. Because she did the most
research is an adverb clause. It contains the subject she and the verb did. The clause modifies
the adjective best.))
2-The dancers are going to practice in the studio now while they have the chance.
(While they have the chance is an adverb clause. It contains the subject they and the verb have.
The clause modifies the adverb now.)
3-After Terry bought his new boat, he took us for a ride on the lake. (After Terry bought his
new boat is an adverb clause. It contains the subject Terry and the verb bought. The clause
modifies the verb took.)
Specifically, an adverb clause is a modifier that modifies the independent clause.
Types of Adverb Clauses
Adverb clauses are very useful in sentences, and there are many types that express different
things: location, time, reason, condition, degree/comparison, concession, and manner, among
others. Here is a chart to help you understand the different types of adverb clauses.

Type of adverb Common What does it do? Example (bold

clause subordinating What does it clauses)
Conjunctions answer?
Location Where, wherever, Shows place, The rabbit can go
anywhere answering anywhere he wants.
‘where’?

Time After, until, before, Shows time You can’t have ice
by the time, since, Answering cream until you have
when, while, as long ‘when’? your dinner.
as, as soon as
Reason Since, because, as Answering ‘why’? My father won’t eat
cotton candy because
he doesn’t like it.
 Purpose that,so that, in order Answering ‘’for She worked hard so
that, and lest. what purpose? that she might pass
the test.

Condition Usually begins with if Answers If the boy has a

or until conditions that burger, he will not
need to exist for want to eat carrots
something to
happen
Degree/comparison As as, more than/ Answers ‘to what Ants love candy as
less than, than extent’? Or much as humans do.
compares two
things.
Concession While, though, even Gives contrasting While I used to love
though, even if statements candy, I don’t like it
although, anymore.
Manner as, like Answers ‘how’? The rabbit is eating
those carrots like he
has never been fed
A Identify the type of the following adverb clauses.
1. While she was cooking, I came in.
2. I will go wherever you go.
3. The man was talking as if she was the leader of the group.
4. She may not be charged to court since she has returned the stolen funds.
5. Whether she likes it or not, she must complete her education in Nigeria.
6. While she cannot speak French, she likes visiting Francophone countries.
7. You need to shed off some weight lest you should become obese.
B Identify the type of the adverb clause and its function in the following sentences.
1. He ran incredibly quickly as if he were a flash of lightning.
2. The crowd could become wild if Manchester United don‘t score a goal.
3. Everybody rushed to help when the elderly woman fell down
Department of English Studies Grammar S3 lesson 11
2020-2021 Derraz &Diyen

Types of sentences

A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a
full-stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark. The sentence is generally defined as a word or a
group of words that expresses a complete thought by giving a statement/order, or asking a question, or
exclaiming.

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence is composed of a single independent clause with a subject and a verb that expresses
a complete thought or idea and can stand on its own A simple sentence is not necessarily short in order
to be considered simple.Simple sentences can consist only of one word.

• Go! Stop! …

• Jane drank her morning coffee. (Jane = subject, drank = verb)

• Megan and Ron ate too much and felt sick. ( Megan and Ron=compound subjects, ate and
felt=compound verbs)
Compound Sentences

A compound sentence has two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinator (for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, so).

• Christine drank her morning coffee, and then she showered and dressed.
• They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in English.
Notice the first clause and the second one can stand alone as independent sentences.

Independent clauses can also be joined with a semicolon (;)

• I went to the market; I forgot to buy milk.

Independent clauses can be joined by a semicolon and a transitional word or phrase. Such transitional
words must be followed by a comma. (The common transitional words of this type are accordingly,
consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore.)
 Complex sentences

A complex sentence is a sentence that combines one independent clause with at least one dependent
clause with subordinating conjunctions or subordinators.. An independent clause forms a complete
thought. A dependent clause, also called a subordinating clause, does not form a complete thought and
is dependent upon an independent clause for meaning. Subordinators are conjunctions that indicate the
subordinate or dependent role of the clause in the sentence.The following words are some examples of
subordinating conjunctions: although, because, since, unless, when, whereas, which while, who,
whoever, whose, etc.

• Although Denise had some doubts, she found the courses very useful.
The above example is a complex sentence: it has a dependent clause (a subordinator + a subject 'Denise'
+ a verb 'had'), followed by an independent clause (subject 'she' and a verb 'found') and forms a complete
thought.

• Computers have progressed since they first came on the market.

This example begins with an independent clause that forms a complete thought, followed by a dependent
clause.

Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence is comprised of at least two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses. Example:

• Although he was exhausted, John cooked dinner for his mother, and he cleaned the kitchen.
• Laura forgot her friend's birthday, so she sent her a card when she finally remembered.

Exercises: I-Identify the following as S=Simple, Com=Compound, CX=Complex, or

CC=Compound-Complex

1-The summer has been extremely hot, but I think it’s getting cooler now.

2-Because my car has no air conditioning, I’ve been taking the bus.

3-When winter comes, we’ll all be complaining about the cold, and with my luck, my heater will break.

4-I would really love to buy a new car, maybe a Hybrid.

5-In the next five years, I will have enough money to pay off my debt.

6-Fred was concerned about his daughter’s cough; however, it turned out to be nothing serious.

7-Her alarm didn’t go off this morning because she set it for P.M. instead of A.M.