CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE

CELL
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of living organisms. Some organisms are
unicellular and some are multicellular.
 Robert Hook observed compartments of cork and coined the term ‘cell’, Anton Von
Leeuwenhoek first observed and described a living cell, Robert Brown discovered the
nucleus of a cell.

CELL THEORY
 Malthias Schleiden (1838) and Theodore Schwann (1839) studied plant and animal cells
respectively and proposed the cell theory.
 Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained Omnis cellula-e-cellula i.e. new cells are formed
from pre-existing cells.
 The postulates of the cell theory as understood today are:
i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
 Cells vary in size – Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells are only 0.3µm in length, bacteria
are 3 to 5 µm in length, an ostrich egg is the largest isolated single cell. Among
multicellular organisms human RBCs are about 7µm in diameter, nerve cells are the
longest.
 Cells vary in shape – they may be disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread-like or
irregular. Various cells may differ in structure according to their functions.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
  A proper nucleus, nuclear membrane and other membrane – bound organelles are absent
as in bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma, PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like
Organisms).
 Bacteria vary in shapes – four basic shapes are bacillus (rod like), coccus (spherical),
vibrio (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral).
 Generally smaller and multiply faster than the eukaryotic cells.
 Cell wall is present surrounding the cell membrane except in mycoplasma.
 The genetic material is a genomic DNA (the single chromosome/circular DNA). Many
Bacteria contain a small circular DNA called plasmid in the cytoplasm other than the
genomic DNA which has genes for unique phenotypic characters like antibiotic
resistance, sex-factor etc.

CELL ENVELOPE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

 The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three layered structure :
 the outermost glycocalyx which differs in composition and thickness among different
bacteria. It could be a loose sheath called slime layer in some bacteria and thick and
tough called capsule in others.
 the cell wall which determines shape and provides strong structural support to prevent
bursting or collapsing.
 the plasma membrane which is semi-permeable in nature and structurally similar to
eukaryotes.
 Gram stain or Gram staining, also called Gram's method, is a method of staining used to
distinguish and classify bacterial species into two large groups. The name comes from the
Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique.
 On the basis of difference in cell envelope and the manner of responding to Gram
staining procedure, bacteria can be Gram positive ( if retain the stain) or Gram negative
( if do not retain the stain). The cell walls for Gram-positive microorganisms have a
higher peptidoglycan and lower lipid content than Gram-negative bacteria.
 The different modifications of cell envelope are:

i) Mesosomes: Extensions of plasma membrane in the form of vesicles, tubules and

lamellae which help in

a) cell wall formation

b) DNA replication and distribution to daughter cells
c) respiration
d) secretion processes
e) increase of surface area of plasma membrane
f) increase of enzymatic content

ii) Chromatophores: Membranous extensions containing pigments as seen in

cyanobacteria.
iii) Flagella: Thin filamentous extensions from cell wall in motile bacteria. Number
and arrangement of flagella differ in different bacteria. Each flagellum has three
 parts- filament, hook and basal body. The filament is the longest portion that
extends from cell surface to the outside.
iv) Pili and Fimbriae: Pili and Fimbriae are interchangeable terms used to designate
short, hair-like structures on the surfaces of prokaryotic cells. They are composed
of protein named pilin. The primary function of these structures are to attach a
bacterial cell to specific surfaces or to other cells. Pili can also aid in attachment
between bacterial cells.

Ribosomes:
 In prokaryotes, ribosomes are attached to plasma membrane.
 15 nm to 20 nm in size.
 They are 70S type made up of two subunits- 50S and 30S.
 Act as sites of protein synthesis.
 Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called polyribosomes
or polysomes that translates mRNA into proteins.

Inclusion Bodies:

 These are non-membrane bound structures containing reserve materials that lie free in the
cytoplasm.
 Examples are phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules, glycogen granules etc.
 Gas vacuoles are found in cyanobacteria, purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 Extensive compartmentalization of cytoplasm through the presence of membrane bound
organelles.
 Organized nucleus with a nuclear envelope.
 Variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures.
 Genetic material organized into chromosomes.
 Examples: protists, plants and animal cells, fungi.
 Plant cells have cell wall, plastids and a large central vacuole which are absent in animal
cells. Animal cells have centrioles which are absent in almost all plant cells.
 A Plant Cell

An Animal Cell.

CELL MEMBRANE:
 Composed of lipid bilayer with associated proteins and carbohydrates.
 In the lipid bilayer, the polar hydrophilic heads of the lipids are arranged towards outside.
The non-polar hydrophobic tails of saturated hydrocarbons are located towards the inner
part to ensure protection from aqueous environment.
 The main lipid component is phosphoglycerides. The ratio of protein and lipid varies in
different cell types. Proteins are either peripheral if they lie on the membrane surface or
integral if they are partially or totally buried in the membrane.
  The membrane of human erythrocyte has approximately 52% proteins and 40% lipids .
 Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane was proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972.
 According to Fluid mosaic model, the quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral
movement of proteins within the overall bilayer, and the ability to move within the
membrane is measured as its fluidity.
 The fluid nature of the membrane enables functions such as cell growth, secretion,
endocytosis, cell division and formation of the intercellular junction.
 Role of Cell membrane in transport:

i) Selectively permeable to some molecules present on either side of it.

ii) Some molecules travel across the membrane without any requirement of energy.
This is called passive transport.
iii) Neutral solutes move by diffusion from higher to lower concentration. Water also
moves in similar way and the mode of transport is called osmosis.
iv) Polar molecules get transported through the non-polar lipid bilayer by the help of
carrier proteins.
v) A few ions or molecules are transported across the membrane from lower to
higher concentration by the utilization of energy (ATP). This is called active
transport, e.g., Na+/K+ pump.

Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell membrane.

CELL WALL
 A non-living rigid structure outer to the plasma membrane.
 Gives shape to the cell, protects the cell from mechanical damage and infection, helps in
cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules.
 Cell wall in algae is made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans and calcium carbonate. In
other plant cells it consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
 In young plant cells the primary wall is present and in matured cells secondary wall
develops inner to it.
 The middle lamella, a layer of mainly calcium pectate glues the neighbouring cells
together.
  The cell wall and middle lamella are traversed by plasmodesmata that connects the
cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
 Secondary walls may contain pits.

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
 Membranous organelles different in structure but functionally coordinated are together
called endomembrane system which includes endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex,
lysosomes and vacuoles.
 Mitochondria, chloroplasts and peroxisomes are not considered as endomembrane
system.

Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 It is a network of tiny tubular structures in cytoplasm. It divides the intracellular space
into luminal (inside ER) and extra luminal (cytoplasm) compartments.
 ER may be rough (RER) when ribosomes are attached to its surface or smooth (SER)
when ribosomes are absent.
 RER are continuous with the outer nuclear membrane. They are actively involved in
protein synthesis and secretion. SER synthesizes lipid and lipid-like steroidal hormones
in animal cells.

Golgi Apparatus:
 These were first observed by Camillo Golgi (1898) as densely stained reticular structures
near the nucleus which consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae of varied
number stacked parallel to each other.
 The concentrically arranged cisternae have two distinct faces- a convex forming or cis
face and a concave maturing or trans face. Both the faces are interconnected.
 It packages proteins and other materials coming from ER. They are taken in by the cis
face and released from the trans face as intra-cellular targets or extra-cellular secretions.
It is also the site for formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Lysosomes:
 These are single membrane bound vesicles formed by packaging in golgi apparatus.
 They are rich in almost all types of hydrolytic enzymes active at acidic pH. such as
lipases, proteases and carbohydrases. These enzymes can digest carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids and nucleic acids.

Vacuoles:
 It is a space in the cytoplasm covered by a single membrane called tonoplast. In plant
cells vacuoles occupy 90 percent of the cell volume.
 Tonoplast facilitates the transport of a number of ions and other materials against
concentration gradient into the vacuole and makes the vacuolar content hypertonic in
comparison to the cytoplasm.
 Different types of vacuoles are:
  Sap vacuoles found in plant cells that contain water, minerals, excretory materials etc.
 Contractile vacuoles found in unicellular organisms like Amoeba, Paramoecium etc. that
help in excretion and osmoregulation.
 Food vacuole in unicellular organisms like protists formed by engulfing of food materials
in which digestion occurs.

Endomembrane system

MITOCHONDRIA
 These are cylindrical structures, and their number varies with the physiological activity of
cells.
 They are bound by two membranes which divide the lumen into two distinct chambers.
The inner compartment is called matrix which possesses single circular DNA molecule, a
few RNA molecules, ribosomes (70S) and the components required for protein synthesis.
 The outer membrane is a continuous covering, the inner membrane has infoldings called
cristae. Cristae increase the surface area. Both the membranes have their own enzymes
associated with specific functions.
 Mitochondria produce energy in the form of ATP during cellular respiration, hence they
are called ‘power houses’ of a cell. They serve as the sites for aerobic respiration.
 They can produce their own proteins and can divide by fission, hence they are
semiautonomous organelles.
 Longitudinal section of mitochondrion

PLASTIDS
 These are large pigment bearing structures found in plant cells and euglenoids.
 Different types of plastids are:.
i) Chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments. They trap light energy
essential for photosynthesis.
ii) Chromoplasts which contain fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophylls
etc. They impart yellow, orange or red colour to plant parts.
iii) Leucoplasts do not contain pigments, hence are colourless. They store food. They are
named amyloplasts when store starch, elaioplasts when store oils and fats and
aleuroplasts when store proteins.
 Majority of Chloroplasts are found in mesophyll cells of the leaves. Their number varies
from 1 per cell (Chlamydomonas) to 20-40 per cell in mesophyll.
 These are double membrane-bound organelles. Inner membrane is less permeable and
limits a space called the stroma. Small membranous sacs called thylakoids are arranged in
stacks inside stroma. Each stack is called a granum (plural: grana).
 Flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connect the thylakoids of different
grana. The thylakoid membrane encloses a space called lumen.
 The stroma contains enzymes required for carbohydrate and protein synthesis, small
double-stranded circular DNA molecules and 70S ribosomes.
 Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids.

Sectional view of chloroplast

RIBOSOMES
 These are granular structures first observed by Goerge Palade (1953).
 They are composed of RNA and proteins and are not surrounded by any membrane.
 The measure of density and size of ribosomes are denoted by ‘S’ (Sedimentation
Coefficient). Ribosomes are 70S in prokaryotic cells and 80S in eukaryotic cells.
 Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two subunits, the
small ribosomal subunits, which read the RNA, and the large subunits, which join amino
acids specified by mRNA to form a polypeptide chain.

CYTOSKELETON
 It is an elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures in the cytoplasm
termed as microtubules or microfilaments.
 Cytoskeleton helps in mechanical support, motility and maintenance of the shape of the
cell.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

 These are hairlike outgrowths of cell membrane.
 Cilia are smaller than flagella. They cause movement of either the cell or the surrounding
fluid.
 Flagella are comparatively longer, help in cell movement. Both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells may possess flagella.
 Both flagella and cilia arise from basal bodies and have a core called axoneme which
refers to the 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules covered with plasma membrane. This
arrangement refers to the 9 fused pairs of microtubules (A and B) on the outside of a
cylinder, and the 2 unfused microtubules in the center enclosed by a central sheath.
 A bridge connects the 2 central tubules. The central sheath is connected to one of the
tubules of each peripheral doublets by a radial spoke. There are nine radial spokes.
 Permanently attached to the A tubule of each doublet microtubule is an inner and an outer
row of dynein arms. These dyneins reach out to the B tubule of the neighboring doublet.
 Linkers composed of the protein nexin, joins adjacent outer doublet microtubules.
 Section of cilia / flagella

CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES

 A centriole is a cylindrical organelle composed mainly of a protein
called tubulin. Centrioles are found in most eukaryotic cells.
 A pair of centrioles situated at right angles to each other surrounded by a shapeless mass
of dense material, called the pericentriolar material(PCM), makes up a structure called
a centrosome.
 Centrioles are typically made up of nine sets of short microtubule triplets, arranged in a
cylinder. The adjacent triplets are linked.
 The proteinaceous central part called hub is connected to the tubules of peripheral triplets
by radial spokes.
 Centrioles form basal bodies of cilia and flagella, and also form spindle fibres during
animal cell division.

Structure of centriole
NUCLEUS
 It was first described by Robert Brown as a cell organelle in 1831.
 Later, Flemming gave the name chromatin to the mterials of the nucleus stained by basic
dyes.
 The parts of nucleus seen during interphase are nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm,
nucleolus and chromatin reticulum.
 Normally there is one nucleus per cell, but some cells may have more than one.
 Human erythrocytes and sieve tube cells of angiosperms do not have nucleus.

Structure of nucleus

i) Nuclear Membrane: It is a double membrane structure with a 10 to 50 nm space in

between called perinuclear space. It forms a barrier between the cytoplasm and
nucleoplasm. However, RNA and protein molecules can move in and out of nucleus by
minute pores in nuclear membrane. The outer membrane usually is continuous with ER
and also bears ribosomes on it.
ii) Nucleoplasm: It is the nuclear matrix inside a nucleus which contains nucleolus and
chromatin reticulum.
iii) Nucleolus: It is a spherical structure present in nucleoplasm. The content is continuous
with the rest of nucleoplasm as it is not a membrane bound structure. It is a site for active
rRNA synthesis. Cells actively carrying out protein synthesis have larger and more
nucleoli.
iv) Chromatin reticulum: This a network of nucleoprotein fibres in the nucleoplasm.
Chromatin contains DNA, RNA, some basic proteins called histones and some non-
histone proteins.
v) During cell division chromatin condenses into individual rod-like structures called
chromosomes. Every chromosome has a primary constriction called centromere. On the
sides of a centromere disc shaped structures called kinetochores are present which help to
attach the chromosomes to spindle fibres during cell division.
vi) Based on the position of centromere, the chromosomes can be classified into four types:
a) Metacentric: Centromere at the middle forming two equal arms of the chromosome.
 b) Sub-metacentric: Centromere slightly away from the middle forming one shorter and one
longer arm.
c) Acrocentric: Centromere situated close to one end forming one extremely short and one
very long arm.
d) Telocentric: Centromere located at the terminal end of the chromosome.

Types of chromosome on the basis of position of centromere

vii) A few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location.

This gives the appearance of a small fragment called the satellite. Satellite bearing
chromosomes are called sat-chromosomes.

MICROBODIES
 These are spherical or oval vesicles bound by a single membrane, found in both plant and
animal cells.
 They contain various enzymes necessary for different metabolic pathways.
 Microbodies include peroxisomes, glyoxysomes, glycosomes, and hydrogenosomes. In
vertebrates, microbodies are especially prevalent in the liver and kidney organs.