ME-2201 Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering

REFRIGERRATION

M L Palash
PhD. & M. Eng. (KU, Japan), M. Sc. (DU, Bangladesh)

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)

University of Dhaka
 Refrigeration
• Refrigeration is a branch of science that deals with the transfer of heat from a low-
temperature region to a high-temperature region, to maintain the desired region at a
temperature below that of its surroundings.
• In the refrigeration process, heat is continuously removed from the low-temperature
region to a high-temperature medium using a low boiling point refrigerant.
• External power is required to carry out this process. Therefore, refrigeration systems are
power-absorbing devices.

Unit of Refrigeration

One tonne of refrigeration is the amount of refrigerating effect (heat removed) produced by
uniform melting of 1 tonne (1000 kg) of ice from and at 0°C in 24 hours.

Or, 1 TR is taken as 210 kJ/min or 3.5 kW.

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 Refrigerator

• A refrigerator is a device, operating in a cycle, that maintains a

body at lower temperature than its surroundings.
• A refrigerator extracts heat continuously from a controlled space,
and thus it is maintained at a lower temperature than its
surroundings.
• The working fluid in the refrigerator is called the refrigerant.

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 Coefficient of performance of Refrigerator (COP)

• The performance of a refrigerator is measured in terms of the

coefficient of performance (COP)R.
• It is defined as the ratio of the desired output (refrigerating effect)
to the energy (work) input.

Consider an amount of heat QL is removed from the refrigerated space

at temperature TL. The work input to the compressor is Win and the
heat rejected at the condenser is QH.

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 Types of Refrigeration Systems

 Gas refrigeration system

 Vapour compression refrigeration system
 Vapour absorption refrigeration system
 Steam refrigeration system
 Vapour adsorption refrigeration system

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 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

• The refrigerant enters the compressor as

low-pressure vapour and is compressed to
high pressure and temperature.
• In the condenser, the refrigerant vapour
passes through the long condenser coils,
rejecting its latent heat to the surroundings.
• The liquid refrigerant then enters a
capillary tube (an expansion device for
small refrigerators), where its pressure
reduces drastically due to the throttling
effect and its temperature also reduces.

• This low-temperature and low-pressure refrigerant then passes through the evaporator
coils ( freezer), where it evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space to keep
it at low temperature.
• The cycle completes as the refrigerant re-enters the compressor.

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 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
The vapour compression refrigeration cycle consists of four processes discussed below:
Process 1–2 Isentropic compression of saturated vapour in the compressor
Process 2–3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
Process 3–4 Throttling of refrigerant in an expansion device
Process 4–1 Constant pressure heat absorption in evaporator

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 Vapour Compression Cycle on Pressure–Enthalpy Diagram

The pressure–enthalpy diagram is more convenient to represent refrigeration cycles, since the
enthalpy required for the calculation can directly be read off.

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Schematic of a pressure-enthalpy chart of a refrigerant

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 Solving Problem with P-H chart
A refrigeration cycle operates with condenser and evaporator pressure of 1 MPa
and 0.15 MPa respectively. The working fluid is Ra-134a which flows at a rate of
0.05 kg/s. Find the followings:
a) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space.
b) rate of work input to the compressor.
c) rate of heat rejected in the condenser.
d) C.O.P of the refrigerator.
e) tonnage of the refrigeration cycle.
Solution
Step 1: draw the T—s and P—h diagram using hand.

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 Solving Problem with P-H chart
Step 2: Drawing the P—h diagram on scale.

3 2

4 1

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 Solving Problem with P-H chart
Step 3: Completing the enthalpy table.
Point 1 2 3 4

Enthalpy (h)
390 440 260 260
kJ/kg

Stem 4: Calculation of desired parameters. Given: m = 0.05 kg/s

a) Rate of heat removal: b) Rate of work input:

QL = m (h1 – h4) Win = m (h2 – h1)
= 0.05*(390 - 260) = 0.05*(440 - 390)
= 6.5 kW = 2.5 kW
c) Rate of heat rejection: d) Coefficient of performance
QH = m (h2 – h3) COP = (Ql/Win)
= 0.05*(440 - 260) = (6.5/2.5)
= 9 kW = 2.6
e) Tonnage of the cycle:
12
= (QL/3.51) = (6.5/3.51) = 1.85 TR

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Schematic of a pressure-enthalpy chart of a refrigerant

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 Effect of Operating conditions

Effect of Evaporator Pressure

• By reducing the evaporator pressure, the

evaporator temperature decreases. So lower
temperature is achievable. (Good)
• But the refrigeration effect (h1’ – h2’) (area under
the curve on T–s diagram) decreases.
• The work input to the compressor (h2’- h1’)
increases.
• The specific volume of vapour at low pressure is
large, thus the volumetric efficiency will also
decrease.
Therefore, it is not desirable to decrease the
evaporator pressure.

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 Effect of Operating conditions
Effect of Condenser Pressure

(i) The work input to the compressor increases from

1–2 to 1–2’.
(ii) Refrigerant effect decreases from 4–1 to 4’–1.
(iii) The condenser temperature increases, thereby
increasing heat rejection.
(iv) The COP of the system decreases.

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 Effect of Operating conditions

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 Vapour Adsorption Refrigeration

 In a vapour compression refrigeration cycle, the temperature of saturated

vapour leaving the evaporator is increased by a compression process.
 Since the specific volume of vapour is relatively large, therefore, the input
work to the compressor is also large.
 The input work to the compressor can be reduced significantly if the
refrigerant is compressed in the liquid state.
 The absorption refrigeration is based on this approach.
 A vapour absorption system operates with a condenser, a throttle valve and
an evaporator in the same way as vapour compression system, but the
compressor is replaced by an absorber, pump and generator units.

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 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration

 The low-pressure refrigerant vapour

leaving the evaporator is absorbed by a
secondary substance, called an absorbent
to form a strong liquid solution.
 This liquid solution is then pumped at a
higher pressure to the generator.
 The specific volume of the liquid solution
is much less than that of a refrigerant
vapour, and thus significant less work is
required in the pump.
 The heat is supplied in the generator,
where the refrigerant vapourises from
the solution and leaves weak solution in
the generator.
 The refrigerant vapour enters the
condenser and the weak solution is again
sent back to the absorber through a
pressure relief valve.

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 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration

The coefficient of vapour absorption refrigeration system can be expressed as

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 Ammonia-water Absorption Refrigeration System

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 Ammonia-water Absorption Refrigeration System

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 Ammonia-water Adsorption Refrigeration System

Adsorption: It is a process that occurs when a gas or liquid solute accumulates on the
surface of a solid or a liquid (adsorbent), forming a molecular or atomic film (adsorbate).
Key factors for adsorption
Physisorption Chemisorption  Surface area
Absorption is Adsorption  Pore volume
arises due to arises due to  Pore size
a bulk is a surface
Van Der chemical bond
phenomena phenomena
Waal’s forces formation

VS

Fig 1. Absorption vs Adsorption Physisorption Chemisorption Different pore structure of

activated carbon
Fig 2. Physisorption vs Chemisorption

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 Ammonia-water Adsorption Refrigeration System
cooling water
supply 5. Vapor is condensed by
reducing the temperature by
supplying water

Condenser

3. Adsorbate vapor is collected 4. Adsorbed vapor is desrobed

in adsorber bed with help of TCW IN using hot waste water source
adsorbent (MOF, AC, Silica gel).
Bed temperature is maintained THW IN
by available ambient water cooling
source water
supply Hot water
Adsorber Desrober
bed bed supply

THW OUT
TCW OUT

2. adsorbate (Water, Ethanol,

CO2 etc) evaporates by taking
6. Condensed water is Evaporator the latent heat from the green
supplied to evaporator pipe.
TCH IN
TCH OUT

Cooling Room

1. Water or other fluid carry heat from the cooling room to

evaporator chamber

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 Ammonia-water Adsorption Refrigeration System
cooling water
supply 5. Vapor is condensed at
Pressure PC by supplying
cooling water at 30˚C.
PC
Condenser

3. Ethanol is adsorbed by TCW IN 4. Ethanol is desorbed at 80˚C at

activated carbon at 30˚C at THW IN pressure PC. 80˚C maintained by
pressure PE. Temperature is cooling PE to PC
waste heat source
water
controlled by cooling water supply
Adsorber Desrober Hot water
supply PC to PE supply
bed bed

THW OUT
TCW OUT PE
2. Ethanol evaporated using the latent
Evaporator heat collected from water source at
6. Condensed water is supplied
to evaporator. Pressure drops to TCH IN
pressure PE
PE using a throttle valve. TCH OUT

Cooling Room

1. Water carries heat from a room to the evaporator

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How pressure is maintained:
1. Pressure of Evaporator maintained by throttling valve 1. Adsorption occurs at 30˚C, PE
2. Pressure of condenser is maintained by cooling water supply 1 to 2. Maintaining constant uptake pressure of the bed reach to PC . This is
3. Pressure of adsorber is maintained by valve VE . done by applying hot water and closing the valve between condenser and
VE becomes open = Evaporator pressure > Adsorber pressure desorber bed.
4. Pressure of desorber bed is maintained by valve VC. 2 to 3. Maintaining constant pressure PC (Saturation pressure) uptake is
VC becomes open when d reduced to W2. This is maintained by opening the valve between condenser
esorber bed pressure > Condenser pressure and desorber bed.
cooling water 3 to 4. Pressure of the bed is reached to PE by cooling .
supply 4 to 1. adsorption started by cooling the bed with cooling water.

Condenser PC
30˚C
TCW IN
Valve Vc
THW IN
cooling PE to PC
water
supply 30˚C 80˚C Hot water 1 2
Adsorber Desorber Pre heating
PC to PE supply W1
bed bed

Desorption
W

Adsorption
THW OUT
TCW OUT Valve VE PE

Pre cooling
Evaporator W2
4 3 80˚C
TCH IN
TCH OUT

PE PC
Cooling Room P
Adsorption-desorption bed
 Bridging material science with thermal engineering
Gas molecules

Condenser Thermal Adhesion of gas molecules

energy on porous surface of
adsorbent

Adsorption pairs are

Adsorption
Electrical

Desorption
Heat released
energy
Expansion the key element for
Valve Mechanical improvement Gas molecules
Compressor

Desorption of gas molecules

at low regeneration
Thermal temperature
Evaporator Compressor

Linkage between material science (MS) Heat input

and applied thermal engineering (ATE) Adsorption isotherm is an

option for characterization
1.2
30°C

50°C
1.0
Analysis of
adsorption isotherms

Adsorption uptake [kg kg-1]

70°C
0.8
can provides the
possible 0.6
improvement of Experimental data
overall system 0.4
D-A equation
performance
0.2

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Equilibrium pressure [kPa]

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Bridging material science with thermal engineering

Silica gel Activated carbon

Zeolite

Activated carbon
(Commercially prevalent, and good
Metal organic SEM of Maxsorb III
adsorbent for many gases)
frameworks (MOFs)

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 Outcome of my PhD
2.40

Specific entropy, Δs0 [kJ kg-1 K -1]

2.30 H2-treated Maxsorb III/ethanol
Maxsorb III/ethanol
2.20
M-AC/ethanol
2.10 ∆h 0  K RT 
∆s 0= + R ln  H 
WPT-AC/ethanol
T  υP 
Chapter 5 2.00

1.90 y = 0.0112x + 1.8354

Chapter 6 Q3: Can we relate the R² = 0.9993
1.80
interactions with surface 0 10 20 30 40 50
Q4: Can we tailor material morphology? K H/υp [kg kJ-1]
to improve adsorption?
HO H
Chapter 4
Q2: How can we define
and measure the
Q5: If the improvement is interaction?
possible then what is the
reason behind that? HO H
HO H Q1: How the adsorbent
surface actually looks
Chapter 7 like? Chapter 3
0.35
Work of adhesion [mJ m-2]

250 0.3
57.58
200 63.66
20.54 0.25
Normalized pore count

150 11.55
0.2 SS1
159.71
100 SS2
0.15
94.4 132.79 SS3
50 92.25
0.1
0
SMOF 20% Co- RD Granular Maxsorb III 0.05
SMOF Silica gel
0
Wadh (Dispersive) Wadh (Specific) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Mean pore radius [nm]

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 Refrigerant

 The refrigerant is a heat-carrying medium, which undergoes the theromdynamics cycle of

refrigeration (i.e., compression, condensation, expansion and evaporation).
 In a refrigeration system, it absorbs the heat from a low-temperature medium and discards
the absorbed heat to a high-temperature environment.

A good refrigerant should have the following properties:

 The saturation pressure of the refrigerant at a desired low temperature should be above or
equal to the atmospheric pressure in order to avoid leakage in the evaporator. The
pressure at the condenser must not be excessively high for the same reasons.
 The latent heat of evaporation at low temperatures should be as high as possible to give a
reasonably low mass flow rate of refrigerant for a given refrigeration capacity.
 The size of the compressor depends on the specific volume of the refrigerant at evaporator
pressure. Thus, the specific volume of the refrigerant at the compressor suction should not
be high in order to avoid the large compressor for the required mass flow rate.

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 Refrigerant

 The refrigerant should be chemically stable and should not react with lubricant used in
reciprocating compressor and should be miscible with oil.
 It should be non-flammable, non-explosive.
 It should be non-toxic. If toxic, then to a limit, below the acceptable level.
 It should have low specific heat of liquid for better heat transfer in condenser.
 The refrigerant should give high value of COP with low power input per tonne of
refrigeration.
 The refrigerant should have good thermal conductivity for better heat transfer in the
condenser and evaporator.
 The refrigerant must have freezing point temperature well below the lowest temperature in
the cycle.
 Other considerations are chemical stability, non-corrosiveness, low cost, and overall
ecofriendliness.

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 Refrigerant

Refrigerants may be broadly classified into the following groups:

1. Primary refrigerants: directly undergo the refrigeration cycle
2. Secondary refrigerants: first cooled by primary refrigerants, and then circulated through
other media to absorb heat.
The primary refrigerants are further classified into the following groups:
1. Halocarbons: All the halocarbon refrigerants are divided into three subgroups according
to their constituents. are divided into three subgroups according to their constituents.
(a) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) composed of chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms
Examples are R-11, R-12, and R-114.
(b) Hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) composed of hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and
carbon atoms. Examples are R-22 and R-123.
(c) Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs) composed of hydrogen, fluorine and carbon.
Examples are R-134a (HFC-134a), and R-125 (HFC-125).
2.Inorganic Refrigerant: Air, water, ammonia and carbon dioxide
3. Hydrocarbon: Ethane, propane, butane, etc.

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 Refrigerant

There are also mixtures of refrigerant, classified as:

1. Azeotropes: Behave as a single substance. All the components evaporate and condense at
the same condition. Example: R-500, CFC/HFC mixture, HCFC/CFC mixture
2. Zeotropes: Do not behave as a single substance.

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