Course Title

IEQ-303 Earthquake Geology and Geoinformatics

(Dept. of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee)

Geographic Information Systems (G I S)

Computerization has opened a vast new potential in the way we can communicate,
analyze our surroundings, and make decisions. Data representing the real world can be
stored and processed so that they can be presented later in simplified forms to suit specific
needs. Many of our decisions depend on the details of our immediate surroundings and
require information about specific places on the Earth’s surface. Such information is called
geographical because it helps us to distinguish one place from another and to make
decisions for one place that are appropriate for that location. Geographical information
allows us to apply general principles to the specific conditions of each location, allows us
to track what is happening at any place, and helps us to understand how one place differs
from another. Geographical information, then, is essential for effective planning and
decision making in the modern society.

G I S--What is it?
Geographic/Geospatial Information
– information about places on the earth’s surface
– knowledge about “what is where when”
– Geographic/geospatial: synonymous
GIS--what’s in the S?
– Systems: the technology
– Science: the concepts and theory
– Studies: the societal context

Geographic Information Technologies

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

– a system of earth-orbiting satellites which can provide precise (100 meter to
sub-cm.) location on the earth’s surface (in lat/long coordinates or equiv.)
Remote Sensing (RS)
– use of satellites or aircraft to capture information about the earth’s surface
– Digital ortho images a key product (map accurate digital photos)
Geographic Information Systems (GISy)
– Software systems with capability for input, storage, manipulation/analysis
and output/display of geographic (spatial) information. GPS, RS & maps
are sources of input data for a GISy.

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GIS is a way to model our world!

Events
Zoning
Streets
Utilities
Ownership
Natural Resources

Real World

Defining Geographic Information Systems

The common ground between information processing and the many fields using spatial
analysis techniques. (Tomlinson, 1972)

A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving, transforming, and displaying
spatial data from the real world. (Burroughs, 1986)

A computerised database management system for the capture, storage, retrieval,

analysis and display of spatial (locationally defined) data. (NCGIA, 1987)

A decision support system involving the integration of spatially referenced data in a

problem solving environment. (Cowen, 1988)

Representing Data with Vector Models

Vector Model

The fundamental concept of vector GIS is that all geographic features in the real world
can be represented either as:

Points or Dots (nodes): Points are the fundamental and simplest form of geographical
objects and are zero-dimensional because they have no extension. Each point is
represented by a coordinate pair. Example : trees, poles, tube wells, earthquakes.
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 Lines (arcs) : Lines linked together with line segments. A line has two points as a
boundary; a start point and an end point. Lines are one-dimensional, as they stretch in
only one direction. Mathematically, a vector is straight line having both magnitude and
direction. streams, streets, sewers, pipe line, electrical line.

Areas (polygons): An area is represented by a single line that encloses a space, thus
forming a closed polygon. The surrounding line, called a ring, has to start and end at
the same point in order for the area to be closed and defined. Areas are two-
dimensional because they stretch in two dimensions. Example: land parcels, cities,
counties, forest, rock type, water body.

Spaghetti Model

Spaghetti data are a collection of points and lines with no real connection.

What appears as a long, continuous line on the map or in the terrain may consist of
several line segments that are to be found in odd places in the data file.

There are no specific points that designate where lines might cross, nor are there any
details of logical relationships between objects.

Polygons are represented by their circumscribing boundaries, so that common

boundaries between adjacent polygons are registered twice.

Topology Model

The topology model is one in which the connections and relationships between objects
are described independent of their coordinates.

Their topology remains fixed as geometry is stretched and bent.

The topology model overcomes the major weakness of the spaghetti model, which
lacks the relationships requisite to many GIS manipulations and presentation.

The topology model employs nodes and links.

A node can be a point where two lines intersect, an endpoint on a line, or a given point
on a line. For example intersection of two roads.

A link is a segment of a line between two nodes. Links have a start node and an end
node and therefore have a direction in a topology model. Several links can share a
node, and a collection of such links and nodes is known as a network.

Representing Data with Raster Models

Raster Model

Area is covered by grid with (usually) equal-sized, square cells.

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 The raster model represents reality through selected surfaces arranged in a regular
pattern.

Reality is thus generalized in terms of uniform, regular cells, which are usually
rectangular or square but may be triangular or hexagonal.

The raster model is in many ways a mathematical model, as represented by the regular
cell pattern.

Raster models are created by assigning real-world values to pixels.

Attributes are recorded by assigning each cell a single value based on the majority
feature (attribute) in the cell, such as land use type.

Image data is a special case of raster data in which the “attribute” is a reflectance value
from the geomagnetic spectrum
Cells in image data often called pixels (picture elements)
Raster models are created by assigning real-world values to pixels.
The assigned values comprise the attributes of the objects. Values are assigned
to all the pixels in a raster.

Concept of Vector and Raster

Real World

Raster Representation Vector Representation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 R T
1 R T
2 H R
3 R
4 R R point
5 R
6
7
R
R
T
T
T
T
H line
8 R
9 R

polygon

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Vector and Raster

Vector Raster
Point = Position, no area Point = 1 cell

Line = Length, no width Line = Multiple cell joined at edges or

corners usually with only 1 or 2
neighbors.
Polygon = Area and Perimeter Polygon = Group of contiguous cells
joined at edges or corners

Vector Structure – Advantages

Good representation of the landscape being mapped.

Topology (geometrical relationships between spatial objects viz. points, lines, areas)
can be completely described, including network linkages.

Great looking graphics.

Generalization of graphics is possible while still maintaining the great look.

Raster Structure - Advantages

Overlaying maps is easy and perfect.

Integration of remotely sensed images is straight forward.

A huge variety of complex spatial analyses are supported.

Software is generally cheaper and easier to learn compared to vector GIS.

Terrain Surface Representation

The digital representation of a terrain surface is called either a Digital Terrain Model
(DTM) or a Digital Elevation Model (DEM).

GRID model

A systematic grid, or raster, of spot heights at fixed mutual spaces is often used to
describe terrain.
Elevation is assumed constant within each cell of grid i.e. the area represented by each
cell is shown as a flat area in the model

Thus small cells detail terrain more accurately than large cells.

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The grid model is most suitable for describing random variations in terrain, whereas
the systematic linear structures can easily disappear or be deformed.

Elevations values are stored in a matrix, and the contiguity between points is thus
expressed through the column and line numbers.

Different interpolation techniques are used to generate an elevation grid from source
data such as points, contour lines, and break lines.

When elevation data are organized in a grid structure, the matrix will give direct access
to neighboring cells.

Thus, the interpolation of the z value to the new x and y points is quite simple based on
linear interpolation.

GRID Method: Digital terrain models describe

the terrain numerically in the form of x, y and
z coordinates. Graphic presentation can be
either in the form of a grid or as profile.

TIN model

An area model is an array of triangular areas with their corners stationed at selected
points of most importance, for which the elevations are known.

The inclination of the terrain is assumed to be constant within each triangle.

The areas of the triangles may vary, with the smallest representing those areas in
which the terrain varies most.

The resulting model is called the Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN).

To construct a TIN, all measured points are built and the model thus represents lines of
slope sides, single points, and random variations in the terrain.

In the TIN model, the x-y-z coordinates of all points, as well as the triangle attributes
of inclination and direction, are stored.

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 The triangles are stored in a topological vector data storage structure comprising
polygons and nodes, thereby preserving the triangle’s contiguity, which eases the
calculation of z values for new points.

TIN method: The surface of the terrain can be

described as inclined triangular areas, starting
from points selected for their importance.

MAP - Key Terms

Map: a flat representation of a globe

This cannot be done without distortion, characteristic that is to be shown accurately at the
expense of others, or a compromise of several characteristics. There is literally an infinite
number of ways in which this can be done, and several hundred projections have been
published, most of which are rarely used.

Maps : Key Properties

Shape, Area (size), Distance, Direction

Map Projections

Map projections are used to transfer or

“project” geographical coordinates onto a
flat surface.
The easiest way to try to transfer the
information onto a flat surface is to convert
the geographic coordinates into an X and Y
coordinate system, where x is longitude
and y is latitude.
This is an example of “projecting” onto a
plane.

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 Projection: The system used to transfer locations from Earth’s surface to a flat
map.
– A projection of an image onto another surface
 either a cylinder, a flat plane or a cone
– 3 basic types of projections
– cylindrical projection
– conical projection
– azimuthal projection

A cylindrical
projection
usually
places the
earth inside
a cylinder
with the
equator
tangent or
secant to
the inside
of the
cylinder.

CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION used by navigators to show direction

and meteorological chart Meridians run north & south
Parallels run east & west

Cylindrical Maps are conformal maps

They conform to the correct shape

Examples are the Mercator projection. The U.S. Geological Survey uses a conformal
projection for many of its topographic maps.

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In a conic
Conical Projection
projection, a
cone is placed
over the
earth,
normally
tangent to
one or more
lines of
latitude.

Conical Projection used for Mid-Latitude Maps. Also referred to as equal area maps.

Example : Lambert Conformal Conic projection

Azimuthal Projection

An azimuthal or planar projection is usually tangent to a specific point on earth’s surface,

but may also be secant. This point, or focus, may be a pole, the equator, or other oblique
point.

The azimuthal projection is used for polar charts due to distortion at other latitudes.

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Advantages of GIS
– Exploring both geographical and thematic components of data in a holistic
way
– Stresses geographical aspects of a research question
– Allows handling and exploration of large volumes of data
– Allows integration of data from widely disparate sources
– Allows analysis of data to explicitly incorporate location
– Allows a wide variety of forms of visualisation
Limitations of GIS
– Data are expensive
– Learning curve on GIS software can be long
– Shows spatial relationships but does not provide absolute solutions
– Origins in the Earth sciences and computer science. Solutions may not be
appropriate for humanities research

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