1-Materials and Tests

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CHAPTER I

MATERIALS AND TESTS

1 Construction steels
Pure iron is the basis for making steel. But it has the disadvantage of low resistance, too plastic and
cannot be used on its own as a construction material.
To increase the strength of iron, carbon, non-ferrous metals and other substances are added in various
proportions.
To obtain steel, 0.5% ÷ 1.2% carbon is added to the iron.
Elements added to iron can not only increase the strength of the metal, but also give it undesirable
properties such as brittleness and poor weldability.
This is why the content of constituents has a great influence on the quality of steels.

2 Steelmaking processes
Two processes are possible for the manufacture of steel, namely
- Cast iron and oxygen steelworks
- “Scrap” and electric oven sector

2.1 Cast iron and oxygen steelmaking sector


The essential raw materials for the manufacture of steel are three in number, namely:
- Iron ores
• Iron oxides
• Iron carbonates
• Iron sulphides

2.2 “Scrap” or electric furnace sector


Raw materials: Scrap metal from vehicles, ships, buildings etc.
The short process consists of:
● Prepare scrap metal: sorting, grading, crushing, etc.
● Melt the raw material in a powerful electric furnace (electric arc).
● Adjust the chemical composition of the steel, giving it its optimal purity. The operations take
place according to the same methods as for steel produced with oxygen.

2.3 Steel products


At the end of the production operation (with oxygen or electric) the steel is collected in the liquid
state in a metal bag lined with refractory bricks and transported to the casting site (continuous or in
ingots) . The casting facilities are part of the steelworks.
This step ensures the solidification of the steel and the roughing of the shapes. We produce blooms and
slabs.
Dr. Almoutaz Bellah Alsamawi Materials and tests

Figure 1: Diagram of the steel manufacturing process

II.3.1 Finished steel products: (Commercial forms)


This transformation mainly consists of rolling the semi-finished products, i.e. stretching and
crushing the metal in order to give it the desired dimensions and shapes.
There are two lamination methods:
- Hot rolling
- Cold rolling
The products of this transformation are:
- Flat products
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Dr. Almoutaz Bellah Alsamawi Materials and tests

- Classic I, U, H beam, rails, merchant laminates


- Thin cold formed profiles
- Hollow profiles

* Flat products :
• Sheet metal: the sheet metal found on the market is in:
* Leaves (─ L x W)
* coils.
• Flats ( ─ L xe) the lengths are 6 or12 m

Example of products: dishes used in metal framing see following table:

Table 1: flat products


Ribbed Sheets Products

Dry blanket

Sealing support
( watertightness reported)

Sandwich insulation panel


( blanket )

Cladding

Plateau
( facing for double skin cladding)

Sandwich insulation panel


( for cladding)

Permanent formwork floor

* Conventional and commercially rolled beams (hot rolled)

The classic joists are shown in the following table 2.


Current merchant laminates are also shown in Table 3.

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Dr. Almoutaz Bellah Alsamawi Materials and tests

Table 2: Conventional beams


Joists IPN beams Joists U beams U beams
IPE H ( right wings ) ( angled wings )

b b b

r
h < 300
u = b /2
d h h
d y d
y

z z
b/ 4

IPE 80 to 600; IPN 80 to 500; HEA UAP 80 to 300 UPN 80 to 400


750 550 HEB 100 to 1100 UAP-A 250 & UPN-A 240 to 400
IPE A 80 to 600 HEM 300
IPE O 180 to 600 HEC 300
IPE R 140 to 600 HEAA 100 to
1100
HL 1000 & 1100
HD 260 to 400
HP 220 to 400

The different types of profiles that exist on the market are given in the appendix.

Table 3: Merchant laminates

Equal flange angles L 20×30×3 to 200×200×24

Unequal flange angles 30×20×3 to 200×100×14

Small U irons 30×15×3 to 70×40×6

T equals holidays 25×25×3 to 80×80×9

General purpose dishes 16×5 to 150×10

General purpose rounds Ø 12 to 250

General purpose squares 8 to 90

Hexagons On flat 8 to 24

* Thin cold formed profiles

Here are some examples of cold-formed thin profiles (table 4)

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Dr. Almoutaz Bellah Alsamawi Materials and tests

Table 4: cold formed profiles

Equal flange angles 15×1.5 to 100×5

Unequal flange angles 20x15x2 to 100x50x5

Behind the scenes 11×30 to 200×80


thicknesses 2 to 6

C profiles 30×11.5× 2 to 140×50×3

Omega Profiles 17×25×12×1.5 to 70×38×30×4

Sigma profiles 200 to 360


thicknesses 1 to 3.5

Zed profiles 120 to 250


thicknesses from 1 to 5

* Hollow profiles
Table 5: hollow sections

Round hollow profiles 8×1 to 508×17

Square hollow profiles 8×1 to 400×17

Rectangular hollow profiles 12×8×1 to 500×300×17

3 Mechanical qualities of steels


The mechanical qualities are studied by means of testing. The essential tests carried out on steel
are:
- Tensile test ;
- Hardness test;
- Resilience test;
- Folding test;
- Fatigue test;
The most important among these tests is that of traction because it allows us to give us the modulus
of elasticity, the Poisson's ratio, the elastic limit, the breaking limit, as well as the elongation at break.

3.1 Tensile test


The tensile test is carried out on a machined specimen of determined shape and dimensions (figure
3).
The force applied to the specimen increases continuously and smoothly until rupture. The device
automatically records elongation as a function of force (Figure 3).

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Dr. Almoutaz Bellah Alsamawi Materials and tests

C

a
D

Eprouvette



A ll o n g e m e n t p e rm a n e n t D e fo rm a ti o n
r é v e rsi b le

A ll o n g e m e n t à ru p tu r e

A l lo n g e m e n t a p re s ru p t u re

Figure 3: Tensile diagram of low-carburized non-alloy steel

The recorded diagram includes a rectilinear part OA corresponding to the elastic domain. Then
frequently, the diagram continues with a level AB, the metal elongating at constant load: we say that there
is flow.
From point B, the firming threshold, the load must increase again to lengthen the specimen. In C, the
curve presents a horizontal tangent; beyond this point, the deformations increase with decreasing load in
D and the specimen breaks. From point C, the specimen undergoes a reduction in section or "striction" in
its central part which increases until rupture. From point a, if the tensile force is removed the return curve
aa' is parallel to the HOOKE line OA and there remains at the end of the cycle a permanent elongation
0a'. For a new loading not exceeding the ordinate of point a, the curve coincides with aa': there is a work
hardening of the steel with an increase in the elastic limit.
Beyond point C, the phenomenon of necking persists during unloading.
The AB ductility level is of very great interest in metal construction, it allows any element locally
stressed by a state of stress exceeding the boundaries of the elastic domain to unload to the detriment of
neighboring zones. There is adoption of the material.

The tensile test allows you to know:


- The elastic limit f Y
- The breaking limit f U
- Longitudinal modulus of elasticity E
- Transverse modulus of elasticity G
- Elongation at break Fu
- Elongation at the elastic limit Fy
- Poisson's ratio ν

3.2 Classification of steels


The European standard EN 10020 [2] distinguishes:

unalloyed and alloyed steels according to chemical composition ;


classes defined by the main property or application characteristics for unalloyed and alloyed steels.

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Dr. Almoutaz Bellah Alsamawi Materials and tests

* Classification by composition
The classification is based on the analysis of the casting specified in the standard or product specification
and determined by the minimum values specified for each element.
- Unalloyed steels: For this type of steel, only carbon is added to the iron,
- Alloy steels: For this type of steel, carbon and one or more addition elements are added to the
iron;

* Classification by main quality class


Steel grades can be classified into the following quality classes:
• Classes of non-alloy steels
basic steels ,
High quality steels ,
Specials steels .
• Classes of alloy steels
▪ High quality steels ,
▪ Specials steels .
For this classification, the following points must be considered:
Chemical composition,
Mechanical properties,
Thermal treatment,
Purity in terms of non-metallic inclusions,
Special quality requirements, e.g. suitability for cold forming, cold drawing,
etc.,
Physical properties,
Application.
Details of this classification are given in standard EN 10020 [2].

In metal construction we use basic steels and sometimes some quality steels for the supports.

3.3 Grades and qualities of steel used in metal construction


For hot-rolled products in non-alloy structural steel (EN 10 025 [4]) the grades and qualities of the
steels are governed by the European standards (EN) see table below (Table 6)

The designation consists of:


The European number la Norme(EN 10 025)
The symbol S
Indication of the specified minimum value of the elastic limit for thicknesses 16 mm expressed
in MPa
The quality designation for weldability and resistance to brittle fracture JR, JO, J2 and K2.

Example: A steel with a minimum specified value of tensile strength at room temperature of 510 MPa, of
JO quality, without requirements for deoxidation and suitable for planking (designation C) is given by:

Steel EN 10 025 S355 Olympic Games VS


shade Energy to0°C Suitability for
planking

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Dr. Almoutaz Bellah Alsamawi Materials and tests

There are three grades of structural steel. They are summarized in the following table:

Table 6: The grades and qualities of steels are governed by European standards
Shade Limit Quality Temperature of Mode of
elasticity the bending test deoxidation ( 2)
minimum ( 1) by shock
S 235 235 J.R. +20 Optional FU, FN
Olympic 0 F.N.
Games
J2 - 20 FF
S 275 275 J.R. +20 F.N.
J0 0 F.N.
J2 - 20 FF
S 355 355 J.R. +20 F.N.
J0 0 F.N.
J2 - 20 FF
K2 - 20 FF
1)
based on thicknesses 16 mm
2)
FU= effervescent steel
FN= effervescent steel not authorized
FF= completely calmed steel

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