Calculus I: Chapter I (continued)

Assoc. Prof. Pham Huu Anh Ngoc

Department of Mathematics
International university
Saigon, Vietnam
Email:[email protected]

2014
1.6 LIMITS
1.6.1 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

Calculus was created to describe how quantities change.

It is based on the fundamental concept of the limit of a function.

It is this idea of limit that distinguishes calculus from algebra, geometry,

and trigonometry, which are useful for describing static situations.
1.6.1 Limit of functions
sin x
Example 1: Consider the function f (x) = x , x 6= 0
1.6.1 Limit of functions
Example 2: Consider the function f (x) = x 2 − x + 2
1.6.1 Limit of functions

The limit of f (x) = x 2 − x + 2 as x approaches 2 equals 4.

1.6 LIMITS
1.6.1 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

Definition 6.1
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a

and say “the limit of f (x) as x approaches a equals L” if we can

make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we
like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but
not equal to a. We also say that f (x) approaches L or converges
to L as x approaches a.

An alternative notation for limx→a f (x) = L is

f (x) → L as x →a

which is usually read “f (x) approaches L as x approaches a”.

1.6 LIMITS
1.6.1 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

In defining the limit of f (x) as x approaches a, we never consider x = a.

The value f (a) itself, which may or may not be defined, play no role in
the limit.

Example 6.2
(a) limx→a x = a
(b) limx→a c = c (where c is a constant).
 x−1
Example 6.3 Investigate limx→1 x 2 −1 .
 x−1
Example 6.3 Investigate limx→1 x 2 −1 .

Thus,
x−1
limx→1 x 2 −1 = 12 .
1.6 LIMITS
1.6.2 ONE-SIDED LIMITS

The limit we have discussed so far are two-sided.

In some instances, f (x) may approach L from one side of a without
necessarily approaching it from the other side, or f (x) may be defined on
only one side of a.

Example 6.4 The Heaviside function H is defined by

(
0 if t < 0
H(t) =
1 if t ≥ 0

As t approaches 0 from the left, H(t) approaches 0. As t approaches 0

from the right, H(t) approaches 1. There is no single number that H(t)
approaches as t approaches 0. Therefore, limt→0 H(t) does not exist.
 (
0 if t < 0
H(t) =
1 if t ≥ 0

Thus, limt→0 H(t) does not exist.

1.6 LIMITS
1.6.2 ONE-SIDED LIMITS

Definition 6.2
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−

and say “the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the

limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left) equals L” if we
can make the values of f (x) as close to L as we want by taking x to
be sufficiently close to a and x less than a. We also say that f (x)
has left limit L at x = a.
1.6 LIMITS
1.6.2 ONE-SIDED LIMITS

Definition 6.2
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−

and say “the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the

limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left) equals L” if we
can make the values of f (x) as close to L as we want by taking x to
be sufficiently close to a and x less than a. We also say that f (x)
has left limit L at x = a.

Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get “the right-hand

limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L” (or f (x) has right limit
L at x = a), and we write

lim f (x) = L.
x→a+
ONE-SIDED LIMITS
1.6 LIMITS
1.6.2 ONE-SIDED LIMITS

Theorem 6.1
A function f (x) has limit L at x = a if and only if it has both left
and right limits there and these one-sided limits are both equal to L:

lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L.

x→a x→a x→a
1.6 LIMITS
1.6.2 ONE-SIDED LIMITS

Theorem 6.1
A function f (x) has limit L at x = a if and only if it has both left
and right limits there and these one-sided limits are both equal to L:

lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L.

x→a x→a x→a

Since
limx→2− f (x) = limx→2+ f (x) = 4, it follows that limx→2 f (x) = 4
Thus, limx→2+ f (x) = limx→2− f (x) = 4 = limx→2 f (x)
1.6 LIMITS
1.6.2 ONE-SIDED LIMITS

Example 6.5 If
|x − 2|
f (x) = ,
x2 + x − 6
find limx→2+ f (x), limx→2− f (x), and limx→2 f (x).

If f (x) = g (x) when x 6= a, then limx→a f (x) = limx→a g (x),

provided the limits exist.

√
Question What limits does g (x) = 1 − x 2 have at x = −1 and
x = 1?
1.7 LAWS OF LIMITS. EVALUATING LIMITS
1.7.1 LAWS OF LIMITS

In this section, we will use the limit laws to calculate limits.

Theorem 7.1
Suppose that c is a constant and the limits limx→a f (x) and
limx→a g (x) exist. Then
 
1. limx→a f (x) + g (x) = limx→a f (x) + limx→a g (x)
 
2. limx→a f (x) − g (x) = limx→a f (x) − limx→a g (x)
 
3. limx→a cf (x) = c limx→a f (x)
 
4. limx→a f (x)g (x) = limx→a f (x) · limx→a g (x)
f (x) limx→a f (x)
5. limx→a g (x) = limx→a g (x) if limx→a g (x) 6= 0.
1.7 LAWS OF LIMITS. EVALUATING LIMITS
1.7.1 LAWS OF LIMITS

 h in
6. limx→a f (x)]n = limx→a f (x) ,
where n is a positive integer.
p p
7. limx→a n f (x) = n limx→a f (x),
where n is a positive integer.

The Limit Laws also hold for one-sided limits.

Example 7.1 Find √

t2 + 9 − 3
lim .
t→0 t2
1.7 LAWS OF LIMITS. EVALUATING LIMITS
1.7.2 THE SQUEEZE THEOREM

Theorem 7.2
If f (x) ≤ g (x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the limits
of f and g both exist as x approaches a, then

lim f (x) ≤ lim g (x).

x→a x→a

Theorem 7.3 (The Squeeze Theorem)

If f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and
limx→a f (x) = limx→a h(x) = L, then

lim g (x) = L.
x→a
1.7 LAWS OF LIMITS. EVALUATING LIMITS
1.7.2 THE SQUEEZE THEOREM

Theorem 7.2
If f (x) ≤ g (x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the limits
of f and g both exist as x approaches a, then

lim f (x) ≤ lim g (x).

x→a x→a

Theorem 7.3 (The Squeeze Theorem)

If f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and
limx→a f (x) = limx→a h(x) = L, then

lim g (x) = L.
x→a

Similar statements hold for left and right limits.

The Squeeze Theorem is sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem or

the Pinching Theorem.
(The Squeeze Theorem)
(The Squeeze Theorem)

Corollary 7.1
If limx→a |f (x)| = 0, then limx→a f (x) = 0.
1.7.2 THE SQUEEZE THEOREM

Example 7.2 Show that limx→0 x 2 sin x1 = 0.

Theorem 7.4
If θ is measured in radians, then

sin θ
lim =1
θ→0 θ
Theorem 7.4
If θ is measured in radians, then

sin θ
lim =1
θ→0 θ

Proof: Note that

sin x
cos x < < 1,
x
for x close enough, but not equal to 0. By the squeeze theorem, we
have
sin θ
lim = 1.
θ→0 θ
Example: Consider the function
(
x 2 if x ∈ Q
f (x) =
0 if x 6∈ Q.

Show that limx→0 f (x) = 0 (Q is the set of all rational numbers).

Example: Consider the function
(
x 2 if x ∈ Q
f (x) =
0 if x 6∈ Q.

Show that limx→0 f (x) = 0 (Q is the set of all rational numbers).

Solution: Note that

0 ≤ f (x) ≤ x 2 , ∀x ∈ R.

It follows from the squeeze theorem that

lim f (x) = 0.
x→0
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY

Definition 8.1
A function f is continuous at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

If f is not continuous at a, we say that f is discontinuous at a, or

f has a discontinuity at a.

Notice that if f is continuous at a, then:

1. f (a) is defined, that is, a is in the domain of f ;
2. limx→a f (x) exists;
3. limx→a f (x) = f (a).
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY

The definition states that f is continuous at a if f (x) approaches f (a) as

x approaches a.

• Thus, a continuous function f has the property that a small change in

x produces only a small change in f (x).

• In fact, the change in f (x) can be kept as small as we please by

keeping the change in x sufficiently small.
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY

Definition 8.2
A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a+

and f is continuous from the left at a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a−
Example: (
0 if t < 0
H(t) =
1 if t ≥ 0

The Heaviside function H is right continuous at 0 but is not left

continuous there.
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY

Definition 8.3
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at
every number in the interval. If f is continuous at all points in its
domain, then f is simply called continuous.

Here, if f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we

understand continuous at the endpoint to mean “continuous from the
right” or “continuous from the left.”

√
Example 8.1 Show that the function f (x) = 1 − x 2 is continuous.
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY

Theorem 8.1
If f and g are continuous at a, and c is a constant, then the
following functions are also continuous at a:
(a) f ± g (b) cf
(c) fg (d) f /g if g (a) 6= 0.

Corollary 8.1
(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere, that is, it is
continuous on R = (−∞, ∞).
(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined-that is,
it is continuous on its domain.
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY

Example 8.2 Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

( 2
x −x−2
x−2 if x 6= 2
(a) f (x) =
1 if x = 2
(
1
x2 if x 6= 0
(b) g (x) =
1 if x = 0
(
x2 if x ≤ 0
(c) h(x) =
x +1 if x > 0

• The kind of discontinuity illustrated in part (a) is called

removable.
• The discontinuity in part (b) is called an infinite discontinuity.
• The discontinuities in part (c) are called jump discontinuities.
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY

Theorem 8.2
The following types of functions are continuous at every number in
their domains: Polynomials, Rational functions, Root functions,
Trigonometric functions.

Example 8.3 Where is the function

ln x + tan−1 x
f (x) =
x2 − 1
continuous?
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY

Theorem 8.3
If f is continuous

at b and limx→a g (x) = b, then
limx→a f g (x) = f (b). In other words,

 
lim f g (x) = f lim g (x) .
x→a x→a

Theorem 8.4
If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g (a), then

the
composite function f ◦ g given by (f ◦ g )(x) = f g (x) is
continuous at a.
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY

Theorem 8.5
If f is continuous on an interval I with range J and if the inverse
f −1 exists, then f −1 is continuous on the domain J.

Example:

Consider the function f (x) := sin x, x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ].

Then, we already know that

π π
f −1 := sin−1 x : [−1, 1] → [− , ].
2 2

Since f is continuous on [− π2 , π2 ] and the range of f is [−1, 1],

f −1 := sin−1 x is continuous on [−1, 1].
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

Theorem 8.6 (The Intermediate Value Theorem)

A function f that is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] takes on
every value between f (a) and f (b).

A point c where f (c) = 0 is called a zero or root of f .

Corollary 8.2 (Existence of Zeros)

If f is continuous on [a, b] and if f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs,
that is, f (a)f (b) < 0, then f has a zero in (a, b).

Example 8.4 Show that the equation x 3 − x − 1 = 0 has a solution in

the interval [1, 2].
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.1 INFINITE LIMITS

Definition 9.1
Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a
itself. Then,
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large-as large
as we please-by taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.

Another notation for limx→a f (x) = ∞ is:

f (x) → ∞ as x → a.
Example:

1
limx→0 x2 =∞
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.1 INFINITE LIMITS

Definition 9.2
Let f be defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. Then,

lim f (x) = −∞
x→a

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large negative
by taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided limits:

lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞

x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→a− x→a+
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.1 INFINITE LIMITS

• “x → a− ” means that we consider only values of x that are less than a.

•“x → a+ ” means that we consider only values of x that are greater than
a.

• Keep in mind that ∞ and −∞ are not numbers.

1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.1 INFINITE LIMITS

Example 9.1 Find the vertical asymptotes of

(a) f (x) = ln x (b) g (x) = tan x.
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.2 FINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY
Now we investigate limits at infinity, where x becomes arbitrarily large,
positive or negative.

Definition 9.3
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then,
lim f (x) = L
x→∞

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by

taking x sufficiently large.
Another notation for limx→∞ f (x) = L is
f (x) → L as x → ∞.
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.2 FINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY
x 2 −1
Example: limx→∞ x 2 +1 =1
Definition 9.4
Let f be a function defined on some interval (−∞, a). Then,

lim f (x) = L
x→−∞

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by

taking x sufficiently large negative.
f (x) → L as x → ∞.
Definition 9.5
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L.

x→∞ x→−∞

• Most of the Limit Laws given in Section 1.7 also hold for limits at
infinity.
Example:
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.2 FINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY

Example 9.2 If n is a positive integer, then

1
lim = 0.
x→±∞ xn

Example 9.3 Evaluate

20x 2 − 3x
lim .
x→±∞ 3x 5 − 4x 2 + 5

Example 9.4 Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph
of the function √
2x 2 + 1
f (x) = .
3x − 5
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.2 FINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY

Theorem 9.1
The limits
 1 x  1 x
lim 1+ and lim 1+
x→−∞ x x→∞ x
exist and equal. This value is called the number e.

Thus we have
1
lim (1 + t) t = e
t→0

ln(1 + t)
lim =1
t→0 t
and
eu − 1
lim =1
u→0 u
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.3 INFINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY

The notation
lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞

is used to indicate that the values of f (x) become large as x becomes

large.

Similar meanings are attached to the following symbols:

lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = −∞

x→∞ x→−∞ x→−∞
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.3 INFINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY

Example 9.5 If a > 1 then

lim ax = 0 and lim ax = ∞

x→−∞ x→∞

Example 9.6 Calculate

11x+2 −4x 3 +7x

(a) limx→±∞ x 3 −1 (b) limx→∞ 2x 2 −3x−10

−4x 3 +7x
(c) limx→−∞ 2x 2 −3x−10
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.3 INFINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY

Asymptotic Behavior of a Rational Function The asymptotic

behavior of a rational function depends only on the leading terms of
its numerator and denominator. Suppose an , bm 6= 0 and

an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a0
L = lim .
x→±∞ bm x m + bm−1 x m−1 + · · · + b0

• If m > n, then L = 0.

• If m = n, then L = an /bm .

• If m < n, then L = ±∞, depending on the signs of numerator and

denominator.
 Exercises and Assignments

Text book: J. Stewart, Calculus. Concepts and Contexts, 2nd, Thomson

Learning, 2001.

Pages Exercises Assignments

22–24 5, 6, 26, 35 , 40 7, 8, 18, 20, 27, 28 39
43, 48, 51

35–38 1, 10, 13 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 14

46–49 3, 7, 24, 32, 37 5, 23, 38, 40, 44, 53, 55

73–75 5, 20, 26, 11 6, 7, 22, 25, 28, 33

86-87 19, 23, 24

 Exercises and Assignments

Text book: J. Stewart, Calculus. Concepts and Contexts, 2nd, Thomson

Learning, 2001.

Pages Exercises Assignments

108-110 3, 6 5, 10

117-119 2, 15, 18, 26, 32, 36 7, 10, 20, 27, 28,

33, 35, 38, 43

128–130 3, 13, 24, 29, 37 4, 6, 7, 15, 16, 23, 30

31, 33, 38, 40, 46

139–142 2, 4, 24, 39, 41 3, 11, 19, 20, 23, 31, 34

37, 42