1

INTRODUCTION

Calculus is a mathematical theory primarily around limit, derivative, and

integral concepts.

A limit can be described as a specific value that a function or sequence

"approaches" as the input (or index) approaches some value. It forms the
foundation for defining the derivative and integral.

A derivative is associated with the problem of determining the

instantaneous rate of change of a function at a specific point. This can be
understood as how fast or slow a curve changes at that point.

An integral can be associated with the problem of determining the total

accumulation or area under a curve, even when its boundaries are curved.

A constant is a quantity that maintains a fixed value throughout a

particular problem. Numerical or Absolute constants such as 2, √5, and π
retain the same values in all contexts. Arbitrary constants remain constant
in a particular problem but may assume different values in other problems.

A variable is a quantity that may assume various values in the course of a

problem, and the set of values that it assumes is called the domain of the
variable. The corresponding output values of a function are known as its
range.

Differential Calculus is the study of finding the derivative of a given

function, providing us with ways to understand and compute rates of
change and slopes of curves."
 2

Chapter 1

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

The fundamental concepts of Relations and Functions. The relationship

between elements of two sets is known as a relation, while a function is a
special type of relation that pairs each input with exactly one output.
Understanding these two concepts is vital to the study of Calculus as they
lay the groundwork for more complex concepts such as limits, continuity,
derivatives, and integrals. We will begin with the definitions of a relation and
a function and then delve into their different types, operations on functions,
inverse functions, and graphical representation. By the end of this chapter,
you should be familiar with function notation and be able to manipulate
functions confidently, setting a solid foundation for your journey into
Calculus.

Basic Principles

Relation is a set of ordered pairs of real number.

Domain is a set of all first coordinates of the ordered pairs.

Range is a set of all second coordinates of the ordered pairs

Illustration

A  {1, 4  ,  2, 3 ,  3, 7 }
A is a relation.

1, 2, 3 are the domain of the relation.

4, 3, and 7 are the range of the relation

Example:

Find the domain and range of the relation B  { 0, 2  ,  2, 0  ,  3, 4  , 1, 7 }

Solution:

D  {0, 2,3,1}

R  {2, 0, 4, 7}
 3

Function is a relation such that has no two ordered pairs have the same
first coordinate.

Illustration

B  { 0,1 , 1, 2  ,  2,3}

B is a relation that is a function

D are 0, 1, and 2. Take note no two distinct ordered pairs have the same
first coordinate.

If f is a function and if  x, y   f then we can write this as y  f  x  , where

y is the second coordinate of the ordered pairs whose first coordinate is x.
We can also write the ordered pair  x, y  as  x, f  x   . We read f  x  as
“f of x” or “f at x”.

Illustration

Find the range g  { x, y  | y  2 x  1, x  0,1, 2,3}

When x = 0

y  2x 1
y  2 0 1
y  1

When x=1

y  2x 1
y  2 1  1
y 1

When x=2

y  2x 1
y  2  2  1
y3

When x=3
 4

y  2x 1
y  2  3  1
y5

Therefore, R   0,1,3, 5 .

g  { 0,1 , 1,1 ,  2,3 ,  3,5 }

TWO METHODS OF DEFINING A RELATION OR A FUNCTION

1. Roster method or Listing of elements – the elements of set is listed.

2. Rule Method – can be described in the rule form, where the domain
is already specified.

Illustration 1:

C  {1,1 ,  2, 2  ,  3, 3 ,  4, 4 }

in rule form,

C  { x, y  | y  x, x  1, 2, 3, 4}

Illustration 2:

A  {1, 2  ,  2,3 ,  3, 4  ,  4,5 }

in rule form,

A  { x, y  | y  x  1, x  1, 2,3, 4}

Illustration 3:

B  { 0, 2 1,5  ,  2,8  ,  3,11}

in rule form,

B  { x, y  | y  3 x  2, x  0,1, 2,3}
 5

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 1

A. Determine whether the following relations are functions. On the

blank before each number, write F if the relation is a function and
NF if not.

_____ 1. A  {1, 4  ,  2, 7  ,  2, 4  ,  3, 7 }

_____ 2. B  { o, 2  ,  p,3 ,  q, 4  ,  r,5 }

_____ 3. C  { x, y  | y  3 x  2, x  1, 2, 0}

_____ 4. D  { 0,1 , 1, 2  ,  1, 2  ,  2,3 ,  2, 3}

_____ 5.

x 3 0 3 12

y -1 0 1 2

_____ 6. y  x 2  1

_____ 7. x  3

_____ 8. y  3

_____ 9. y  x  1

_____ 10. y  x
 6

GRAPHS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

The graph of a function, or generally an equation is the totality of points

whose coordinate satisfy the given function or equation. The graph is
done by plotting the coordinates in the rectangular coordinate system.

The Vertical Line Test

If the graph of a relation is known, a vertical line test tells whether the
relation is a function. If the vertical line intersects the graph of the relation
in more than one point, then these represent points of the relation with
same x-coordinate but different y-coordinate. Hence, this does not
conform to the definition of a function.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Linear Function – the degree of the polynomial function is one, written

as ax  by  c  0 . The graph of this function is a line.

Quadratic Function – the degree of the polynomial function is two,

written as 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 The graph of this function is a parabola
opening upward if a>0, and downward if a<0.

Cubic Function – the degree of the polynomial function is three. The

graph of this function is symmetric with respect to its origin.

Constant Function – the degree of the polynomial is zero, y  a . The

graph of this function is a horizontal line.

Rational Function – a function expressed as the quotient of two

x 1
polynomials. For example, y  the line x=2 is called the vertical
x2
2 y 1
asymptote of the graph. Upon solving for x, yields x  the line
y 1
y=1 is called the horizontal asymptote of the graph.

Absolute Value Function – this function is denoted by y=|x|. The

graph of this function is a V-shape with vertex at origin.
 7

GRAPH OF A FUNCTIONS

1. y=x

2. y=|x|

3. y=x2

4. y=-x
 8

5. y=-|x|

6. y=x3

1
7. y 
x

1
8. y  
x
 9

9. y=sinx

10. y=cosx
 10

Example:

1. y  x
Solution:
Domain: x  0
Range: y  0
Graph:

2. y | x |
Solution:
Domain: All real numbers
Range: y  0
Graph:

3. y=x3
Solution:
Domain: All real numbers
Range: All real numbers
Graph:

4. y  x  2
 11

Solution:
Domain: x  2  0; x  2
Range: y  0
Graph:

x2
5. y 
x 1
Solution:
Domain: x  1
Range:
x2
y
x 1
 x  1 y  x  2
xy  y  x  2
xy  x  y  2
x  y  1  y  2
y2
x ; y 1
y 1
Graph:
 12

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 2

A. Find the domain and range of the following functions.

1. y  x 3  1

2. y  x  4

3. y  16  x 2

4. y  x 2  1
 13

COMPUTATION OF FUNCTIONS

x=independent variable

y=dependent variable

y=f(x)

Example

Let f  x   2 x 3  3 x 2  5 x  2 , find:

1. f 1
2. f  1
3. f  3 
Solution:
f 1  2 1  3 1  5 1  2
3 2
a.
f 1  2  3  5  2
f 1  4

f  1  2  1  3  1  5  1  2

3 2
b.
f  1  2  3  5  2
f  1  2

f  3  2  3  3  3  5  3  2

3 2
c.
f  3  54  27  15  2
f  3  64
 14

OPERATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Given two functions y1  f  x  and y2  g  x 

Sum of two functions y1  y2  f  x   g  x    f  g  x
Difference of two functions y1  y2  f  x   g  x    f  g  x
Product of two functions y1 y2  f  x   g  x    f  g  x
y1 f  x   f 
Quotient of two functions     x;g  x   0
y2 g  x   g 

Example:

Given: y1  x 2  4; y2  x  2 `
f  x
Compute for f  x   g  x  ; f  x   g  x  ; f  x   g  x  ; and
g  x
Solution:
a. f  x   g  x   y1  y2   x 2  4    x  2   x 2  x  2

b. f  x   g  x   y1  y2   x 2  4    x  2   x 2  x  6

c. f  x   g  x   y1  y2   x 2  4    x  2   x 3  2 x 2  4 x  8

f  xy1  x  4 
2

d.    x2
g  x  y2  x  2 
 15

COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Let f and g be functions, the composition of f with g is denoted by

f  g (read as “f circle g”) is defined by

 f  g  f  g  x  

where the domain f  g consists of all members of x in the domain of g

which g  x  is domain of f.

Example:

Given: f  x   x 2  2 and g  x   x  1 find

a. f  g  x  

b. g  f  x  

Solution

f  g  x     x  1  2
2
a.

f  g  x    x 2  2 x  1  2

f  g  x    x 2  2 x  3

b. g  f  x     x 2  2   1

g  f  x    x 2  1
 16

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 3

A. Perform the indicated operation.

1. if f  x   x 2  2 , Find f 1 ; f  2 
 17

2x 1
2. if f  x   , find: f 1 ; f  14 
x 1
 18

LIMITS OF A FUNCTIONS

Limits such as this can be expressed formally as f  x  approaches the

limit value L as x approaches the constant a.

lim f  x   L
x a

if for any  0 however small, there exist a,   0 such that

| f  x   L | whenever 0 | x  a | 

x 1 0
lim  may or may not have a limit
x 1 x2 1 0

x 1 x 1 1 1 1
But lim  lim  lim  
x 1 x  1 x 1  x  1 x  1 x 1 x  1 1  1 2
2

Consider the function defined by:

x2  x  2
f  x  x-1>0,x=1
x 1

f  x 
 x  2  x  1 is undefined when x =1
x 1

f  x  x  2 ; x  1

Left hand limit | | x  a-

Right hand limit | | x a+

 19

THEOREM ON LIMITS

Theorem 1

The limit of a constant as x approaches a is the constant.

lim c  c , lim x  a
xa xa

Theorem 2

The limit of the sum of two or more functions is equal to the sum of
their limits.

lim[ f  x   g  x ]  lim f  x   lim g  x 

x a x a x a

Theorem 3

The limit of the product of two or more functions is equal to the

product of their limits.

lim[ f  x   g  x ]  lim f  x   lim g  x 

x a x a xa

Theorem 4

The limit of the quotient of two or more functions is equal to the

quotient of their limits, provided that the limit of denominator is not zero.

f  x lim f  x 
lim
xa g  x
 xa

lim g  x 
provided that lim
x a
g  x  0
xa

Corollary: if the limit of the denominator of the quotient is zero and:

a. the limit of the numerator of the quotient is also zero the

quotient may or may not have a limit.
b. the limit of the numerator of the quotient is not zero then the
quotient has no limit.
 20

Example: Find

x3  8
1. lim 9 2. lim  x 2  4 x  1 3. lim
x 5 x 1 x2 x2

x2  4 x3  3x
4. lim 2 5. lim
x2 x  4 x  4 x 0 9 x

Solution

1. lim 9  9
x5

2. lim  x 2  4 x  1
x 1

 lim x 2  lim 4 x  lim 2

x 1 x 1 x 1

 11  4 1  2
7
x3  8
3. lim
x2 x2
 x  2  x2  2 x  4
 lim
x 2 x2
 lim  x  2 x  4 
2
x2

  2  2  2  4
2

 4 4 4
 12
x2  4
4. lim 2
x2 x  4 x  4

 lim
 x  2  x  2 
x  2  x  2  x  2 

 lim
 x  2
x2  x  2 

22

22
4
 no limit
0
x3  3x 0  0
5. lim  0
x 0 9 x 9
 21

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 4

x3  7 x  6
1. lim 3
x 3 2 x  11x 2  12 x  9

 x  1 x  2  x  3
2. lim
x 3  2 x  1 x  3  x  3 

x 3  27
3. lim
x 3 x 3

s3  27
4. lim
s 3 s  3
 22

EVALUATING LIMITS

Right Hand Limit (RHL)

lim f  x   Ra  means as x approaches a from the right.

x a

Left Hand Limit (LHL)

lim f  x   Ra  means as x approaches a from the left.

x a

LHL RHL

Example:

Let f be defined by the equation f  x   x4

a. Draw the sketch of the graph f  x 

b. Determine lim f  x  if it exist

xa

c. Determine lim f  x   f  a  if it exist

xa
 23

a.

b. lim f  x   lim x  4  0
x  4 x4

c. lim f  x   lim x  4 which does not exist since x  4 is not real

x  4 x4

number.
 24

CONTINUITY

A function f  x  is said to be continuous at x  a if the following conditions

are all satisfied:

i. f  a  exist
ii. lim f  x  exist
x a

iii. lim f  x   f  a 
xa

Example:

x2  1
1. Is f  x   continuous at x=1?
x 1
0
i. f 1  Since condition i. is no longer satisfied, then f  x  is
0
discontinuous at x =1
|x|
2. Is f  x   continuous at x =0?
x
0
i. f  0   Thus, f  x  is discontinuous at x =0
0
3. Is f  x   x continuous at x =0?
i. x when x  0 is 0 0
ii. lim x does not exist since lim x has no limit.
x0 x0
 25

INFINITE DISCONTINUITIES

If an infinite function increases without bound as x approaches a , then

the function has infinite discontinuity at x  a .

It may happen that f  x  may become large and positive, or large and
negative so we write:

lim f  x    or lim f  x   
x a x a

Note that the symbol  is not a number but merely a notation for a certain
characteristics or behavior of the graph that it may tend to go up or down
indefinitely.

Example:

3x3  2 x 2  7
lim
x  5 x 4  x  3

3 x3 2 x 2 7
4
 4  4
 lim x 4 x x
x  5 x x 3
4
 4 4
x x x
3 2 7
 2 4
 lim x x x
x  1 3
5 3  4
x x
000

500
0
 0
5

1
Note: lim 0
x  x

Rule: Divide both numerator and denominator by highest degree of the

variable.
 26

UNBOUNDED LIMITS

Unbounded limits refer to limits where the function approaches infinity or

negative infinity. This means as the input (x) gets closer and closer to a
certain value, the output (y) grows without any bound, either positively or
negatively.

Let's consider an example. If you have the function f(x) = 1/x and you look
at what happens as x approaches 0 from the positive side, you'll notice
that the value of f(x) becomes larger and larger without bound. So we
write:

lim (x->0+) 1/x = +∞

Similarly, as x approaches 0 from the negative side, the value of f(x)

becomes smaller and smaller without bound (going into the negative):

lim (x->0-) 1/x = -∞

In both these cases, the limits are said to be unbounded. They're crucial in
calculus for understanding the behavior of functions at certain points and
are used in the definition of asymptotes, among other concepts. It's
important to remember that while we can say a limit is equal to infinity or
negative infinity, this is more a way of describing the function's behavior
rather than a numerical value the function is reaching.

One more thing to note is the concept of a limit being unbounded doesn't
only apply as x approaches a certain value. It can also apply as x goes to
positive or negative infinity. For instance, in the function f(x) = x², as x
goes to positive infinity, so does the value of f(x):

lim (x->+∞) x² = +∞

This again is an unbounded limit.

1. lim f  x   
xa

2. lim f  x    .
xa

3. lim f  x   
xa
 27

Example:

3
1. g  x  
 x  2
2

3
lim  
 x  2
x2 2

2x
2. f  x 
x 1
2x
lim  
x 1 x  1

2x
lim  
x 1 x  1

2x
lim  
x 1 x  1
 28

FOUR STEP RULES

Increments

If a variable x changes from one fixed value x1 to another x2, the difference
x1-x2 called an increment of x. In general, an increment of x may be positive
or negative and is denoted by symbol  x , read as “delta x”. Similarly, y
denotes an increment u, f  x  an increment of f  x  and so on.

Let y be a continuous, single-valued function of x denoted by

y  f  x

If the independent variable changes from the value x to another value

x   x , the function will change from y to y  y ; thus

y  y  f  x  x 

Subtracting from (1) and (2), we obtained the increment of the function

y  f  x   f  x  x   f  x 

Derivative

If an increment y of a function y  f  x  is divided by  x , the quotient

gives the average rate of change of y with respect to x in the interval from
x   x . Symbolically,

y f  x  x   f  x 

x x

y
Find the limit of as  x approaches zero
x

The procedure for finding the derivative of a given function may be

summarized in the following four step rule.

1. Substitute x  x for x and y  y in y  f  x 

2. Subtract y  f  x  from the result of 1 to obtain y in terms of x
and x
3. Divide both sides of 2 by x
 29

f  x  x   f  x 
4. Find the lim
x  0 x

dy
Example: Find
dx

1. y  f  x   x 2  2 x  1

i. f  x  x   f  x    x  x   2  x  x   1   x 2  2 x  1
2
 
 x 2  2 x  x    x   2 x  2  x   1  x 2  2 x  1
2

 2 x  x  2  x   x 
2

f  x  x   f  x  x x x
ii.  2x  2  x
x x x x
f  x  x   f  x  dy
iii. lim  lim  2 x  2  x    2x  2
x  0 x x 0 dx
2. f  x  x

 x  x  x 
i. f  x  x   f  x    x  x  x 
 x  x  x

   x
2 2
x  x

 x  x  x 
f  x  x   f  x  x  x  x
ii. 
x  x  x  x x 
f  x  x   f  x  1 dy 1
iii. lim    y'
x  0 x  x  x  x  dx x x

1

2 x
 30

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 5

Determine all the values of x for which the given function is continuous.
Indicate which theorem you apply.

1. g  x   x2  4

2. f  x   16  x 2

x4
3. h x 
x4

 
3
f  x   x 2 x 2  x
 12
4.

5. f  x   1  x  1  1  x  
 31

CHAPTER II

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Differential Calculus is one of the two main branches of calculus (the other
being integral calculus). It deals primarily with the concept of the
derivative, which measures the rate at which a quantity is changing at a
given point. Differential calculus concerns variables, functions, and their
rates of change and slopes of curves.

The derivative of a function at a particular point measures the rate at

which the function changes at that point. It's effectively the slope of the
tangent line to the function at that point. If a function f(x) represents the
position of an object at time x, for example, then its derivative f'(x)
represents the velocity of the object at time x.

Differential calculus is used in various fields to solve problems involving

rates of change and motion. In physics, it's used to describe the motion of
objects. In biology, it's used to model populations and biological
processes. In economics, it's used to find profit and cost functions, among
other applications.
 32

DERIVATIVE OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

The derivative of an algebraic function can be found using rules of

differentiation like the power rule, product rule, quotient rule, and chain rule.
It represents the function's rate of change.

1. Derivative of a Constant
The derivative of a constant is zero
dc
=0
dx
Example:
a. y  5
dy
0
dx
b. y  
dy
0
dx
2. Power Formula
The derivative of number x raised to a power n is equal to the power
multiply by the base raise to the power minus one.
dx n
 nx n 1
dx
Example:
a. y  x 2
dy
 2x
dx
b. y  x 3
dy
 3 x 4
dx
 23
c. y  x
dy 3 5
 x 3
dx 2
3. Derivative of the Sum
The derivative of the sum of two or more function is equal to the sum
of their derivative.
d du dv
u  v   
dx dx dx
 33

Example:
y  x2  2x  1

dy dx 2 d 2 x d1
  
dx dx dx dx
y '  2 x 2
4. Derivative of a product
The derivative of a product is equal to the first function multiply by
the derivative of the second function plus the second function
multiply by the derivative of the first function.
d  u  v   dv du 
 u  v 
dx  dx dx 
Example
y   2 x  1  3x 2  3
d d
y '   2 x  1
dx
 3x 2  3   3x 2  3  2 x  1
dx
y '   2 x  1 6 x    3x  3  2 
2

y '  12 x 2  6 x  6 x 2  6
y '  18 x 2  6 x  6
5. Derivative of a Quotient
The derivative of a quotient is equal to the denominator multiply by
the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator multiply by the
derivative of the denominator all over the square of the denominator.
du dv
v u
d u dx dx
  2
dx  v  v
Example:
 34

y
x 2
 1
x 1
d 2 d
 x  1
dx
 x  1   x 2  1  x  1
dx
y' 
 x  1
2

 x  1 2 x    x 2  1 1
y' 
 x  1
2

y' 
 2x 2
 2 x    x 2  1
 x  1
2

2x2  2 x  x2  1
y' 
 x  1
2

x2  2 x  1
y' 
 x  1
2

x2  2 x  1
y' 
x2  2 x  1
y' 1

6. General Power Formula

du n du
 nu n1
dx dx
Example
y   3 x 2  2 x  1
5

y '  5  6x  2
4
 35

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 6

Derivative of Algebraic Functions

1. y  12  22  32  42  52

2. y  3x 2  5 x  1

3. y  (x 2  2) x

x 1
4. y  solve as a:
x
a. expanded
b. product
c. quotient

5. y  x 2  5 use general power formula

 36

DERIVATIVE AS A RATE OF CHANGE

y
The ratio is called the average rate of change over time interval x . This
x
ratio approach a limiting values as x  0 , called the rate of change in y
dy y
with respect to x, that is  lim .
dx x 0 x

Thus, the term rate of change, slope of the graph and derivative may be
used interchangeably.

Example:

Find how fast (a)area (b)circumstances of the circle increases when the
radius increases.

Solution:

a. A   r 2
dA
 2 r
dr
b. C  2 r
dC
 2
dx
 37

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

ds
v Instantaneous velocity of particle at time t
dt
dv d  ds 
a   
dt dt  dt 
d 2s
a Instantaneous acceleration of particle at time t
dt 2
where:
s=distance
t=time
a=acceleration
Example:
Find a particle moves in accordance with the law s  t 2  2t  3. Find its
velocity and acceleration. When t=3

ds
v  2t  2
dt
v  2(3)  2
v4

dv
The, solve 2
dt
dy
Since a 
dt
Then a  2
 38

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 7

Find the velocity and acceleration of the following when t  2

1. s  8t 2  3t

2. s  t 3  3t  5
 39

CHAIN RULE OF DIFFERENTIATION

1. If y  f (u), u  g(x)
dy dy du
Then,  
dx du dx
Example
Given: y  u3  u
u  x 1
dy
Find:
dx
Solution:

d
 y  u 3  u 
du
dy du 3 du
   3u 2  1
du du du

d
[u  x  1]
dx
du dx d1
 
dx dx dx
du
 1 0  1
dx

dy dy du
 
dx du dx

dy
  3u 2  1 1
dx
dy
 3  x  1  1
2

dx
dy
 3x 2  6 x  3  1
dx
dy
 3x2  6 x  4
dx
 40

2. If x  f  y  ;
dy 1 dy
Then,  ; 0
dx dy dx
dx
Given:
y2  3y
x
y 1
Solution:
d d
dx
 y  1
dy
 y 2  3 y    y 2  3 y   y  1
dy

 y  1
2
dy

dx  y  1 2 y  3   y  3 y  1  0 
2


 y  1
2
dy

dx 2 y 2  3 y  2 y  3  y 2  3 y

 y  1
2
dy

dx y 2  2 y  3

 y  1
2
dy
Then
 y  1
2
dy
 2
dx y  2 y  3
 41

IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

Differentiate each term of the f  x, y  with respect to x bearing in mind that

y is a function of x.

d 3
1. [ x  3 xy2  3x 2 y y3  0]
dx
d  x3  d  3 xy 2  d  3x 2 y  d  y3 
   0
dx dx dx dx
 dy   dy  dx
3 x 2  3  2 xy  y 2   3  x 2  2 xy   3 y 2 0
 dx   dx  dy
dy dy dx
3x 2  6 xy  3 y 2  3x 2  6 xy  3 y 2 0
dx dx dy

dy
Collect terms with on the left side of the equation and transfer the
dx
remaining terms on the right side.

dy dy dx
6 xy  3x 2  3y2  3x 2  3 y 2  6 xy Divide both side by 3
dx dx dy

dx dy
 6 xy  3x 2
 3 y2 
dy
 3x 2  3 y 2  6 xy factor out at
dx

dx 3 x 2  3 y 2  6 xy dy
 divide both side by the coefficient of
dy 6 xy  3 x  3 y
2 2
dx

dx (6 xy  3x 2  3 y 2 )

dy 6 xy  3 x 2  3 y 2

dx
 1
dy
 42

HIGHER DERIVATIVE

y  f  x

dy d
 f  x   y '  f '  x   msec  (first derivative)
dx dx

d dy d 2 y d 2
   f  x   y ''  f ''  x   (derivative of the 1st derivative) 
dx dx dx 2 dx 2
(Second derivative)

d d2 y d3y d3
 2  3  3 f  x   y '''  f '''  x   (derivative of the 2nd derivative
dx d x dx dx
(Third derivative)

d d n 1 y d n y
 n1  n  y n (derivative of the nth-1 derivative)  (nth derivative)
dx dx dx

Example

1. y  ax 4  bx3  cx 2
Find the 4th derivative
y  ax 4  bx 3  cx 2
y '  4ax 3  3bx 2  2cx
y ''  12ax 2  6bx  2c
y '''  24ax  6b
y 4  24a

1 1 1
2. Find y’’ if x 2  y 2  a 2
1 12 1 1 12 1
x  y y'  0
2 2
 43

1 12 1 1 12 1
x  y y'  0
2 2
1 1
x 2  y 2y' 0
1  12
y 2 y '  x
 12
x
y'   12
y
1
y2
y'   1
x2
3. Given: x 2  y 2  4 find y’

2 x  2 yy '  0
2 yy '  2 x
2x
y'  
2y
x
y'  
y

4. Given: y  x 3  5 x 2  x Find y’’

y  3 x 2  10 x  1
y '  6 x  10

5. Given: y  x3  2 x 1 Find y’’’

y  x 3  2 x 1
y '  3 x 2  2 x 2
y ''  6 x  4 x 3
y '''  6  12 x 4
 44

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 8a

Find the derivative of the following

1. x 2  y 2  a 2 find;
a. y’
b. y’’

2. x 2  y 2  xy 2  y 2  0 find y’

3. x3  3x 2 y  3xy 2  y 3  0 find y’
 45

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 8b

Differentiate the following using Chain rule of differentiation.

dy
1. If y  u  1 and u  2 x 2  5 , find
dx

dy
2. If x  y 2  2 , find
dx

u2 1 dy
3. If x  and y  2u  5 , find
u dx
 46

CHAPTER III

Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions play a vital role in various scientific fields, and

understanding their derivatives is crucial in calculus. This section will delve
into the derivatives of six basic trigonometric functions: sine, cosine,
tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent, which are essential tools for
solving complex problems involving rates of change in trigonometric
contexts.
 47

REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Most Commonly use identities

sin 2 A  cos 2 A  1

tan 2 A  1  sec 2 A

cot 2 A  1  csc 2 A

sin(A  B)  sinAcosB sinBcosA

cos(A  B)  cosAcosB sinAsinB

tanA  tanB
tan(A  B) 
1  tanA tanB

Half Angle Formula

1  cos 2 A 1  cos 2 A
sinA  , sin 2 A 
2 2
1  cos 2 A 1  cos 2 A
cosA  , sin 2 A 
2 2

Double Angle Formula

sin 2 A  2sin A cosA

cos 2 A  cos 2 A  sin 2 A
cos 2 A  1  sin 2 A
cos 2 A  2 cos 2 A  1
2 tan A
tan 2 A 
1  tan 2 A
 48

DERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONs

d du
(sin(u))  cos(u)
a. dx dx
d du
(cos(u))   sin(u)
b. dx dx
d du
(tan(u))  sec2 (u)
c. dx dx
d du
(cot(u))   csc 2 (u)
d. dx dx
d du
(sec(u))  sec(u) tan(u)
e. dx dx
d du
(csc(u))   csc(u) cot(u)
f. dx dx

Examples

1. y  cos 4 x
du
Let u  4 x, 4
dx
y  cos u
dy
  sin u
du
dy dy du
 
dx du dx
dy
 ( sin u )  4 
dx
dy
 4 sin 4 x
dx
2. y  tan 4 x
du
Let u  4 x, 4
dx
dy
 sec 2 u
du

dy dy du
 
dx du dx
 49

dy
  sec 2 u  4
dx
dy
 4 sec 2 4 x
dx

3. y  cos  x 2  2 
du
u  x 2  2,  2x
dx
dy
  sin u
du

dy dy du
 
dx du dx

dy
   sin u  2 x
dx
dy
 2 x sin  x 2  2 
dx

Illustrated Examples

4. y  cos 4 t  sin 4 t

5. y  cos 4 x  sin 4 x

6. y  cot  2 x 2 
 50

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 9

Find the Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

1
1. y  tan t 2
2

2. y  sin  3 x 4 

3. y  1  x 2  tan x  x

4. y  sin 3x cos x
 51

DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION

d 1 du
a. sin 1 u 
dx 1  u dx
2

d 1 du
b. tan 1 u 
dx 1  u 2 dx
d 1 du
c. sec1 u 
dx u u 2  1 dx

Examples

1. y  tan 1  3 x 
1
y'   3
 3x 
2
1
3
y' 
9x 1
2

2. y  cos 1 1  x 
1
y'  
1  1  x 
2

1
y'  
2 x  x2

3. y  csc1 x
1
y'
2x x 1

4. y  sin 1  4 x 
4
y'
1  16 x 2
 52

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 10

Find the Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1. y   tan 1 3 x 5 
4

2. y  1  x 2  tan 1 x   x

3. y  arctan  tan x 

4. y  tan 1 1  x 
 53

CHAPTER IV

Integral Calculus

Integral calculus is one of the two main branches of calculus, the other being differential
calculus. It deals with the concept of the integral, which is essentially the reverse
process of differentiation.

While differential calculus focuses on rates of change and the slope of a curve, integral
calculus is concerned with the accumulation of quantities and the areas under curves.

The integral of a function can be interpreted as the area under the curve of a graph of
the function. This is known as a definite integral, where the integral is taken between
two specified points, usually denoted as 'a' and 'b'. The definite integral of a function
f(x) from 'a' to 'b' is written as ∫ from 'a' to 'b' of f(x) dx.

On the other hand, an indefinite integral, or antiderivative, of a function f(x) is a

differentiable function F(x) whose derivative is equal to the original function f(x). It is
written as ∫f(x) dx.

Integral calculus is widely used in many fields of science, engineering, and economics to
solve problems involving areas, volumes, and other accumulative sums. Some important
concepts in integral calculus include the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, techniques
of integration, improper integrals, and applications of the integral such as calculating
areas, volumes, and solving differential equations.
 54

INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

Indefinite, in which we aren't given the limits of integration, i.e. x=a

to x=b, so we just calculate a generic, all-purpose solution. Most of the
mathematical operations have inverse operations: the inverse operation of
addition is subtraction, the inverse operation of multiplication is division, the
inverse operation of exponentiation is rooting. The inverse operation of
differentiation is called integration. For example, describing a process at the
given moment knowing the speed of this process at that moment.

If 𝑓(𝑥) is a given function and 𝐹(𝑥) is a function whose derivative is

𝑓(𝑥), the relation between them can be expressed as:

𝑭(𝒙) = 𝒇 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙
where:
∫ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝐹(𝑥) 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝒇 (𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒙) + 𝑪

PROPERTIES OF INDEFINITE INTEGRAL

The function 𝐹(𝑥) is called an antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝐹 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).

For example, the antiderivative of 𝑥 is because = 𝑥, the
antiderivative of 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑥 is 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑥 because (𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑥) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑥) 𝑒𝑡𝑐. An
antiderivative is not uniquely determined because after 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑥 the
antiderivatives of 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑥 are also 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 2, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝜋 and any function
sin 𝑥 + 𝐶, where C is an arbitrary constant.

More generally, if 𝐹(𝑥) is an antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) then the

antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is also every function 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶, where 𝐶 is whatever
constant. The question is: has the function 𝑓(𝑥) some other antiderivatives
that are different form 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶. The next two corollaries give the answer to
this question.
 55

If 𝐹 (𝑥) = 0 in some interval (𝑎; 𝑏) then 𝐹(𝑥) is constant in that

interval.

Proof. Let us fix a point 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎; 𝑏) and choose whatever ∆𝑥 so that

𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ∈ (𝑎; 𝑏) According to Lagrange theorem there exists 𝜉 ∈ (𝑥; 𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
such that

𝐹(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐹 (𝜉) ∆𝑥

We have assumed that the derivative of 𝐹(𝑥) equals to zero in the interval
𝐹(𝑥) equals to zero in the interval (𝑎; 𝑏), therefore, 𝐹 (𝜉) = 0 that means
𝐹(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝐹(𝑥) = 0 or 𝐹(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥) for whatever ∆𝑥. Consequently,
the value of any 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ∈ (𝑎; 𝑏) equals to the value at a fixed point 𝑥 ∈
(𝑎; 𝑏) which means that this is a constant function.

Corollary 2 If 𝐹(𝑥) and 𝐺(𝑥) are two antiderivatives of the function 𝑓(𝑥)
then they differ at most by a constant.

Proof. As assumed 𝐹 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝐺 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). Thus,

[𝐺(𝑥) − 𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝐺 (𝑥) − 𝐹 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
and by corollary 1 𝐺(𝑥) − 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐶, where 𝐶 is an arbitrary constant, or
𝐺(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶. This result means that any antiderivative, which is
different from 𝐹(𝑥) can be expressed as 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶.

We can sum up in the following way: if the function 𝐹(𝑥) is an

antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) then each function 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 is also an antiderivative
and there exist no antiderivatives in different from. This gives us the
possibility to define.

By this definition
𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶
The definition 𝑓(𝑥) is called the integrand, ∫ the integral sign, x is
called the variable of integration and C the constant of integration.

Using the examples considered, we can write now that

cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
 56

and
𝑥
𝑥𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
2

We make some conclusions from the definition.

If the differential of x3 is 3x2, then

 3x2.dx = x3

But 3x2 is also the differential of x3 - 1 and x3 + 8, etc. so that this reversal is
not unique - we've 'lost' the constant! So in general, 3x2 is the differential of
(x3 + k) where k is any constant – this is known as the 'constant of
integration'.

We write this as:  3x2.dx = x3 + C

(Later on, you’ll see that if we’re given more information, we can work out
the value for k, but for now, we just leave it as it is).

INTEGRATION 'MAGIC' FORMULA

Since integration is the reverse of differentiation, for any polynomial y(x) =

xn, we can simply reverse the differentiation procedure, so that the integral
is given by

x n1
 xn.dx = +C
( n  1)

(except for n = -1)

In words: “Add one to the power, then divide by the new power. Then add
C.”
 57

PROPERTIES OF INDEFINITE INTEGRAL SUMMARY

1. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶 equation 1
2. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 equation 2
3. ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 equation 3

Power Formula
𝑦=𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑛𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Replace n by n + 1
𝑑𝑢
= (𝑛 + 1)(𝑢 )𝑑𝑢
𝑛+1
𝑑𝑢 𝑛+1
= 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
𝑢
+ 𝐶 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑛+1

4. ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 equation 4
𝑛 ≠ −1

Examples

x3
1.  x2.dx = +C
3

2.  20x4.dx = 4x5 + C

3.  7x.dx =

4.  a.dx =

5.  abx3.dx =
 58

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 11

1. ∫ 5 𝑑𝑥

2. ∫(𝑥 − 7) 𝑑𝑥

3. ∫(3𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥

4. ∫ 𝑥 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥

5. ∫ √3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 59

6. ∫ √𝑎 + √𝑥 𝑑𝑥

√
7. ∫ 𝑑𝑥

8. ∫ 𝑑𝑥

9. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
( )

Variations on Nomenclature

Because constants don’t affect the integration, it is common to bring them

in front of the integration sign to make things clearer.

x4
5. For example:  abx3.dx = ab  x3.dx = ab +C
4
5q3
or:  5q2.dq = 5 q2.dq = +C
3

Also, the position of the .dx is usually last in the line, but it can, in principle,
be anywhere inside the integral. You may sometimes see the .dx written
first (usually in Physics textbooks).

For example: Area =  dr (r3 – r5) This is identical to:  (r3 – r5).dr
 60

Roots follow the same rule

x3 / 2 2 x3
6.  x .dx =  x½.dx =  +C
(3 / 2) 3

Inverse powers also follow the same rule

1 x 2 1
7.  .dx =  x-3.dx = = − +C
x3 2 2x2

1
This is true so long as the exponent is not -1. 
cannot be
x
calculated using this formula because we get a divide-by-zero error.

Other variables

2m 3
8.  2m2.dm = +C
3

10 3
9.  5  .d = +C
3

1 θ1/ 2
10.  .d =  -½.d =  2 θ +C
 1/ 2

Sums of terms
Just as in differentiation, a function can by integrated term-by-term, and we
only need one constant of integration.

11.  3x2 + 7x.dx =  3x2 +  7x

1 5 2
12.  x + 2 + x + 4x3.dx
x 3
 61

DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Definite, in which we are told a and b and so we can calculate an explicit

value for an area. We now know how to integrate simple polynomials, but if
we want to use this technique to calculate areas, we need to know the limits
of integration. If we specify the limits x = a  x = b, we call the integral a
definite integral.

To solve a definite integral, we first integrate the function as before (i.e. find
its indefinite integral), then feed in the 2 values of the limits. Subtracting one
from the other gives the area.

Example

1. What is the area under the curve y(x) = 2x2 between x=1 and x=3?
(Note: this is the same problem we did graphically earlier).

x 3

 2 x .dx
2
Area = we write the limits at the top and bottom of the
x 1

integration sign

= +𝐶 we use square brackets to indicate we've calculated

the indefinite integral

= (18 + C) - (2/3 + C) feed in the larger value, then the

smaller, and subtract the
two.

= 18 - 2/3

= 171/3 sq. units (compare the approximate value we got

graphically of 17¾).
 62

Note: the C's cancel. So when we evaluate a definite integral we can ignore
the constant of integration.

2. What is the area under the curve y(x) = 2x3 - 6x between x = -1 and
x = 0?

y
x 0 4
A=  2x
3
 6 x.dx 3
area
x  1
2
0 1
 x4 
=   3x 2  0
2  1 x
-1

= (0 - 0) - (½ - 3) -2

-3
= 2½ sq.units
-4
-2 -1 0 1 2

3. What is the enthalpy of a gas at 20 K given that its heat capacity as

a function of temperature is given by C = 2T 2, over the range T = 0 K to 20
K?

You’ll learn in chemistry lectures that the enthalpy of a gas, H, is given by

the area under the curve of heat capacity vs temperature. In most cases,
we approximate it by saying that the heat capacity doesn't change much
with T, so is in fact a constant. If we take an average value between 0 and
20 K of 10 K, then C~2×102 = 200 J K-1 mol-1. In this case the enthalpy is
just given by

T2 T2
H= T1
C .dT (with C = constant = 200) = 
T1
200 .dT
 63

T
= [200T] T12 = 200(T2 – T1) = 200(30 – 0) = 6.0
kJ mol-1

However in this question, we are asked for a more accurate answer, and
are told C is not constant, it’s a function of T.
T2
So H= 
T1
C .dT

20
T2  20  2T 3 

2
= 2T .dT =  3  = (16000 / 3) - 0
T1  0
 0

= 5.3 kJ mol-1 (compare this with the approximate answer we

obtained when we assumed C was constant).

2
4. What is the area under the curve y(x) = between x = 1 and x = 
x2
?
[This may seem odd…how can you calculate an area up to x = infinity? But
if you draw the graph, you’ll see that although x goes to infinity, the curve is
getting closer and closer to the y axis and so the area is getting smaller. So
in this case, it is possible to calculate a finite area, even though we are
integrating to infinity].

 2
A=  1 x2
.dx


=  1
2 x 2 .dx


  2
= [-2x-1] 1 =  x 
1

= (0) - (-2)
 64

= 2 sq.units.

Negative Integrals

Consider the function y(x) = 2x within the limits x = -2 to +1. Let’s calculate
the area ‘under’ this curve using the standard procedure:
1
1
A=  2 x.dx
2
= [x2] 2 = (12) - ( -22) = -3 sq. units

What does negative area mean?

y
y = 2x
8

0
A2 x
A1
-2

-4

-6

-8
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

The area A1 = ½  4  2 is below the x axis and is counted as -ve.

The area A2 = ½  1  2 is above the x axis and is counted as +ve.

Therefore, it is always a good idea to sketch a curve before you

integrate, to see if it goes -ve anywhere between the limits.

Integrals of Common Functions

For any function for which the differential has been established,
reversal of the process gives the integral. Learn these!
 65

Constant of Integration

1. Geometric signification of constant of integration

Find the curve having the given slope that passes through the point
(5,4).

𝑚 = 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 5
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 5) 𝑑𝑥

𝑦= 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 5𝑑𝑥
2𝑥
𝑦= − 5𝑥 + 𝐶
2
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 𝐶 generation equation
𝑃(5,4)

4 = 5 − 5(5) + 𝐶
4=𝐶
𝑦 = 𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 4 Particular equation

2. Find the equation of the curve for which 𝑦 " = 𝑥 which passes
through the point (1,2) with a slope of .

𝑦" = 𝑥
𝑑 𝑦
=𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
=𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑦 ) = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑚
=𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 66

𝑚= +𝐶 general equation
5 1
= + 𝐶; 𝐶=2
2 2
𝑦 = + 2 particular equation

𝑑𝑢
𝑦 =𝑚=
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
= +2
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = + 2 𝑑𝑥
2
1
𝑦= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑦= + 2𝑥 + 𝐶 general equation.
At point (1,2)

1
𝐶 = (1) + 2(1) + 𝐶
6
1
𝐶 =−
6

1 1
6𝑦 = (𝑥) + 2(𝑥) −
6 6
6𝑦 = 𝑥 + 12𝑥 − 1 particular equation.

Physical Signification of Constant of Integration

If s is positive, it is increasing
If s is negative, it is decreasing

=𝑣 positive, it is increasing; negative, it is decreasing.

=𝑎 positive, it is downward; negative, it is upward

Example

𝑣 = 2𝑡; 𝑠=1
 67

When 𝑡 = 0, Find 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡)

𝑑𝑠
= 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = 2 𝑡𝑑𝑡
2𝑡
𝑠= +𝐶
2
1= 0+𝐶
𝑠 =𝑡 +1

Physical Signification of constant of integration

An equation 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡) when s is the distance at time t of a body from

a fixed point in its straight path completely defines the motion of velocity
and acceleration at time t.

Given by

𝑣= time rate of change of displacement

𝑎= = time rate of change of velocity

Conversely, if the velocity (acceleration) is known at a time t, together

with position (position velocity) at same given instant, usually at t is 0, the
equation of motion is obtained by using

From equation
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑣

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑎= ∗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑎= ∗
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= ∗𝑣
𝑑𝑠

Note:
 68

𝑣 − 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠

𝑣 − 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠

𝑎 − 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)

𝑎 − 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)
Freely Falling Body
𝑎 − 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝑎 − 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝒎 𝒇𝒕
𝒂 = 𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟑𝟐
𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟐

𝑣 − 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

𝑣 − 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝑠 − 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
𝑠 − 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)

Problem 1. A stone is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 40

from a tower 200 𝑓𝑡 high. How long does it take to the stone to strike the
ground?

𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑎 = −32 =
−32
𝑎 = −32
𝑑𝑣 = −32 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑣 = −32 𝑡 + 𝐶 General Equation
At point A
𝑡=0 𝑣=0
40 = 32 (0) + 𝐶
40 = 𝐶

𝑣 = −32 𝑡 + 40 Particular equation

𝑑𝑠
= −32𝑡 + 40
𝑑𝑡
 69

𝑑𝑠 = (−32𝑡 + 40) 𝑑𝑡

𝑠 = −32 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 40 𝑑𝑡
−32𝑡
𝑠= + 40𝑡 + 𝐶
2

At point A
𝑠=0 𝑡=0 𝐶 =0
𝑠 = 16𝑡 + 40𝑡 [𝑠 ∗ 𝑓(𝑡)]
𝑑𝑠
= −32𝑡 + 40
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = (−32𝑡 + 40) 𝑑𝑡

𝑠 = −32 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 40 𝑑𝑡
−200 = −16𝑡 + 40𝑡
16𝑡 − 40𝑡 − 200
=0
4
2𝑡 − 10𝑡 − 10 = 0
(2𝑡 + 5)(𝑡 − 5) = 0
𝑡 = 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
 70

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 12

1. From Problem 1, how long will it take the stone to reach the highest
point? How high will it go? With what velocity will it strike the ground?

2. With what constant acceleration will bring an automobile traveling

40 to rest in 20𝑚?

3. A light is placed on the ground 32𝑓𝑡 from a building. A man 6 𝑓𝑡 tall

walks from the light toward the building at a rate of 6 . Find the rate
 71

at which his shadow on the building is decreasing when he is

16 𝑓𝑡from the building.

4. Each of two sides of a triangle are increasing at the rate of , and

the included angle is decreasing 2 per second. Find the rate of
change of the area within the sides and included angle are
respectively 5𝑓𝑡, 8𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 60 .
 72

𝒖𝒏 𝟏
Integration ∫ 𝒖𝒏 𝒅𝒖 = +𝑪
𝒏 𝟏
where 𝑛 ≠ −1
sin 𝑥(cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
𝑢 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
+𝐶
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
+𝐶
2

1
𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑢 = ln 𝑥
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
+𝐶
2
(ln 𝑥)
+𝐶
2
Power Formula
√1 − 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 =1−𝑒
𝑑𝑢 = −𝑒 𝑑𝑥
−𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
− √𝑢 𝑑𝑢

/
− 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝑢
− +𝐶
3
2
2
− (1 − 𝑒 ) + 𝐶
3
 73

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 13

𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟏 𝒙
1. ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝟏 𝒙𝟐

2. ∫ 𝑥 √𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
 74

4. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟏 𝒂𝒙
5. ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐

6. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 75

∫ = ln 𝑢 + 𝐶 equation 5

𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
𝑢 =𝑥+1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
= ln 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑢
𝑑𝑥
= ln(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
𝑥+1

If the numerator is an exact differential of the denominator it is equal

to the logarithm of the denominator.

𝑦+4
𝑑𝑦
𝑦−4

If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the

denominator, divide the numerator and denominator until the numerator is
of lesser degree than the denominator.

Problem 1. ∫ 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑟=8
𝑦−4 𝑦+4
𝑦−4
8

8
1+ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦−4
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 + 8
𝑦−4

𝑢 =𝑦−4
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑦
 76

𝑦+4
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 + 8 ln (𝑦 − 4) + 𝐶
𝑦−4

Problem 2. ∫ 𝑑𝜃
𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 = ln 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 𝐶
tan 𝜃
 77

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 14

1. ∫ 𝑑𝜃
√

2. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
 78

INTEGRATION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

 ex.dx = ex + C Equation 6

1 ax
 eax.dx = e +C
a

Example
𝑒 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 +𝐶

What is the area under the curve y(x) = 3e-5x from x = 1 to x =  ?


A= 
1
3 exp(5 x ).dx

 3 
=   e 5 x 
 5 1
= (0) - ( -0.004) = 0.004 sq.units

INTEGRAL OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

1
 x .dx = ln x + C
Equation 7

 ln x.dx = x.(ln x - 1) + C

Example: (From 2nd year thermodynamics) Calculate the work done when
an ideal gas is expanded infinitely slowly from a starting volume V1 to a final
volume V2.
 79

The work done is given by the area under the pressure-volume graph, or:

Work =  -p(V).dV

Since we’re told it’s an ideal gas, we can replace p(V) with nRT/V

nRT
Work =  - .dV, and since n, R and T are constants, this
V
becomes

V2 1
Work = -nRT ×  .dV. Applying the rule, above:
V1 V

Work = -nRT × ln V V12

V
= -nRT × (ln V2 – ln V1)

Work = -nRT ln (V2 / V1)

 80

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 15

1. ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥

2. ∫ 𝑒 (cos 3𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

3. ∫ 6 𝑑𝑥

4. ∫ 3 𝑑𝑦
 81

5. ∫ 𝑑𝑥

6. ∫ √10 𝑑𝑥

7. ∫ 𝑑𝑥

8. ∫ 𝑑𝑦
 82

9. ∫ 𝑑𝑧

10. ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥

√
11. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√

12. ∫ √10 𝑑𝑥
 83

INTEGRAL OF TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS

 cos x.dx = sin x + C

Equation 8

 sin x.dx = - cos x + C

Equation 9

 tan x.dx = - ln (cos x) + C

Equation 10

Example: What is the area under the curve y() = 3sin  between  = 0

and ?
4

π/4
A = 0
3 sinθ.dθ

= [ -3 cos ] 0π / 4

= ( -3  0.707) - (-3)

= 0.879 sq.units

Integration by Substitution: Trigonometric Functions

∫ sin 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = − cos 𝑢 + 𝐶

sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑢 + 𝐶

cos 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝐶

1. a) ∫ cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

b) ∫ cos 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = sin 𝑦 + 𝐶
c) ∫ cos 𝑧𝑑𝑧 = sin 𝑧 + 𝐶, so on
 84

2. ∫ cos 𝑦𝑑𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑦, 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑦

4𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑦

∫ cos 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ∫ cos 𝑢 (4𝑑𝑢)

= 4 ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= 4 sin 𝑦 + 𝐶

3. ∫ 𝑥 cos(1 − 3𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 1 − 3𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = −6𝑥𝑑𝑥

− 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑥 cos(1 − 3𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑢 (− 𝑑𝑢)
= − ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= − (sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
= − sin(1 − 3𝑥 ) + 𝐶

4. ∫ cos(tan 𝑧) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑧𝑑𝑧 = ∫ cos 𝑢𝑑𝑢

= sin(tan 𝑧) + 𝐶

𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = − cot 𝑢 + 𝐶

5. a) ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 + 𝐶

b) ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑡𝑑𝑡 = − cot t + C
c) ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶

6. ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (2𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 1; 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑐𝑠𝑐 (2𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑢( 𝑑𝑢)
2
= ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑢𝑑𝑢
= cot 𝑢 + 𝐶
= − cot(2𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
 85

7. ∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑒 𝑑𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑦
2𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑦
∫𝑒 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ( 𝑒 )𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑢(2𝑑𝑢)
= 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑢𝑑𝑢
= 2(− cot 𝑢 + 𝐶)
= −2(cot 𝑢 + 𝐶)
= −2 cot 𝑒 + 𝐶

sec 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 ∣ sec 𝑢 + tan 𝑢 ∣ +𝐶

8. a) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑧𝑑𝑧 = 𝑙𝑛 ∣ sec 𝑧 + tan 𝑧 ∣ +𝐶

b) ∫ sec 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛 ∣ sec 𝑦 + tan 𝑦 ∣ +𝐶
c)∫ sec 𝑎𝑑𝑎 = 𝑙𝑛 ∣ sec 𝑎 + tan 𝑎 ∣ +𝐶

9. ∫ 𝑥 sec(4𝑥 + 9)𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 4𝑥 + 9; 𝑑𝑢 = 12𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑥 sec(4𝑥 + 9)𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
12
= ∫ sec 𝑢𝑑𝑢
= (𝑙𝑛 ∣ sec 𝑢 + tan 𝑢 ∣ +𝐶)
= {𝑙𝑛 ∣ sec(4𝑥 + 9) + tan(4𝑥 + 9) ∣} + 𝐶

( )
10. ∫ 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
sec(ln 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
= sec 𝑢𝑑𝑢
𝑥
= 𝑙𝑛 ∣ sec 𝑢 + tan 𝑢 ∣ +𝐶
= 𝑙𝑛 ∣ sec(ln 𝑥) + tan(ln 𝑥) ∣ +𝐶
 86

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 16

Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫ sin 3 𝑦𝑑𝑦

2. ∫ 𝛽 sin(5 − 𝛽 ) 𝑑𝛽

3. ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

4. ∫ 𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑑𝑎
 87

5. ∫ cos(2𝑧 + 3) 𝑑𝑧

4
6. csc 𝜃𝑑𝜃
5

7. ∫ sin 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

8. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
 88

9. ∫(1 + sec 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

10. ∫

11. ∫ .

12. ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (2 − 3𝑥)𝑑𝑥

 89

13. ∫

14. ∫ sec 4𝜃 tan 4𝜃 𝑑𝜃

15. ∫ 𝐶𝑠𝑐 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦

16. ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 90

17. ∫ 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

18. ∫

19. ∫

20. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
 91

Transformation of trigonometric functions

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Use the identity

1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

Examples

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
− 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢

𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
+𝐶
3
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 − +𝐶
3
 92

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 17

Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

3. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡

4. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 93

TRANSFORMATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

Case II

A product of the form 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢 where m and n are both positive even
integer, can be integrated using trigonometric identities.

1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 = − cos 2𝑢
2 2
1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢 = − cos 2𝑢
2 2

Example

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
− cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1
𝑑𝑥 − cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1 sin 2𝑥
𝑥− +𝐶
2 2 2

Case III

A power of the form 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 or 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑢 where n is a positive (even) integer,

can be integrated using the trigonometric identities.

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 − 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑢 − 1

Example

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 − 1) tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

 94

Let 𝑢 = sec 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶
2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
2

Case IV

A power of the form 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 or 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑢 where 𝑛 > 2, is a positive even integer,
can be integrated using trigonometric identities.

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑢

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶
3
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + + 𝐶
3
 95

Case IV

A product of the form 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑢 where m and n are positive integer, can
be integrated using:

a. When n is even
b. When m is odd
c. When m is even and n is odd

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥(sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

(𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 1) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥)(sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 (sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = sec 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 𝑢
− +𝐶
5 3
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
− +𝐶
5 3

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − +𝐶
5 3
 96

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 18

Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2. ∫ sin 3𝑥 cos 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

4. ∫ sin 2𝑦 sin 3𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 97

Algebraic Substitution; Integrals Giving Inverse Trigonometric

Functions:

For 𝐼 : ∫ √ = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝐶, 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Equation 18

For 𝐼 : ∫ = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan + 𝐶 Equation 19

For 𝐼 : ∫ √
= 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sec + 𝐶 Equation 20

𝑑𝑥
1 + 4𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 4𝑥
𝑢 = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
∫ 2
𝑎 +𝑢
1 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑎 +𝑢
𝑑𝑥 1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝐶
1 + 4𝑥 2

𝑥
√4 − 𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 4 − 𝑥
1
− = −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1
− = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
1
∫ − 2 𝑑𝑢
=
√𝑢
1 𝑑𝑢
=−
2 𝑢 /
1
=− 𝑢 / 𝑑𝑢
2
1 𝑢
=− +𝐶
2 1
2
𝑥
= − 4−𝑥 +𝐶
√4 − 𝑥
 98

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 19

Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫ √

2. ∫

3. ∫ √

4. ∫ √
 99

5. ∫ √ 𝑑𝑥

6. ∫ √

7. ∫ √

8. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√
 100

9. ∫ √

10. ∫ √

11. ∫ √

12. ∫ √ 𝑑𝑥
 101

13. ∫

14. ∫ √
 102

CHAPTER V

Four Methods of Integration

 103

FOUR METHODS OF INTEGRATION

1. Integration by parts
2. Algebraic substitution
3. Trigonometric substitution
4. Integration of rational fractions

INTEGRATION BY PARTS

𝒖 𝒅𝒗 = 𝒖𝒗 − 𝒗 𝒅𝒖
𝑑 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑣

𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑣

1
ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Let 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥

ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥

ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 1 + 𝐶

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

Let 𝑢 = sec 𝑥 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = sec 𝑥 𝑣 = tan 𝑥

𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 −1) sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 dx 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln(sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥)
2 2
 104

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 20

Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2. ∫ 𝑥 √𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥

3. ∫
√ √

4. ∫ 4 − ( )
𝑑𝑦
 105

5. ∫ 2𝑥√𝑥 + 4𝑑𝑥

6. ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
 106

TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

A substitution involving trigonometric terms

1. When the integrand involves 𝑎 − 𝑥

Try 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃

2. When the integrand involves 𝑎 + 𝑥

Try 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃

3. When the integrand involves 𝑥 − 𝑎

Try 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃

𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑎 − 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑎 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1 + cos 2𝜃
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
2
1 + cos 2𝜃
𝑎 𝑑𝜃
2
1 cos 2𝜃
𝑎 + 𝑑𝜃
2 2
1 1
𝑎 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑎 cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 2
Let 𝑢 = 2𝜃
𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑑𝜃
𝑎 𝑎 1
𝜃+ 2 cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 2 2
𝜃+ ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑎 𝑎
𝜃 + sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
2 4
𝑎 𝑎
𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 + 𝐶
2 4

Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑎
 107

sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

𝑥 √𝑎 − 𝑥
sin 2𝜃 = 2
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎
𝑥 𝑎 −𝑥
2
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑎 −𝑥 +𝐶
2 𝑎 4 𝑎
𝒂𝟐 𝒙 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪
𝟐 𝒂 𝟐
 108

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 21

1. ∫ √𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2. ∫ 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3. ∫ 𝑒
√
 109

INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS

Fractions in which the numerator and denominator are polynomials in the

variable of integration.

Improper Fraction

The degree of numerator is > the degree of the denominator.

Proper Fraction

The degree of numerator is < the degree of the denominator.

Partial Fractions

Sum of simpler fractions.

Theorem

Any proper rational fraction maybe resolved into a sum of partial

fractions subjects to the following classifications.

1. Distinct linear factors

If a linear factor 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 occurs once as a factor of the

denominator there corresponds to this factor one partial fraction
where A is a constant and A ≠ 0.

𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
By partial fraction
1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
1 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥
=
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥
𝑥 = 0 ; 1 = 𝐴(0 + 1) + 𝐵(0)
𝐴=1
𝑥 = −1 ; 1 = 𝐴(−1 + 1) + 𝐵(−1)
𝐵 = −1
𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝐵 𝑑𝑥
= +
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 +
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥+1
 110

𝑑𝑥
= ln 𝑥 − ln[𝑥 + 1] + 𝐶
𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
= ln +𝐶
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥+1
By coefficient
1 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥
0=𝐴+𝐵
𝑥 ;𝐴 = 1
0= 1+𝐵
−1 = 𝐵

2. Repeated linear factors

A partial fraction has repeated factors when one of the

denominator factors has multiplicity greater than 1: The process for
repeated factors is slightly different than the process for linear, non-
repeated factors.

3. Quadratic factors

Factoring Quadratics. Factoring quadratics finds the roots or x-

intercepts of a quadratic equation. Factoring quadratic equations in
standard form, , can often be accomplished by finding two numbers
that add to give b, and multiply to give ac.

4. Repeated quadratic factors

 111

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 22

Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫

( )
2. ∫

3. ∫ ( )

4. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
 112

Definite Integral

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a given function, 𝐹(𝑥) an integral of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑥 = (∞)𝑎 and
𝑥 = 𝑏 two given values of 𝑥. The change in the value of the integral 𝐹(𝑥) as 𝑥
changes from 𝑎 to 𝑏, i.e. the quantity 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) is called the definite integral of
𝑓(𝑥) between the limits 𝑎 and 𝑏 or simply the definite

integral from 𝑎 to 𝑏 and is denoted by the symbol ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.

Symbolically,

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)]

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)

General Properties of Definite Integrals

𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Interchanging the limits changes the sign of the integral

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

The interval of integration may be broken up into a number of subintervals

and the integration is performed over each interval separately.

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦

The definite integral of a given integrand is independent of the variable of

integration.

Even and Odd functions

A function that remains unchanged when x is replaced by (−𝑥) such that

𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) is called an even function. This means geometrically that the curve
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is symmetric with respect with the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥) = 𝑥

b. 𝑦 = 𝑥

c. 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
 113

A function that changes when 𝑥 is replaced by (−𝑥) such that 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
is called an odd function.

a. 𝑦 = 𝑥

b. 𝑦 = 𝑥

c. 𝑦 = sin 𝑥

Theorem

1. If 𝑓(𝑥) is an even equation

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

2. If 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0

Example

1. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
3
2 (−2)
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −
3 3
8 8
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +
3 3
𝟏𝟔
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝟑

2. ∫ (𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 6) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑛+1
𝑥 4𝑥
(𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 6) 𝑑𝑥 = + − 6𝑥
3+1 2+1
2 4(2) 1 4(1)
(𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 6) 𝑑𝑥 = + − 6(2) − + − 6(1)
3+1 3 3+1 3
85 1
(𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 6) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 7
12 12
 114

3. ∫
√
𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1
= ( ) 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥 +1
= + −
√𝑥 3 1 1
+1 +1 +1
2 2 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 2(1) 4(1) 2(0) 4(0)
= + − 2(1) − + − 2(0)
√𝑥 5 3 5 3
𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 4
=−
√𝑥 15

4. ∫ (𝑎 − 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡

(𝑎 − 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 2 (𝑎 − 𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
1
(𝑎 − 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑎 𝑡 − 𝑡
3
1
(𝑎 − 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑎 (𝑎) − 𝑎 −0
3
2
(𝑎 − 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑎
3
4
(𝑎 − 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎
3

5. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√
Ans. 0
 115

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 23

1. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0

2. ∫ √

3. ∫ (2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥

4. ∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 116

5. ∫
√

6. ∫ (2𝑦 + 1) 𝑑𝑦

7. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

8. ∫ 𝑑𝑦
 117

9. ∫ ( )( )

10. ∫
√
Ans. 2

11. ∫ √4 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

12. ∫
 118

WALLIS’ FORMULA

The integral

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,

In which m and n are the integers ≧ 0, arises over and over again in
elementary applications. Fortunately, the integral (1) can be evaluated simple, with
a formula which is easy to remember in words, though bulky looking in symbols.

We shall prove in 146 that if m and n are integers > 1,

( )( )… ( )( )…
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, = (1)0
( )( )…

in which

𝛼= , if m and n are both even,

𝛼 = 1, otherwise.
.
In words, the value of the integral (1) is . 𝛼, in which

A= the product, starting with one less than the exponent m, going down 2 at a time,
until 2 or 1 is reached;
B= a similar product, starting with one less than the other exponent;
C= a similar product, starting with the sum of exponents.

If either m or n is unity, the integral (1) can be evaluated at once by the

power formula. If either m or n is zero, the result is not so simple, but one added
device permits us to include that result in the formula (2)

RULE. If the first factor in any of the products to be formed in applying

Wallis’ formula, for m, n≧ 0, is less than one, replace that product by unity,

Example (a). Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

By Wallis’ formula, we obtain

(7.5.3.1)(3.1) 𝜋 7𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = . =
12.10.8.6.4.2. 2 2048
 119

Example (b). Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑑𝛽.

By Wallis’ formula,

(4.2)(5.3.1) 2 9
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑑𝛽 = .1 = =
11.9.7.5.3.1. 11.9.7 693

Example (c) . Evaluate ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝑑𝜑.

At once,

(2)(4.2) 1 1
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝑑𝜑 = .1 = =
8.6.4.2 8.3 24

Example (d). Evaluate ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝑑𝜑.

Here, in forming the product associated with the exponent of the sine, we
would normally start with one less than one, with zero. Hence, by the rule above,
we replace that product by unity and write

(6.4.2)(1) 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝑑𝜑 = = ,
8.6.4.2 8

A result readily verified by direct integration. Since this integration is so

easily performed by the power formula, the student should realize that the example
is included only because it permits such simple verification. In practice we do not
use Wallis’ formula when one of the exponents is unity; such a procedure would
be somewhat like using an atom bomb to remove a tree stump.
 120

NAME: ___________________________ SCORE: ________

YEAR AND SECTION: ___________________ DATE: __________

Exercise 23

Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝑑𝜑

4. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝑑𝜑
 121

5. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝑑𝜑

6. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 𝑑𝜑
 122

Plane Area
y
y = f(x)

Δx
(x,y) E
F
D

y+Δy
A

A B C x
x=a x=b

(𝑦 + ∆𝑦) ∆𝑦 > ∆𝐴 > 𝑦∆𝑥

1
[𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)]∆𝑥 > ∆𝐴 > 𝑓(𝑥) ∆𝑥
∆𝑥
∆𝐴
lim 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) > lim > lim 𝑓(𝑥)
∆ → ∆𝑥 ∆ →
but 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
𝑑𝐴
𝑓(𝑥) > > 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐴
𝑦> >𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

Using vertical element of area

𝐴= 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Area between two curves

𝐴= (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝐴= [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
 123

Using horizontal element of area

𝒅
𝑨= 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝒄
𝒅
𝑨= (𝑋 − 𝑋𝑳 ) 𝑑𝑦
𝒄

𝒅
𝑨= [𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦
𝒄

Area between two curves

𝒃
𝑨= (𝑌 − 𝑌𝑳 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝒂

= [𝑓 (𝑥 ] − 𝑓 (𝑥 )] 𝑑𝑥

𝑨= (𝑌 − 𝑌 )𝑑𝑥

𝐴= [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

𝑨 = ∫ (𝑋 − 𝑋 )𝑑𝑦

𝐴= [𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦

𝐴= (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦 + (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦

𝐴= [𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦)]𝑑𝑦 + ( 𝑓(𝑦) − ℎ(𝑦)) 𝑑𝑦

x = h(y)
y B (x2,y2)

dy
A (x1,y1) x = f(y)
1

2
dy

C (x3,y3)
 124

x = g(y)

𝐴= (𝑌 − 𝑌 )𝑑𝑥
𝐴=𝐴 +𝐴
𝐴 = [ℎ(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 + 𝐴 = [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥

y = h(x)
y B (x2,y2)
dx
y = f(x)
1
A (x1,y1)
yh – yL

2
dx
yh – yL

y = g(x) yh
yh
C (x3,y3)
yL
yL

o x
 125

Ex. Find the area of a region bounded by line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2; the x-axis, x=0, &
x=3. Draw the sketch.

Using Analytic Method

𝑦 =𝑥+2

x 0 3
y 2 5

𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (0,2)

1
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ + 𝑙𝑤
2
1
= (3)(3) + 3(2)
2
9
= +6
2
21
=
2

( )
or trapezoid =
2+5 21
𝐴= 3=
2 2
 126

Derive the area of a triangle

Using intercept form
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
𝑎 𝑏
𝑦
𝐵(0, 𝑏)
𝑏
𝑑𝑥 𝑦=𝑏− 𝑥
𝑎

𝑏
y

𝑜(0,0) 𝑎 𝑥(𝑎, 0)
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
𝑎 𝑏
𝑦 𝑥
=1−
𝑏 𝑎
𝑏
𝑦=𝑏−
𝑎
𝐴= 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑥
= 𝑏−
𝑎 2
= 𝑏(𝑎) − −0
𝑏𝑎
= 𝑎𝑏 −
2
𝑎𝑏
𝐴=
2
 127

Derive the area of a circle

𝑥 +𝑦 =𝑎

y
dx

(-a, 0) (a, 0) x

𝐴=4 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

=4 𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

let 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑥 = 0, 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =0

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑥 = 1; 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (1) =

𝐴 = 4 ∫ √𝑎 − 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝐴=4 𝑎 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

4 ∫ 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 , 𝑚 = 0, 𝑛 = 2, 𝜑 =
( ) )
= 4𝑎
= 4𝑎
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
 128

a) Find the area of the triangle with vertices (1,3) (5,1)(5,10)

𝐴𝐵 (1,3), (5,10)
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑦−𝑦 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 )
𝑥 −𝑥
10 − 3
𝑦−3= (𝑥 − 1)
5−1
7
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1) + 3
4
7 5
𝑦 = 𝑥 ___________𝑙2
4 4

𝐴= (𝑌 − 𝑌 ) 𝑑𝑥

=∫ 𝑥+ − − 𝑥+ 𝑑𝑥
=∫ 𝑥− 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 = +5 − −1
= −5+ = (13 − 5) = (8)
= 𝟏𝟖 𝒔𝒒. 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝑺

Using determinants

1
𝐴 = [(50 + 1 + 15) − (15 + 15 + 10)]
2
66 − 30
=
2
36
𝐴= = 𝟏𝟖 𝒔𝒒. 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
2