Scientific Research

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Definitions of Research
• Research is :
A logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a
particular topic. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and
social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search
for knowledge.
A systematic investigation to increase knowledge and understanding.

A systematic, rigorous investigation of a situation or problem in order

to generate new knowledge or validate existing knowledge.

A process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to

answer questions

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 Objectives Of Research
Purpose of research
The purpose of research is to generate new knowledge.
New knowledge enables us to better manipulate, use and manage the
environment to our advantage.

The prime objectives of research are

(1) to discover new facts

(2) to verify and test important facts
(3) to analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the
cause and effect relationship
(4) to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve
and understand scientific and nonscientific problems
(5) to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems
(6) to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day
life.
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 Motivations of Research
Some of the motivation factors for some one to undertake research are:

(1) To get a research degree (Master of science(M.Sc.) or Doctor of

Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like better employment,
promotion, increment in salary, etc.
(2) To get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college
or university or become a scientist in a research institution
(3) To solve the unsolved and challenging problems
(4) To get joy of doing some creative work
(5) To acquire respectability
(6) To get recognition
(7) Curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event
(8) Curiosity to find new things
(9) To serve the society by solving social problems.

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 Importance of Research
Some important avenues of research are:

(1) A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a

scientific community or an industry or a government organization or a
society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It
calls for a thorough understanding and possible solution.
(2) Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range
and applications of them.
(3) It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guidelines for solving
problems.
(4) Research provides basis for many government policies. For example,
research on the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of
revenues to meet the needs helps a government to prepare a budget.
(5) It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity
and to improve the quality of products.

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 Importance of Research, Contd.
6) Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes
the problems in them.
(7) It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new
living things, new stars, etc.
(8) Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and
novel phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and cloning
have been discovered only through research.
(9) Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain
social phenomena and seek solution to social problems.
(10) Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and
glorious.

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 Characteristics of Research

When you say that you are undertaking a research study to

find answers to a question, you are implying that the process;
1. Is being undertaken within a framework of a set of
philosophies ( approaches);
2. Uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been
tested for their validity and reliability;
3. Is designed to be unbiased and objective .
4. Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an
outcome. The concept of control implies that, in exploring
causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your
study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors
affecting the relationship.

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 Characteristics of Research

5. Rigorous- Procedures followed to find answers to a

problem must be relevant, appropriate and justifiable.
Researcher needs to be very careful about this.

6. Systematic- this implies that the procedure adopted to

undertake an investigation follow a certain logical
sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a
haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

7. Valid and verifiable- this concept implies that whatever

you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and
can be verified by you and others.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH “ Contd.”

8.Empirical- this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon
hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life
experiences or observations.

9. Procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a

research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof
and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures
used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the

above characteristics.

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 Classification of Research
Researches can be classified in many different ways. For example, some
researchers distinguish between quantitative and qualitative studies; others
distinguish between experimental and non– experimental research; still others
distinguish between research that is conducted in laboratories versus in the
field . Obviously, there are many ways to categorize research methods.
However, there also is much overlap in such categorizations. For example, a
“non-experimental” study can be either quantitative or qualitative; an
experimental study can include some qualitative components :
Gay (1987) cites different types of research under two major groups:

Classification of Research by Purpose

Basic research , Applied research, Evaluation research, Research and development,
Action research

Classification of Research by Method

Historical research, Descriptive research, Correlation research, Causal-comparative
research , Experimental research

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 Classification of Research
Classification by Classification by Classification by
Method Approach Purpose

Historical Research Qualitative Research Basic Research

Descriptive Research Quantitative Research Applied Research

Correlation Research Evaluation Research

Note: Classification of Research by

Casual-Comparative Research &
Research purpose is based on the degree to Development
which findings have direct
application and the degree to which
Experimental they are generalizable to other Action Research
Research
situations.
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 BROAD CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH TYPES

There are two broad categories of research:

1- BASIC RESEARCH ( or fundamental Research)

2- APPLIED RESEARCH.

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 What is Basic Research?
• Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which
may not lead to immediate use or application; though are the
foundations of modern progress and development in different fields.
• Basic research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways
of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or
explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most common.
• Basic Research It involves the process of collecting and analyzing
data/information to develop or enhance theory.
• Basic Research (sometimes pure research) is research carried out
to increase understanding of fundamental principles.
•Basic Research Today's computers could not exist without the pure
research in mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which
there was no known practical application at that time.
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 What is Basic Research?
• It is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for
occurrence of a particular event or process or phenomenon.
• The outcomes of basic research (theoretical or pure) form the
basis for many applied research.
Features of basic research:
• Seeks generalization.
• Aims at basic processes.
• Attempts to explain why things happen.
• Tries to get all the facts.
• Reports in technical language of the topic.

Fundamental research leads to a new theory or a new property

of matter or even the existence of a new matter, the knowledge
of which has not been known or reported earlier.
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 What is Applied Research?
What is a good definition of Applied Research?
• Wikipedia – “involves the practical application of science”;
“deals with solving practical problems”; and “resides in the
messy real world”.
• “Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of
the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for
knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied
research is to improve the human condition ”.
• Applied research is: “any fact gathering project that is
conducted with an eye to acquiring and applying knowledge
that will address a specific problem or meet a specific need”.
•A research, the outcome of which has immediate application.
• Applied research is concerned with actual life research such as
research on increasing efficiency of a machine, increasing gain
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 What is Applied Research?
factor of production of a material, pollution control, preparing
vaccination for a disease, etc. (they have immediate potential
applications).
• In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well
known and accepted theories and principles.
• Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter-
disciplinary research are essentially applied research.

Features of applied research:

• Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to
generalize.
• Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference.
• Tries to say how things can be changed.
• Tries to correct the facts which are problematic.
• Reports in common language.
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 Kinds of
Basic and Applied Researches

 Basic and applied researches are generally of two kinds:

normal research and revolutionary research.

 basic and applied researches can be quantitative or

qualitative or even both.
.

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 An example…
• Basic research may involve the • Applied research may involve
discovery of a new rubber driving automobiles outfitted with
compound formulation for use in tires of the new rubber
automobile tires that is thought to formulation and evaluating the
improve durability and durability and performance – i.e.
performance in all seasons. measuring tread wear, stopping
The objective in Basic Research is to distance on ice …etc.
discover knowledge that may lead in
due course to development of the
products.
Applied Research Project Examples
• Parabolic solar trough – evaluate performance in cold climate.
• improve agricultural crop production.
• improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation.
• treat or cure a specific disease.
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 Classification of Research

Qualitative Research : is research dealing with phenomena that are

difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically , such as beliefs ,
meanings, attributers, feeling and describe the situation. Qualitative
researchers aim gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior
and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method
use of non-numeric techniques and investigates the why and how of
decision making, not just what, where, when. In this type of
research, the participants are able to provide data in their own words
and in their own way. However, it is more difficult to determine the
validity and reliability of linguistic data. Qualitative researcher is
exploratory. And its data cannot be graphed.

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 Classification of Research
Quantitative Research : is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. its result is essentially a number or a set of numbers. It refers
to the systematic empirical investigation of any phenomena via
statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective
of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical
models , theories and/ or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena
Quantitative researche is generally made using scientific methods
and can be displayed as charts, tables, and graphs. Which can
include: the generation of models , theories and hypotheses ,
measurements , manipulation of variables , collection of empirical
data, and analysis of data. The researcher in this type of research, is
more objective about the findings of the research.
-It investigates the what, where and when of decision making

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 Classification of Research
Descriptive vs Analytic Research
Descriptive(statistical) Research the attempt to determine, describe,
or identify something. Provides an accurate portrayal of
characteristics of a particular individual situation, or groups. These
studies are a means of discovering new meaning describing what
exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and
categorizing information. The main characteristic of this method is
that the researcher has no control over variables, he can only report
what has happened
For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the
children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do
to prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy life.,
Analytic Research the attempt to establish why something occurs or
how it came to be. It uses facts or information already available, and
analyze them to make critical evaluation Of the material
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 Classification of Research

Experimental vs. Non-experimental

Experimental research: In its simplest form, experimental research
involves comparing two groups on one outcome measure to test
some hypothesis regarding causation.
For example, if a researcher is interested in the effects of a new
medication on headaches, the researcher would randomly divide a
group of people with headaches into two groups. One of the groups,
the experimental group, would receive the new medication being
tested. The other group, the control group, would receive a placebo
medication (i.e., a medication containing a harmless substance,
such as sugar, that has no physiological effects). Besides receiving
the different medications, the groups would be treated exactly the
same so that the research could isolate the effects of the
medications. After receiving the medications, both groups would be
compared to see whether people in the experimental group had
fewer headaches than people in the control group.

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 Classification of Research

Longitudinal vs. Cross-sectional Research :

longitudinal study: researchers collect data on the same individuals
over a number of different time periods or “waves.”. For example,
the same group of students might complete study assessments at the
end of first grade, second grade, third grade, and fourth grade.
Researchers can then examine changes in student data across those
four years.
Cross-sectional study : researchers collect data on individuals, at the
same time. For example, data are collected for many students, at one
time interval only. Then the researcher can compare the results of
students in these four different grades and try to draw some
conclusions about developmental differences.

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 Classification of Research

Correlation Research: Researchers who engage in correlation

research do not manipulate variables; rather, they collect data on
existing variables and examine relations between those variables.
A number of different statistical techniques can be used to analyze
correlation data. For example:

(1) test the hypothesis “listening to music lowers blood pressure

levels”
(2) a researcher may be interested in determining whether age is
related to weight. A researcher may discover that one variable
allows to make a prediction about the other variable
(3) an examination of the statistical relations between middle school
students' standardized examination scores in mathematics, and
the students' demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, etc.)...
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 Other Types of Research

a) Action research (fact findings to improve the quality of action in

the social world)
b) Exploratory research is undertaken when few or no previous
studies exist. The aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or ideas
that can be tested and will form the basis for further research.
Typical research techniques would include case studies,
observation and reviews of previous related studies and data.

c) Comparative research (obtaining similarities and differences

between events, methods, techniques, etc.).

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Descriptive research
• Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the elements
or characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of days lost because of
industrial action. Quantitative techniques are most often used to
collect, analyse and summarise data.
Analytical research
• Analytical research often extends the Descriptive approach to suggest
or explain why or how something is happening, e.g. underlying causes
of industrial action. An important feature of this type of research is in
locating and identifying the different factors (or variables) involved.
Predictive research
• The aim of Predictive research is to speculate intelligently on future
possibilities, based on close analysis of available evidence of cause and
effect, e.g. predicting when and where future industrial action might
take place

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 Research process.

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