Environment and Ecosystem

Module-3
Dr. Abhinav
 Introduction
Environment meaning
Environment can be defined as a sum total of all the living and non-living elements and their effects that influence human
life. While all living or biotic elements are animals, plants, forests, fisheries, and birds, non-living or abiotic elements
include water, land, sunlight, rocks, and air.

Environment functions

(1) Provides the supply of resources

• The environment offers resources for production.
• It includes both renewable and non-renewable resources.
• Examples: Wood for furniture, soil, land, etc.
(2) Sustains life
• The environment includes the sun, soil, water, and air, which are essential for human life.
• It sustains life by providing genetic and biodiversity.
(3) Assimilates waste
• Production and consumption activities generate waste.
• This occurs mostly in the form of garbage.
• The environment helps in getting rid of the garbage.
(4) Enhances the quality of life
• The environment enhances the quality of life.
• Human beings enjoy the beauty of nature that includes rivers, mountains, deserts, etc.
• These add to the quality of life.
3.1.1 Definition
• Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism.
• It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an
appreciation of our natural world and human impacts on its integrity.
• It is an applied science as it seeks practical answers to making human
civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite resources.
• Its components include biology, geology, chemistry, physics,
engineering, sociology, health, anthropology, economics, statistics,
computers and philosophy.
 3.1.2 Scope
• Everything around us forms our environment
and our lives depend on keeping its vital
systems as intact as possible.
• Our dependence on nature is so great that we
cannot continue to live without protecting the
earth’s environmental resources. Thus most
traditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother
Nature’ and most traditional societies have
learned that respecting nature is vital for their
livelihoods.
• Respect for nature and all living creatures is
not new to India.
• Over the past 200 years however, modern societies began to believe
that easy answers to the question of producing more resources could
be provided by means of technological innovations.

• For example, though growing more food by using fertilizers and

pesticides, developing better strains of domestic animals and crops,
irrigating farmland through mega dams and developing industry, led to
rapid economic growth, the ill effects of this type of development, led
to environmental degradation.
• The industrial development and intensive agriculture that provides the goods for
our increasingly consumer oriented society uses up large amounts of natural
resources such as water, minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc.

• Nonrenewable resources, such as minerals and oil are those which will be
exhausted in the future if we continue to extract these without a thought for
subsequent generations.
• Renewable resources, such as timber and water, are those which can be used but
can be regenerated by natural processes such as regrowth or rainfall. But these too
will be depleted if we continue to use them faster than nature can replace them.
• For example, if the removal of timber and firewood from a forest is faster than the
regrowth and regeneration of trees, it cannot replenish the supply. And loss of
forest cover not only depletes the forest of its resources, such as timber and other
non-wood products, but affect our water resources because an intact natural
forest acts like a sponge which holds water and releases it slowly. Deforestation
leads to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers once the rains are over.
• Such multiple effects on the environment resulting from routine
human activities must be appreciated by each one of us, if it is to
provide us with the resources we need in the long-term. Our natural
resources can be compared with money in a bank.

• If we use it rapidly, the capital will be reduced to zero. On the other

hand, if we use only the interest, it can sustain us over the longer term.
This is called sustainable utilisation or development.
3.1.3 Importance
• Environment is not a single subject. It is an integration of several
subjects that include both Science and Social Studies.

• To understand all the different aspects of our environment we need to

understand biology, chemistry, physics, geography, resource
management, economics and population issues.

• Thus the scope of environmental studies is extremely wide and covers

some aspects of nearly every major discipline.
• We live in a world in which natural resources are limited. Water, air, soil,
minerals, oil, the products we get from forests, grasslands, oceans and from
agriculture and livestock, are all a part of our life support systems. Without
them, life itself would be impossible.

• As we keep increasing in numbers and the quantity of resources, each of our

uses also increases, the earth’s resource base must inevitably shrink. The
earth cannot be expected to sustain this expanding level of utilization of
resources. Added to this is misuse of resources.

• We waste or pollute large amounts of nature’s clean water; we create more

and more material like plastic that we discard after a single use; and we
waste colossal amounts of food, which is discarded as garbage.
• Manufacturing processes create solid waste byproducts that are
discarded, as well as chemicals that flow out as liquid waste and
pollute water, and gases that pollute the air. Increasing amounts of
waste cannot be managed by natural processes.
• These accumulate in our environment, leading to a variety of diseases
and other adverse environmental impacts now seriously affecting all
our lives. Air pollution leads to respiratory diseases, water pollution to
gastro-intestinal diseases, and many pollutants are known to cause
cancer.
• Improving this situation will only happen if each of us begins to take
actions in our daily lives that will help preserve our environmental
resources.
• We cannot expect Governments alone to manage the safeguarding of
the environment, nor can we expect other people to prevent
environmental damage. We need to do it ourselves.
• It is a responsibility that each of us must take on as ones own.
• Productive value of nature: As scientists make new advances in
fields such as biotechnology we begin to understand that the world’s
species contain an incredible and uncountable number of complex
chemicals.
• These are the raw materials that are used for developing new
medicines and industrial products and are a storehouse from which to
develop thousands of new products in the future. The flowering plants
and insects that form the most species-rich groups of living organisms
are thus vital for the future development of man. If we degrade their
habitat these species will become extinct.
• Thus the urgent need to protect all living species is a concept that we
need to understand and act upon. While individually, we perhaps
cannot directly prevent the extinction of a species, creating a strong
public opinion to protect the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries
in which wild species live is an importance aspect of sustainable
living.
• There is a close link between agriculture and the forest, which
illustrates its productive value. For crops to be successful, the flowers
of fruit trees and vegetables must be pollinated by insects, bats and
birds. Their life cycles however frequently require intact forests.
• Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature: The aesthetic and
recreational values that nature possesses enliven(entertaining and
interesting) our existence on earth. This is created by developing
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in relatively undisturbed
areas.
• A true wilderness experience has not only recreational value but is an
incredible learning experience. It brings about an understanding of the
oneness of nature and the fact that we are entirely dependent upon the
intricate functioning of ecosystems.
• The beauty of nature encompasses every aspect of the living and non-
living part of our earth. One can appreciate the magnificence of a
mountain, the power of the sea, the beauty of a forest, and the vast
expanse of the desert.
• It is these natural vistas and their incredible diversity of plant and
animal life that has led to the development of several philosophies of
life. It has also inspired artists to develop visual arts and writers and
poets to create their works that vitalize our lives.
• A wilderness experience has exceptional recreational value. This has
been described as nature tourism, or wildlife tourism, and is also one
aspect of adventure tourism.
• These recreational facilities not only provide a pleasurable experience
but are intended to create a deep respect and love for nature. They are
also key tools in educating people about the fragility of the
environment and the need for sustainable lifestyles.
• In an urban setting, green spaces and gardens are vital to the
pschycological and physical health of city dwellers.

• It provides not only an aesthetic and visual appeal but the ability to
ensure that each individual is able to access a certain amount of peace
and tranquility. Thus urban environmental planners must ensure that
these facilities are created in growing urban complexes.
• Another important conservation education facility in urban settings
includes the need to set up well designed and properly managed
zoological parks and aquariums.

• These have got great value in sensitizing school students to wildlife.

Many young people who frequented zoos as young children grow up
to love wildlife and become conservationists.
• In the absence of access to a Protected Area, a botanical garden or a
zoo, one concept that can be developed is to create small nature
awareness areas with interpretation facilities at district and taluka
levels.
• These areas can be developed to mimic natural ecosystems even
though they could be relatively small in size. Such nature trails are
invaluable assets for creating conservation education and awareness.
• They can be developed in a small woodlot, a patch of grassland, a
pond ecosystem, or be situated along an undisturbed river or coastal
area. This would bring home to the visitor the importance of protecting
our dwindling wilderness areas.
• The option values of nature: While we utilize several goods and services of
nature and enjoy its benefits, we must recognize that every activity that we do in
our daily lives has an adverse impact on nature’s integrity.

• Thus if we use up all our resources, kill off and let species of plants and animals
become extinct on earth, pollute our air and water, degrade land, and create
enormous quantities of waste, we as a generation will leave nothing for future
generations.

• Our present generation has developed its economies and lifestyles on

unsustainable patterns of life. However, nature provides us with various options on
how we utilize its goods and services.

• This is its option value. We can use up goods and services greedily and destroy its
integrity and long term values or we can use its resources sustainably and reduce
our impacts on the environment. The option value allows us to use its resources
sustainably and preserve its goods and services for the future.
 3.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
• As the earth’s natural resources are dwindling(dry) and our environment is being
increasingly degraded by human activities, it is evident that something needs to be
done.
• We often feel that managing all this is something that the Government should do.
But if we go on endangering our environment, there is no way in which the
Government can perform all these clean-up functions.
• It is the prevention of environment degradation in which we must all take part that
must become a part of all our lives. Just as for any disease, prevention is better
than cure.
• To prevent ill-effects on our environment by our actions is economically more
viable than cleaning up the environment once it is damaged. Individually we can
play a major role in environment management.
• We can reduce wasting natural resources and we can act as watchdogs that inform
the Government about sources that lead to pollution and degradation of our
environment.
 How to build Public awareness
• This can only be made possible through mass public awareness.
• Mass media such as newspapers, radio, television, strongly influence public
opinion. However, someone has to bring this about.
• If each of us feels strongly about the environment, the press and media will
add to our efforts.
• Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a strong publicly
supported movement.
• Thus if you join an NGO that supports conservation, politicians will make
green policies.
• We are living on spaceship earth with a limited supply of resources. Each of
us is responsible for spreading this message to as many people as possible.
3.2.1 Institutions in Environment
• There have been several Government and Non-government organizations
that have led to environmental protection in our country.
• They have led to a growing interest in environmental protection and
conservation of nature and natural resources.
• The traditional conservation practices that were part of ancient India’s
culture have however gradually disappeared.
• Public awareness is thus a critical need to further environmental protection.
• Among the large number of institutions that deal with environmental
protection and conservation, a few well-known organizations include
government organizations such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as
BNHS, WWF-I, etc.
Botanical Survey of India (BSI):
• Botanical Survey of India (BSI): The Botanical Survey of India
(BSI) was established in 1890 at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta.
However it closed down for several years after 1939 and was reopened
in 1954.
• In 1952 plans were made to reorganize the BSI and formulate its
objectives. By 1955 the BSI had its headquarters in Calcutta with
Circle Offices at Coimbatore, Shillong, Pune and Dehra Dun.
• Between 1962 and 1979, offices were established in Allahbad,
Jodhpur, Port Blair, Itanagar and Gangtok. The BSI currently has nine
regional centres. It carries out surveys of plant resources in different
regions.
Zoological Survey of India (ZSI):
• Zoological Survey of India (ZSI): The ZSI was established in1916. Its
mandate was to do a systematic survey of fauna in India. It has over the
years collected ‘type specimens’ on the bases of which our animal life has
been studied over the years.
• Its origins were collections based at the Indian Museum at Calcutta, which
was established in 1875.
• Older collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which were made
between 1814 and 1875, as well as those of the Indian Museum made
between 1875 and 1916 were then transferred to the ZSI.
• Today it has over a million specimens! This makes it one of the largest
collections in Asia. It has done an enormous amount of work on taxonomy
and ecology. It currently operates from 16 regional centers.
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai

• Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai: The BNHS

began as a small society of six members in 1883.
• It grew from a group of shikaris and people from all walks of life into
a major research organization that substantially influenced
conservation policy in the country.
• The influence on wildlife policy building, research, popular
publications and peoples action have been unique features of the
multifaceted society. Undoubtedly its major contribution has been in
the field of wildlife research.
• It is India’s oldest conservation research based NGO and one that has
acted at the forefront of the battle for species and ecosystems.
• The BNHS publishes a popular magazine called Hornbill and also an
internationally well-known Journal on Natural History.
• Its other publications include the Salim Ali Handbook on birds, JC
Daniel’s book of Indian Reptiles, SH Prater’s book of Indian
Mammals and PV Bole’s book of Indian Trees.
• One of its greatest scientists was Dr. Salim Ali whose ornithological
work on the birds of the Indian subcontinent is world famous.

• The BNHS has over the years helped Government to frame wildlife
related laws and has taken up battles such as the ‘Save the Silent
Valley’ campaign.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I)
• World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), New Delhi: The WWF-I
was initiated in 1969 in Mumbai after which the headquarters were
shifted to Delhi with several branch offices all over India.

• The early years focused attention on wildlife education and awareness.

• It runs several programs including the Nature Clubs of India program

for school children and works as a think tank and lobby force for
environment and development issues.
Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora:
• Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: The Organisation is a
Nodal Agency which supports NGOs in need of funds for their
environment related activities.
• Its major program is organizing and training school teachers to use its
locale specific Environment Education Workbook Program.
• The main targets are linked with sustainable resource use at the village
level through training school children.
• Its environment education program covers about 500 schools.
Centre for Environment Education (CEE), Ahmedabad:

• Centre for Environment Education (CEE), Ahmedabad: The

Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad was initiated in 1989.
• It has a wide range of programs on the environment and produces a
variety of educational material.
• CEE’s Training in Environment Education {TEE} program has trained
many environment educators.
CPR Environmental Education Centre,
Madras:
• CPR Environmental Education Centre, Madras: The CPR EEC
was set up in 1988.
• It conducts a variety of programs to spread environmental awareness
and creates an interest in conservation among the general public.
• It focused attention on NGOs, teachers, women, youth and children to
generally promote conservation of nature and natural resources.
• Its programs include components on wildlife and biodiversity issues.
CPR EEC also produces a large number of publications.
Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment
Education and Research (BVIEER), Pune:
• Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research (BVIEER),
Pune: This is part of the Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University. The Institute has a PhD,
a Masters and Bachelors program in Environmental Sciences. It also offers an innovative
Diploma in Environment Education (EE) for in-service teachers.
• It implements a large outreach programme that has covered over 135 schools in which it
trains teachers and conducts fortnightly Environment Education Programs. Biodiversity
Conservation is a major focus of its research initiatives.
• It develops low cost Interpretation Centres for Natural and Architectural sites that are
highly locale specific as well as a large amount of innovative environment educational
material for a variety of target groups. Its unique feature is that it conducts environment
education from primary school level to the postgraduate level.
• The BVIEER has produced several EE aids. It has developed a teacher’s handbook linked
to school curriculum, a textbook for UGC for its undergraduate course on environment.
Its Director has developed a CD ROM on India’s biodiversity published by Mapin
Publishers, Ahmedabad.
1.2.2 People in Environment
• There are several internationally known environmental thinkers. Among
those who have made landmarks, the names that are usually mentioned are
• Charles Darwin,
• Ralph Emerson,
• Henry Thoreau,
• John Muir,
• Aldo Leopald,
• Rachel Carson and
• EO Wilson.
Each of these thinkers looked at the environment from a completely different
perspective.
• There have been a number of individuals who have been instrumental
in shaping the environmental history in our country. Some of the well-
known names in the last century include environmentalists, scientists,
administrators, legal experts, educationists and journalists.

• Salim Ali’s name is synonymous with ornithology in India and with

the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). He also wrote several
great books including the famous ‘Book of Indian Birds’. His
autobiography, ‘Fall of a Sparrow’ should be read by every nature
enthusiast. He was our country’s leading conservation scientist and
influenced environmental policies in our country for over 50 years.
• Indira Gandhi as PM has played a highly significant role in the
preservation of India’s wildlife. It was during her period as PM, that the
network of PAs grew from 65 to 298! The Wildlife Protection Act was
formulated during the period when she was PM and the Indian Board for
Wildlife was extremely active as she personally chaired all its meetings.

• Madhav Gadgil is a well-known ecologist in India. His interests range

from broad ecological issues such as developing Community Biodiversity
Registers and conserving sacred groves to studies on the behavior of
mammals, birds and insects. He has written several articles, published
papers in journals and is the author of 6 books.
• M C Mehta is undoubtedly India’s most famous environmental
lawyer. Since 1984, he has filed several Public Interest Litigations for
supporting the cause of environmental conservation.
• His most famous and long drawn battles supported by the Supreme
Court include protecting the Taj Mahal, cleaning up the Ganges River,
banning intensive shrimp farming on the coast, initiating Government
to implement environmental education in schools and colleges, and a
variety of other conservation issues.
• Anil Agarwal was a journalist who wrote the first report on the ‘State
of India’s Environment’ in 1982. He founded the Center for Science
and Environment which is an active NGO that supports various
environmental issues.
• Medha Patkar is known as one of India’s champions who has
supported the cause of downtrodden tribal people whose environment
is being affected by the dams on the Narmada river.
• Sunderlal Bahugna’s Chipko Movement has become an
internationally wellknown example of a highly successful
conservation action program through the efforts of local people for
guarding their forest resources
 3.3 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
• An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and
recognizable landscape form such as forest, grassland,
desert, wetland or coastal area.
• The nature of the ecosystem is based on its
geographical features such as hills, mountains, plains,
rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands. It is also
controlled by climatic conditions such as the amount
of sunlight, the temperature and the rainfall in the
region.
• The geographical, climatic and soil characteristics
form its non-living (abiotic) component. These
features create conditions that support a community of
plants and animals that evolution has produced to live
in these specific conditions. The living part of the
ecosystem is referred to as its biotic component.

Definition: The living community of plants and animals in any area together with the non-living components of the
environment such as soil, air and water, constitute the ecosystem.
• Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land based ecosystems, and
aquatic ecosystems in water. These form the two major habitat
conditions for the Earth’s living organisms.
• All the living organisms in an area live in communities of plants and
animals. They interact with their non-living environment, and with
each other at different points in time for a large number of reasons.
• Life can exist only in a small proportion of the earth’s land, water and
its atmosphere.
• There are several distinctive geographical regions in India-
• the Himalayas,
• the Gangetic Plains,
• the Highlands of Central India,
• the Western and Eastern Ghats,
• the semi-arid desert in the West, the Deccan Plateau,
• the Coastal Belts, and
• the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• These geographically distinctive areas have plants and animals that have
been adapted to live in each of these regions.
• At an even more local level, each area has several structurally and
functionally identifiable ecosystems such as different types of forests,
grasslands, river catchments, mangrove swamps in deltas, seashores,
islands, etc. to give only a few examples. Here too each of these forms
a habitat for specific plants and animals.

• Ecosystems have been formed on land and in the sea by evolution that
has created species to live together in a specific region. Thus
ecosystems have both non-living and living components that are
typical to an area giving it its own special characteristics that are easily
observed.
• Some ecosystems are fairly robust and are less affected by a certain level of
human disturbance. Others are highly fragile and are quickly destroyed by
human activities.
• Mountain ecosystems are extremely fragile as degradation of forest cover
leads to severe erosion of soil and changes in river courses.
• .Island ecosystems are easily affected by any form of human activity which
can lead to the rapid extinction of several of their unique species of plants
and animals
• Evergreen forests and coral reefs are also examples of species rich fragile
ecosystems which must be protected against a variety of human activities
that lead to their degradation.
• River and wetland ecosystems can be seriously affected by pollution and
changes in surrounding landuse.
3.4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE
ECOSYSTEM
• Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human life. These are the
water cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy
cycle. While every ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, in each ecosystem its abiotic
and biotic features are distinct from each other.
• All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the growth and regeneration
of its plant and animal species.These linked processes can be depicted as the various
cycles.
• These processes depend on energy from sunlight. During photosynthesis carbon dioxide is
taken up by plants and oxygen is released. Animals depend on this oxygen for their
respiration.
• The water cycle depends on the rainfall, which is necessary for plants and animals to live.
• The energy cycle recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows.
• Our own lives are closely linked to the proper functioning of these cycles of life. If human
activities go on altering them, humanity cannot survive on our earth.
 3.4.1 The Water Cycle
• When it rains, the water runs along the ground and flows into
rivers or falls directly into the sea. A part of the rainwater that falls
on land percolates into the ground. This is stored underground
throughout the rest of the year.

• Water is drawn up from the ground by plants along with the

nutrients from the soil. The water is transpired from the leaves as
water vapour and returned to the atmosphere.

• As it is lighter than air, water vapour rises and forms clouds. Winds
blow the clouds for long distances and when the clouds rise higher,
the vapour condenses and changes into droplets, which fall on the
land as rain.

• Though this is an endless cycle on which life depends, man’s

activities are making drastic changes in the atmosphere through
pollution which is altering rainfall patterns.

• This is leading to prolonged drought periods extending over years

in countries such as Africa, while causing floods in countries such
as the US, EI Nino storms due to these effects have devastated
many places in the last few years.
 3.4.2 The Carbon cycle

• The carbon, which occurs in organic compounds, is included in both

the abiotic and biotic parts of the ecosystem.
• Carbon is a building block of both plant and animal tissues.
• In the atmosphere, carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO2).
• In the presence of sunlight, plants take up carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere through their leaves. The plants combine carbon dioxide
with water, which is absorbed by their roots from the soil.
• In the presence of sunlight they are able to form carbohydrates that
contain carbon.
• This process is known as photosynthesis.
• Plants use this complex mechanism for their growth and development.
• In this process, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere on which
animals depend for their respiration.
• Plants therefore help in regulating and monitoring the percentage of
Oxygen and Carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere.

Photosynthesis can be represented using a chemical equation.

The overall balanced equation is...
6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 (glucose)+ 6O2 Sunlight energy
• All of mankind thus depends on the oxygen generated
through this cycle. It also keeps the CO2 at acceptable
levels.
• Herbivorous animals feed on plant material, which is
used by them for energy and for their growth.
• Both plants and animals release carbon dioxide
during respiration.
• They also return fixed carbon to the soil in the waste
they excrete.
• When plants and animals die they return their carbon
to the soil.
• These processes complete the carbon cycle.
 3.4.3 The Oxygen Cycle

Stages of the Oxygen Cycle

The steps involved in the oxygen cycle are:

Stage-1: All green plants during the process of photosynthesis,

release oxygen back into the atmosphere as a by-product.

Stage-2: All aerobic organisms use free oxygen for respiration.

Stage-3: Animals exhale Carbon dioxide back into the

atmosphere which is again used by the plants during
photosynthesis. Now oxygen is balanced within the atmosphere.

Deforestation is likely to gradually reduce the oxygen levels in

our atmosphere. Thus plant life plays an important role in our
lives which we frequently do not appreciate.

This is an important reason to participate in afforestation

programs.
 3.4.4 The Nitrogen Cycle

• What is the nitrogen cycle?

• The series of processes by which nitrogen and its
different forms are circulated and interconverted in
nature with the help of living organisms is called the
nitrogen cycle. It shows the path that nitrogen
follows through the biogeochemical cycle using its
storage reservoirs, such as the atmosphere, living
organisms, and soil.
The main steps of the nitrogen cycle?
The entire process of the Nitrogen Cycle, one of the
important biogeochemical cycle takes place in five stages:
1) Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria – Converting inert atmospheric
nitrogen (N2)into biologically available forms such as ammonia
(NH3), nitrates, or nitrites
2) Nitrification by Bacteria – Converting ammonia to nitrite and
then to nitrate
3) Assimilation by Plants – Absorbing nitrogen from the soil and
incorporating them in the plant and animal bodies
4) Ammonification by Decomposers – Converting the dead
organic nitrogen of plants or animals back into ammonia
5) Denitrification by Denitrifiers – Reducing nitrates or nitrites and
releasing gaseous nitrogen
 What role do bacteria play in the nitrogen cycle? How are plants involved in the nitrogen cycle?
• Nitrogen fixation – Performed by two different Plants help in the assimilation of nitrogen when they absorb it
groups of bacteria – a) symbiotic nitrogen fixers from the soil in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions or
like Rhizobium, which keep a close association ammonium ions to form plant and animal proteins. In
with the host leguminous plant, and b) free-living, leguminous plants such as pea and bean, the symbiotic
non-symbiotic bacteria like Azotobacter. association with Rhizobium helps to assimilate nitrogen directly
• Both these group of bacteria use specific enzymes in the form of ammonium ions.
to complete the biological nitrogen fixation process
by the following reaction –
N2 + 8 H+ + 8 e− → 2 NH3 + H2
• Nitrification – Performed by nitrifying bacteria in
two steps –
• i) Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria such as
Nitrosomonas species perform oxidation of
ammonia to nitrite by the following reaction –
2NH4+ + 3O2 + 8 e− → 2 NO2– + 4H2 + 2H2O
• ii) Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria such as Nitrobacter
species perform oxidation of nitrite (NO2–) to
nitrate (NO3–) by the following reaction –
2 NO3– + O2 → 2 NO3–
 3.4.5 The Energy Cycle

• The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through the

ecosystem. Energy from sunlight is converted by plants themselves
into growing new plant material which includes leaves, flowers,
fruit, branches, trunks and roots of plants.
• Since plants can grow by converting the sun’s energy directly into
their tissues, they are known as producers in the ecosystem. The
plants are used by herbivorous animals as food, which gives them
energy.
• A large part of this energy is used up for day to day functions of
these animals such as breathing, digesting food, supporting growth
of tissues, maintaining blood flow and body temperature. Energy is
also used for activities such as looking for food, finding shelter,
breeding and bringing up young ones.
• The carnivores in turn depend on herbivorous animals on which they
feed. Thus the different plant and animal species are linked to one
another through food chains.
• Each food chain has three or four links. However, as each plant or
animal can be linked to several other plants or animals through
many different linkages, these inter-linked chains can be
depicted as a complex food web. This is thus called the ‘web of
life’ that shows that there are thousands of interrelationships in Energy cycle
nature.
3.5 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

• Ecological succession is a process through which ecosystems tend to

change over a period of time.
• Succession can be related to seasonal environmental changes, which
create changes in the community of plants and animals living in the
ecosystem.
• Other successional events may take much longer periods of time
extending to several decades.
• If a forest is cleared, it is initially colonized by a certain group of
species of plants and animals, which gradually change through an
orderly process of community development.
One can predict that an opened up area will
gradually be converted into a grassland, a
shrubland and finally a woodland and a forest if
permitted to do so without human interference.

There is a tendency for succession to produce a

more or less stable state at the end of the
successional stages.

Developmental stages in the ecosystem thus consist

of a pioneer stage, a series of changes known as
serel stages, and finally a climax stage.

The successive stages are related to the way in

which energy flows through the biological system.
• The most frequent example of successional changes occur in a pond
ecosystem where it fluctuates from a dry terrestrial habitat to the
early colonization stage by small aquatic species after the
monsoon, which gradually passes through to a mature aquatic
ecosystem, and then reverts back to its dry stage in summer where its
aquatic life remains dormant(slowdown of function suspended).
3.6 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF
AN ECOSYSTEM
• Since each ecosystem has a non-living and a living part that are linked to each other, one needs to
look around us and observe this closely. This is an important aspect that is a vital part of our lives.
• The non-living components of an ecosystem are the amount of water, the various inorganic
substances and organic compounds, and climatic conditions such as rainfall and temperature which
depend on geographical conditions and location which is also related to the amount of sunlight.
• The living organisms in an ecosystem are inseparable from their habitat. The living component of
plant life ranges from extremely small bacteria, which live in air, water and soil, algae which live
in fresh and salt water, to the terrestrial plants which range from grasses and herbs that grow after
the monsoon every year, to the giant long-lived trees of the forest. The plants convert energy from
sunlight into organic matter for their growth. They thus function as producers in the ecosystem.
• The living component of the animal world ranges from microscopic animals, to small insects and
the larger animals such as fish, amphibia, reptiles, birds and mammals.
• Man is just one of the 1.8 million species of plants and animals that inhabit the earth. Every living
organism is in some way dependent on other organisms.
• Plants are food for herbivorous animals which are in turn food for carnivorous animals.
• Thus there are different tropic levels in the ecosystem. Some organisms such as fungi live only on
dead material and inorganic matter
3.7 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
• The transfer of energy from the source in plants through a series of
organisms by eating and being eaten constitutes food chains.
• At each transfer, a large proportion of energy is lost in the form of
heat. These food chains are not isolated sequences, but are
interconnected with each other.
• This interlocking pattern is known as the food web. Each step of the
food web is called a trophic level.
• Hence green plants occupy the first level, herbivores the second
level, carnivores the third level and secondary carnivores the
fourth level. These trophic levels together form the ecological
pyramid.
3.7.1 The food chains
• The most obvious aspect of nature is that energy must pass from one
living organism to another. When herbivorous animals feed on plants,
energy is transferred from plants to animals.
• In an ecosystem, some of the animals feed on other living organisms,
while some feed on dead organic matter. The latter form the ‘detritus’
food chain.
• At each linkage in the chain, a major part of the energy from the food
is lost for daily activities.
• Each chain usually has only four to five such links. However a single
species may be linked to a large number of species.
3.7.2 The food webs

• In an ecosystem there are a very large number of interlinked chains.

This forms a food web. If the linkages in the chains that make up the
web of life are disrupted due to human activities that lead to the loss or
extinction of species, the web breaks down.
 3.7.3 The ecological pyramids
• In an ecosystem, green plants – the producers,
utilize energy directly from sunlight and convert
it into matter. A large number of these organisms
form the most basic, or first ‘trophic level’ of the
food pyramid.
• The herbivorous animals that eat plants are at the
second trophic level and are called primary
consumers. The predators that feed on them
form the third trophic level and are known as
secondary consumers.
• Only a few animals form the third trophic level
consisting of carnivores at the apex of the food
pyramid.
• This is how energy is used by living creatures
and flows through the ecosystem from its base to
the apex. Much of the energy is used up in
activities of each living organism.
3.8 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

1. Terrestrial ecosystems in their natural state are found in different

types of Forests, Grasslands, Semi-arid Areas, Deserts and Sea
Coasts.

2. The aquatic ecosystems constitute the marine environments of the

seas and the fresh water systems in lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands.
Aspect Forest Ecosystem Grassland Ecosystem Desert Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystems Ecological Succession

A forest ecosystem is a A grassland ecosystem Aquatic ecosystems

A desert ecosystem is
complex community of is a community of encompass various Ecological succession is
an arid or semi-arid
plants, animals, and plants and animals habitats like freshwater the process of gradual
Definition environment with
microorganisms in a primarily consisting of (lakes, rivers) and change in a community
minimal precipitation
forested area, often grasses and other saltwater (oceans) of species over time.
and limited vegetation.
dominated by trees. herbaceous plants. environments.

Limited vegetation, Aquatic plants and Succession proceeds

Trees and understory Grasses and
Primary Vegetation often xerophytic phytoplankton (in from pioneer species
vegetation. herbaceous plants.
plants. water bodies). to climax community.
High biodiversity with a Moderate biodiversity, Biodiversity varies, Biodiversity increases
Low biodiversity due to
Biodiversity variety of plant and with specialized from coral reefs to as succession
harsh conditions.
animal species. grassland species. freshwater lakes. progresses.
Varies depending on Varies depending on
the type of forest (e.g., Moderate to low Extremely low the aquatic habitat May alter based on
Precipitation
rainforest, temperate precipitation. precipitation. (freshwater vs. species composition.
forest). marine).
Many species adapted Xerophytic adaptations
Plants adapted to Aquatic adaptations,
to vertical layers, such in plants; animals Species adapt to
Adaptations grazing, drought, and such as gills, fins, and
as canopy, understory, adapted to conserve changing conditions.
wildfires. blubber.
and forest floor. water.
Conversion to Pollution, overfishing, Human activities can
Logging, deforestation, Habitat destruction
Human Impact agriculture and and habitat accelerate or disrupt
and habitat loss. and climate change.
overgrazing. destruction. succession.
Tropical rainforest, Coral reefs, kelp
Savannas, prairies, and Sahara Desert, Primary and secondary
Examples temperate deciduous forests, freshwater
pampas. Atacama Desert. succession.
forest, boreal forest. lakes.