Algebra Part1 Notes
Algebra Part1 Notes
c Geoffrey Barini
[email protected]
Course content
• Sets
• Elementary logic
• Series: finite, infinite, arithmetic, geometric and binomial (positive integral index only) including
applications to compound interest, approximations, growth and decay.
• Trigonometry: trigonometric functions including their graphs and inverses in degree and radian
measure. Sine and cosine formulae.
• Statistics: collection and representation of data, and measures of central tendency and variability
by graphical and calculation methods.
References
[1] Mathematics for Science by S. M. Uppal and H. M. Humphreys, 1997, Mc Graw Hill, 2nd edition.
[2] Algebra and Trigonometry with Analytical Geometry (12th edition) by Earl Swokowski
Lecture 1
1 Algebra
1.1 Numbers
Numbers can be grouped together and classified in different sets of numbers such as:
1
1.1 Numbers c Dr. Barini
• Integers
5 √
• Terminating and recurring decimal numbers e.g., , 0.55, 0.3̇, 9, etc.
6
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
All rational numbers and irrational numbers are real numbers. The set of all real numbers is denoted
by R.
2
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
Lecture 2
• A quadratic equation is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are constants,
x is a variable and a 6= 0.
x2 − 2x − 3x + 5 = 0
x(x − 2) − 3(x − 2) = 0
(x − 3)(x − 2) = 0
(x − 3) = 0
(x − 2) = 0
x = 2 and x = 3 are the solutions or roots of the given equation Case 2 To factorize a quadratic
expression of the form ax2 + bx + c, we determine two numbers whose sum is b and product is
ac.
Example(s):
Solution
3
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
We need to find two number whose sum is −5 and product is −6. Thus, the numbers are
−6 and 1. So, 2x2 − 5x − 3 = 0 becomes
Exercise:
Solve the following quadratic equations using factorization method
(i) x2 − 10x + 24 = 0.
(ii) x2 + 6x + 9 = 0.
(iii) 4x2 + 10x − 6 = 0.
(iv) 5x2 − 17x + 6 = 0.
(v) 25x2 − 9 = 0.
(v) x2 + 5x = 0.
(v) 6x2 − 2x = 0.
(v) 6x2 + 5x − 6 = 0.
(v) (x + 2)(x + 3) = 12.
(x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
For all such expansions, the constant term is the square of half coefficient of x. This forms the
basis for the solution of quadratic equations by completing the square method. Thus if x2 +bx+c
2
b
is a complete square, then c = .
2
→ Consider the equation x2 + 6x − 4 = 0, to solve this kind of equation we need to write or
express the terms containing x as a difference of two squares
→ Since the coefficient of x has a positive sign we use the expansion or substitution (x + a)2
(x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
(x + a)2 − a2 = x2 + 2ax
To determine the value of a in our expansion, we equate the coefficients of x in our equation and
the expansion that is
2a = 6
a=3
Substituting the value of a
(x + 3)2 − 32 = x2 + 6x
Where we have x2 + 6x in our equation by (x + 3)2 − 32 yields
(x + 3)2 − 32 − 4 = 0
(x + 3)2 − 13 = 0
(x + 3)2 = 13
4
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
Example(s):
Solution
The given equation can be written as x2 − 8x = −11 ⇒ x2 − 8x + c = −11 + c, where
−8 2
c= = (−4)2 . Thus, we have
2
√
x2 − 8x + (−4)2 = −11 + (−4)2 ⇒ (x − 4)2 = 5 ⇒ (x − 4) = ± 5
√ √ √
⇒ x = 4 ± 5. Either x = 4 + 5 or x = 4 − 5
Solution
We first need to make the coefficient of x2 be 1. Thus, the given equation can be written
6 2 6 2 −6 2 −3 2
as x2 − x = ⇒ x2 − x + c = + c, where c = = . Thus, we have
5 5 5 5 10 5
√
−3 2 2 −3 2 3 2 19
r
2 6 3 19 19
x − x+ = + ⇒ x− = ⇒ x− =± =±
5 5 5 5 5 25 5 25 5
√ √ √
3 19 3 + 19 3 − 19
⇒ x= ± . Either x = or x =
5 5 5 5
Exercise:
Solve by completing the square
(i) 2x2 − 6x − 1 = 0.
(ii) x2 + 7x − 3 = 0.
(iii) 5x2 + 12x + 6 = 0.
(iv) 10 + 3x − 2x2 = 0.
(v) 2 − 2x − x2 = 0.
(vi) −7 + 12x − 3x2 = 0.
(vii) 2x2 + 6x + 13 = 0.
5
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
Solution
We first need to make the coefficient of x2 be 1. Thus, the given equation can be written as
2
2 b c 2 b c b
x + x=− ⇒ x + x + k = − + k, where k = . Thus, we have
a a a a 2a
s
2 2 2
b b c b b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
x2 + x+ =− + ⇒ x+ = ⇒ x+ =±
a 2a a 2a 2a 4a2 2a 4a2
√ √
−b b2 − 4ac −b ± b2 − 4ac
⇒ x= ± ⇒ x= , which is the quadratic formula.
2a 2a 2a
The expression b2 − 4ac is known as the discriminant. The nature of the roots of a quadratic
equation depend on the discriminant.
• If b2 − 4ac > 0, then the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are real are
distinct.
• If b2 − 4ac = 0, then the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are real are equal.
• If b2 − 4ac < 0, then the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are complex
conjugates.
Example(s):
1. Giving your answer correct to 2dp, solve 2x2 − 6x − 3 = 0 using the quadratic formula.
Solution
Here, a = 2, b = −6 and c = −3. Substituting these values into the quadratic formula, we
get √ √ √ √ √
−b ± b2 − 4ac 6 ± 36 + 24 6 ± 60 6 ± 2 15 3 ± 15
x= = = = =
2a 4 4 4 2
√ √
3 + 15 3 − 15
Either x = ≈ 3.44 or x = ≈ −0.44 (2dp).
2 2
2. Find the positive value of k if the equation x2 + (2 + k)x + k 2 = 0 has equal roots.
Solution
Here, a = 1, b = (2 + k) and c = k 2 . For equal roots, we require that the discriminant be
zero. That is, b2 − 4ac = 0. Substituting yields (2 + k)2 − 4k 2 = 0 ⇒ 3k 2 − 4k − 4 = 0,
which is a quadratic equation in the unknown k. Using the quadratic formula, we have
√
4 ± 16 + 48 4±8 2±4 2
k= = = . Either k = 2 or k = −
6 6 3 3
Only k = 2 is positive.
Example(s):
6
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
Solution
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
y
9
8
1
7
−
x
−
6
=
y=5
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1 4y =
−x +
−2 1
√ √
(a) From the line y = 5 and the graph of y = x2 ⇒ x = y = ± 5 ≈ ±2.24 (from
the graph).
(b) (i)
y = x2
0 = x2 − x − 1
y = x + 1 (plot this line on the same axes then read the x coordinates at the
intersection of the graphs of y = x + 1 and y = x2 , to obtain the required roots).
These are: x = −0.62 and x = 1.62 (2dp).
(ii)
4y = 4x2
0 = 4x2 + x − 1
4y = −x + 1 (plot this line on the same axes then read the x coordinates at the
intersection of the graphs of 4y = −x + 1 and y = x2 , to obtain the required roots).
These are: x = −0.64 and x = 0.39 (2dp).
Exercise:
2. Draw the graph of y = 2x2 − 12x + 19 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 5. Hence, use the graph to find the roots
of the equations.
(a) x2 − 6x + 6 = 0. [hint: y = 7, ans: x ≈ 1.3, x ≈ 4.7]
(b) 4x2 − 25x + 28 = 0. [hint: 2y = x + 10, ans: x ≈ 1.45, x ≈ 4.80]
x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0 (b)
7
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
Example(s):
Solution
If the roots are α and β, then
−2 2 c 7
α+β =− = and αβ = =−
3 3 a 3
2. Express each of the following in terms of α + β and αβ:
(a) α2 + β 2 .
(b) (α − β)2 .
(c) α3 + β 3 .
Solution
(a) α2 and β 2 occur in the expansion of (α + β)2 . Thus,
(b)
(α − β)2 = α2 − 2αβ + β 2 = α2 + β 2 − 2αβ
= (α + β)2 − 2αβ − 2αβ
= (α + β)2 − 4αβ
3. The roots of the equation 3x2 + 4x − 5 = 0 are α and β. Find the equation with integer
coefficients whose roots are:
1 1
(a) and .
α β
(b) α2 and β 2 .
(c) (α + 1) and (β + 1).
(d) α2 β and αβ 2 .
α β
(e) and .
β α
(1 + α) (1 + β)
(f) and .
β α
(g) (α − 1)2 and (β − 1)2 .
Solution
b 4 c 5
From the equation 3x2 + 4x − 5 = 0, we have (α + β) = − = − and αβ = = − .
a 3 a 3
8
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
1 1
(a) The roots are and .
α β
1 1 α+β −4/3 4
Sum of the roots: + = = =
α β αβ −5/3 5
1 1 1 1 3
Product of the roots: · = = =−
α β αβ −5/3 5
2
Equation: x − (sum of the roots)x + (product of the roots) = 0
4 3
⇒ x2 − x − = 0 ⇒ 5x2 − 4x − 3 = 0
5 5
(b) The roots are α2 and β 2 .
4 2 5 16 10 46
Sum of the roots: α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ = − −2 − = + =
3 3 9 3 9
2
5 25
Product of the roots: α2 · β 2 = (αβ)2 = − =
3 9
2
Equation: x − (sum of the roots)x + (product of the roots) = 0
46 25
⇒ x2 − x + = 0 ⇒ 9x2 − 46x + 25 = 0
9 9
(c) The roots are (α + 1) and (β + 1).
4 2
Sum of the roots: (α + 1) + (β + 1) = (α + β) + 2 = − +2=
3 3
5 4
Product of the roots: (α + 1)(β + 1) = (αβ) + (α + β) + 1 = − + − + 1 = −2
3 3
2
Equation: x − (sum of the roots)x + (product of the roots) = 0
2
⇒ x2 − x − 2 = 0 ⇒ 3x2 − 2x − 6 = 0
3
(d) The roots are α2 β and αβ 2 .
5 4 20
Sum of the roots: α2 β + αβ 2 = αβ (α + β) = − = −
3 3 9
3
5 125
Product of the roots: α2 β · αβ 2 = (αβ)3 = − =−
3 27
2
Equation: x − (sum of the roots)x + (product of the roots) = 0
20 125
⇒ x2 − x − = 0 ⇒ 27x2 − 60x − 125 = 0
9 27
α β
(e) The roots are and .
β α
Exercise:
9
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
1. The roots of the equation x2 + 6x + q = 0 are α and (α − 1). Find the value of q. [ans:
35
q= ]
4
2. Find the equation, with integer coefficients, whose roots are the squares of the roots of the
equation 2x2 + 5x − 6 = 0.
3. The roots of the equation x2 − px + 8 = 0 are α and (α + 2). Find two possible values of p.
4. The roots of the equation x2 + 2px + q = 0 differ by 2. Show that p2 = 1 + q.
5. Prove that if the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is 1, then
b2 = 2ac + a2 .
6. Prove that, if one root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is twice the other, then 2b2 = 9ac.
7. Prove that, if the sum of the reciprocals of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is 1,
then b + c = 0.
where a 6= 0 is called a quadratic function or a polynomial of degree 2 in the variable x. Using the
method of completing the square, the function (1) can be written in the form
as follows:
b c
ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + x + . Completing the square in the bracket yields.
a a
" # " #
b 2 c b2 b 2 4ac − b2
= a x+ + − 2 =a x+ +
2a a 4a 2a 4a2
b 2 4ac − b2
= a x+ +
2a 4a
2
= a (x − p) + q,
b 4ac − b2
where p = − and q = . In this case, q is either the minimum or maximum value of the
2a 4a
function depending on the value of a.
• If a > 0 (positive), then q is the minimum value.
Graph of y = ax2 + bx + c
The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola. The parabola opens upwards if a > 0 and downwards
if a < 0. From equation (2), f (p) = q. Thus, (p, q) is a minimum point when a > 0 and (p, q) is a
maximum point when a < 0.
10
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
b
• The line of symmetry of the function f (x) is x = p = − (i.e., the value of x for which f (x) is
2a
a maximum/minimum, depending on the value of a).
• The x-intercepts are the values of x at the points where f (x) cuts the x-axis. These occur when
f (x) = 0 i.e., ax2 + bx + c = 0. These values can only be real if b2 − 4ac > 0.
• The y-intercept is the value of y at the point where the curve cuts the y-axis. To obtain this
value, we put x = 0.
The graph of y = a(x − p)2 + q is that of y = x2 shifted horizontally p units, stretched by a factor of
a, then shifted vertically q units.
Example(s):
1. Determine the line of symmetry, minimum or maximum values, x and y-intercepts of f (x).
Hence, sketch the curves of f (x).
(a) f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 5.
f (x) = 2x2 + 3x
(b) f (x) = 2 − 3x − 4x2 .
Solution
We first write f (x) in the general form f (x) = a(x − p)2 + q.
(a) f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 5.
3 5
2x2 + 3x − 5 = 2 x2 + x − . Completing the square in the bracket yields.
2 2
" # " #
3 2 5 9 3 2 49
= 2 x+ − − =2 x+ −
4 2 16 4 16
2
3 49 3 49
= 2 x+ − ⇒ a = 2, p = − and q=− .
4 8 4 8
3 49
• Since a = 2 > 0, then (p, q) = − , − is a minimum point.
4 8
3
• The line of symmetry is x = p = − .
4
• For the y-intercept, put x = 0. Thus, we have, f (0) = 2(0)2 + 3(0) − 5 = −5. So, the
curve f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 5 cuts the y-axis at (0, −5).
• For the x-intercept, put y = 0. Thus, we have, 2x2 + 3x − 5 = 0. The roots are x = 1
5
or x = − . Hence, the curve f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 5 cuts the x-axis at points (−5/2, 0)
2
and (1, 0).
y
x
− 52 p 1
11
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
3 41
• Since a = −4 < 0, then (p, q) = − , is a maximum point.
8 16
3
• The line of symmetry is x = p = − .
8
• For the y-intercept, put x = 0. Thus, we have, f (0) = 2. So, the curve f (x) =
2 − 3x − 4x2 cuts the y-axis at (0, 2).
• For the x-intercept, put y = 0. Thus, we have, −4x2 − 3x + 2 = 0. The roots are
x = 0.4 or x = −1.2. Hence, the curve f (x) = 2 − 3x − 4x2 cuts the x-axis at points
(−1.2, 0) and (0.4, 0).
The sketch of the graph is an exercise.
Exercise:
1. Find the line of symmetry, maximum or minimum point, x and y-intercepts and then sketch the
curve.
(a) f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 1.
1
(b) f (x) = x2 + x + .
4
(c) f (x) = −3x2 + 3x − 6.
(d) f (x) = 2 − 2x − x2 .
2. Find the area and dimensions of the largest rectangular field that can be enclosed with 3000
meters of fence. From the dimensions, conclude about the shape of the field.
Example(s):
1. Solve 2x2 + 5x − 3 > 0.
Solution
1
The roots of the equation 2x2 + 5x − 3 = 0 are x = and x = −3. Thus,
2
1
2
2x + 5x − 3 = 2 x − (x + 3)
2
1
Here, a = 2 > 0, α = −3, and β = . Now,
2
x+3 x − 12 2(x + 3) x − 1
2
x < −3 -ve -ve +ve
1
−3 < x < 2 +ve -ve -ve
1
2 <x +ve +ve +ve
1
Hence, 2x2 + 5x − 3 > 0 when x < −3 and when x > . Graphically, we have
2
12
1.2 Quadratic equations, functions and inequalities c Dr. Barini
x
−3 1
2
1
→ Note: f (x) > 0 if x < −3 and if x > .
2
2. Find the set of values for which 1 + 2x − 3x2 < 0.
Solution
1
The roots of the equation 1 + 2x − 3x2 = 0 are x = − and x = 1. Thus,
3
1
1 + 2x − 3x2 = −3 x + (x − 1)
3
1
Here, a = −3 > 0, α = − , and β = 1. Now,
3
x + 13 x−1 −3 x + 13 (x − 1)
x < − 13 -ve -ve -ve
− 13 < x < 1 +ve -ve +ve
1<x +ve +ve -ve
1
Hence, 1 + 2x − 3x2 < 0 when x < − and when x > 1. Graphically, we have
3
x
− 31 1
Exercise:
(a) 2x2 + 5x − 3 ≤ 0
(b) 1 + 2x − 3x2 ≥ 0
(c) 6 + x > 12x2
(d) (3 − 2x)(x + 5) > 0
(e) (x − 1)2 − 4x2 > 0
(f) x2 − 8x + 15 < 0
2. Sketch the graph of y = −3x2 + 5x + 2 and hence use your graph to solve each of the following
inequalities.
3. [Assignment 1:] Determine the values of k for which the equation x2 + 2(k + 1)x + 2(k + 5) = 0
has real roots. [ans: k ≥ 3 or k ≤ −3]
13
1.3 Factorizable polynomials c Dr. Barini
Lecture
Example(s):
1. Divide
Solution
− 3x3 + 6x
2x2 + 7x − 1
− 2x2 +4
7x + 3
Thus, Q(x) = 3x + 2 and R(x) = 7x + 3. Hence,
14
1.3 Factorizable polynomials c Dr. Barini
4 2
3x − 89 x + 7
27
4x3
3x + 2 −x +2
− 4x3 − 38 x2
− 38 x2 − x
8 2 16
3x + 9 x
7
9x +2
7 14
− 9x − 27
40
27
Exercise:
2. Divide
f (x) = (x − a)Q(x) + R
Corollary:
If a polynomial f (x) is divided by (px + q), where p 6= 0, then the remainder is
R = f − pq .
Proof. Suppose R is the remainder when f (x) is divided by (px + q). Then, f (x) = (px + q) · Q(x) + R.
q
Putting x = − , we get
p
q q q q
f − = p − +q ·Q − +R=0+R ⇒ R=f −
p p p p
Example(s):
(a) x − 1
(b) x + 2
(c) 2x − 1
Solution
Let f (x) = x5 − 4x3 + 2x + 3. Then,
(a) The remainder when f (x) is divided by (x − 1) is R = f (1) = (1)5 − 4(1)3 + 2(1) + 3 = 2.
(b) The remainder when f (x) is divided by (x+2) is f (−2) = (−2)5 −4(−2)3 +2(−2)+3 = −1.
15
1.3 Factorizable polynomials c Dr. Barini
113
(c) The remainder when f (x) is divided by (2x−1) is R = f ( 12 ) = ( 12 )5 −4( 21 )3 +2( 21 )+3 = .
32
Exercise:
Example(s):
Solution
We use trial and error method together with the factor theorem. Let f (x) = x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8.
The factors of 8 are ±1, ±2, ±4 and ±8. Now, by trial and error:
Next, we factorize f1 (x) = x3 − x2 + 2x + 4. The factors of 4 are ±1, ±2 and ±4. Now, by trial
and error:
16
1.3 Factorizable polynomials c Dr. Barini
Solution
Let f (x) = x3 − 7x − 6. The factors of 6 are ±1, ±2, ±3 and ±6. Clearly,
3. A polynomial f (x) has remainder 9 when divided by (x − 3) and remainder -5 when divided by
(2x + 1). Find the remainder when f (x) is divided by (x − 3)(2x + 1).
Solution
Since the divisor (x − 3)(2x + 1) is of degree 2, the remainder R should be of degree 1 or 0. Let
R = ax + b (a 6= 0 if R is of degree 1 and a = 0 if R is of degree 0). Thus, the polynomial can
be written as:
f (x) = (x − 3)(2x + 1) · Q(x) + (ax + b)
4. When a polynomial f (x) is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is 3. When f (x) is divided by
(x + 1), the remainder is 5. When f (x) is divided by (x − 2), the remainder is 20. Find the
remainder when f (x) is divided by (x2 − 1)(x − 2).
Solution
Since the divisor (x2 − 1)(x − 2) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2) is of degree 3, the remainder R should
be of degree 2 or 1 or 0. Let R = ax2 + bx + c. Thus, the polynomial can be written as:
17
1.4 Surds c Dr. Barini
Solving equations (i), (ii) and (iii) simultaneously yields a = 6, b = −1 and c = −2. Therefore,
the remainder when f (x) is divided by (x2 − 1)(x − 2) is R = 6x2 − x − 2.
Exercise:
2. When the polynomial x5 + 4x2 + ax + b is divided by (x2 − 1), the remainder is 2x + 3. Find
the values of a and b. [ans: a = 1, b = −1]
3. When the polynomial x3 + 3x2 + ax + b is divided by (x2 − 4), the remainder is x + 16. Find
the values of a and b. [ans: a = −3, b = 4]
5. The expression ax2 + bx + c is divisible by (x − 1). It has remainder 2 when divided by (x + 1),
and has remainder 8 when divided by (x − 2). Find the values of a, b and c. [ans:
a = 3, b = −1, c = −2]
8. The expression ax4 + bx3 + 3x2 − 2x + 3 has a remainder of x + 1 when divided by (x2 − 3x + 2).
Find the values of a and b. [ans: a = 1, b = −3]
9. What is the value of a if the polynomials 2x2 − x − 6, 3x2 − 8x + 4 and ax3 − 10x − 4 have a
common factor. [ans: a = 3 or a = −250]
10. Factorize the expression 4x4 − 13x2 + 9 completely. [ans: (2x − 3)(2x + 3)(x − 1)(x + 1)]
1.4 Surds
√ √ √ 1 √
r
A surd is an irrational root of a rational number. Examples are 2, 3, 3 5, 4 , 3 9, etc. Note, for
3
√ √ 3 √ 1
instance, that 9 is not a surd since 9 = , which is a rational number. Also, note that n a = (a) n ,
1
where n is an integer different from zero.
Example(s):
√ √
1. Express 4 48 in the form p 4 q, where p and q are integers and q contains no factors which are
exact 4th powers of integers.
Solution √ √ √ √ √ √ √
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
48 = 16 × 3 = 16 × 3= 24 × 3=2 3
18
1.4 Surds c Dr. Barini
r
81
3 √
2. Express in the form p 3 q, where p and q are rational numbers and q contains no factors
625
which are exact cubes of rational numbers.
Solution s s s
34 33 3 33
r r r
3 81 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
= = × = × =
625 54 53 5 53 5 5 5
√ √
3. Express 6 5 in the form p, where p is an integer.
Solution √ p √ √
6 5 = 62 × 5 = 36 × 5 = 180
√ √
4. Express 7 4 3 in the form 4 p, where p is an integer.
Solution √ p √
4 4 4
7 3 = 74 × 3 = 7203
r
8 5 p
r
3
5. Express in the form 3 , where p and q are integers.
3 9 q
Solution s s
3
83 × 5
r r
8 3 5 3 8 5 3 3 2560
= × = =
3 9 3 9 33 × 9 243
Example(s):
Simplify the following surds
√ √
(a) 6 3 + 4 3.
Solution √ √ √ √
6 3 + 4 3 = (6 + 4) 3 = 10 3
√ √
(b) 5 3 − 27.
Solution √ √ √ p √ √ √ √
5 3 − 27 = 5 3 − 32 × 3 = 5 3 − 3 3 = (5 − 3) 3 = 2 3
√
3
√ 5√ 3√
(c) 5+5 2+ 35+ 2.
2 7
Solution
√
3
√ 5√3 3√
5 √
3
3 √
7√3 38 √
5+5 2+ 5+ 2= 1+ 5+ 5+ 2= 5+ 2
2 7 2 7 2 7
19
1.4 Surds c Dr. Barini
Example(s):
Simplify the following surds
√ √ √ √
(a) 5 2 + 3 3 4 2 − 5 3 .
Solution
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
5 2+3 3 4 2−5 3 = 5 2 4 2−5 3 +3 3 4 2−5 3
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
= 20 2 2 − 25 2 3 + 12 3 2 − 15 3 3
√ √
= 20 × 2 − 25 2 × 3 + 12 2 × 3 − 15 × 3
√ √ √
= 40 − 25 6 + 12 6 − 45 = −5 − 13 6
√
3
√
(b) 5 × 5 3 2.
Solution √ √ √ √
3 3 3
5 × 5 2 = 5 3 5 × 2 = 5 10
√
3
√
18 × 48
(c) √
4
.
216
Solution
The LCM of 2, 3 and 4 is 12. Expressing the surds as 12th root yields
v
√
3
√ √
12
√
12
u 1 1 1 4 4 4
18 × 48 184 × 486 >×
18 >×
18 >× 18 ×
18 >×
48 >×
48 >× 48 × 48 × 48
48
u
√ √
u
4
= 12
= t
12
u 1 1 1
216 2163 12
>
12
>
12
>
216 ×
*
216 ×
*
216 *
√
12
p
12
√
12
p
12
= 18 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 48 × 48 × 48 = 219 × 35 = 212 × 27 × 35
√
12
= 2 31104
Exercise:
1√
r r
85 63
1. Show that × = 30.
21 136 4
Example(s):
1 √
1. Determine √ correct to 6 decimal places without using a calculator, given that 7 = 2.6457513.
7
Solution √ √
1 1× 7 7 2.6457513
√ =√ √ = = ≈ 0.377964
7 7× 7 7 7
20
1.4 Surds c Dr. Barini
√ √
6+ 3
(a) √ √ .
6− 3
Solution
√ √ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √
6+ 3 36+ 6+ 3 6+2 6 3+3 9 + 2 18 9+6 2 √
√ √ = √ √ √ √ = = = = 3+2 2
6− 3 6− 3 6+ 3 6−3 3 3
√
6
(b) √ √ .
5 2+ 3
Solution
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
6 6 5 2− 3 5 6 2− 6 3 5 12 − 18 10 3 − 3 2
√ √ = √ √ √ √ = = =
5 2+ 3 5 2+ 3 5 2− 3 50 − 3 47 47
√ √
2 2− 3
(c) √ √ . [ans:]
5 2− 3
3. Simplify without using tables or calculator 3 cos2 45o cos 42o + tan2 60o sin 48o − 9 cos 60o cos 42o .
Solution
From the property of complementary angles, we have sin 48o = cos (90o − 48o ) = cos 42o . Also,
we use the following special triangles and apply SOHCAHTOA to find the trigonometric ratios
of the special angles.
o
45o √ √ 30
1 2 2 3 2
2 √ 2
o o o o o o 1 o o 1
2 2
3 cos 45 cos 42 + tan 60 sin 48 − 9 cos 60 cos 42 = 3 √
cos 42 + 3 cos 42 − 9 cos 42o
2 2
3 9
= +3− cos 42o = 0
2 2
Exercise:
√
2 5−3
1. Simplify √ by rationalizing the denominator.
3 5−2
2. Without using tables or calculator
√ √
7− 5 √
(a) Evaluate √ √ correct to 6dp, given that 35 = 5.9160798.
7+ 5
sin2 315o 1 − tan2 210o
1
(b) Show that o 2 o
= .
(1 + cos 120 ) 1 + tan 330 2
3
3. Simplify √
3
by rationalizing the denominator. [hint: a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )]
5−2
√ √
3 2+5 6 √
4. Express √ √ in the form a + b c, where a, b and c are rational numbers. State the values
3 2−5 6
of a, b and c.
√ 1 √
5. Given that β = 8 + 3 7, express β + in the form a + b c, where a, b and c are rational
β
numbers.
21
1.5 Indices and Logarithms c Dr. Barini
Lecture 2
I: Laws of indices
There are three laws of indices related to powers of the same base a.
(1) am × an = am+n
(2) am ÷ an = am−n
(3) (am )n = am×n
Therefore, a0 = 1 . Similarly,
1
i) a0 ÷ an = 1 ÷ an = .
an
ii) Also, a0 ÷ an = a0−n = a−n [from law (2)].
−n 1
Therefore, a = .
an
Example(s):
−2/3
27
1. Find the value of .
8
Solution
−2/3 " −1 #2/3 2/3 r !2 2
27 27 8 8 2 4
3
= = = = =
8 8 27 27 3 9
1
(1 + x)1/2 − x(1 + x)−1/2
2. Simplify 2 .
(1 + x)
Solution
22
1.5 Indices and Logarithms c Dr. Barini
Exercise:
1. Find the value of the following
(a) (0.04)−3/2 . [ans: 125]
4−3/2
(b) . [ans: 1/2]
8−2/3
2. Simplify:
(a) 3n+1 × 9n ÷ 27(2/3)n . [ans: 3n+1 ]
(b) 9−(1/2)n × 3n+2 × 81−1/4 . [ans: 3]
(c) 6(1/2)n × 12n+1 × 27−(1/2)n ÷ 32(1/2)n . [ans: 12]
(d) 10(1/3)n × 15(1/2)n × 6(1/6)n ÷ 45(1/3)n . [ans: 10n/2 ]
xp+(1/2)q · y 2p−q
(e) √ . [ans: y −q ]
(xy 2 )p · xq
3. Simplify:
√
xy · x1/3 · 2y 1/4
(a) . [ans: 2]
(x10 y 9 )1/12
1
− x(1 − x)−1/2 + (1 − x)1/2 x−2
(b) 2 . [ans: ]
x2 2x2 (1 − x)1/2
1 1/2 1
x (1 + x)−1/2 − x−1/2 (1 + x)1/2 −1
(c) 2 2 . [ans: ]
x 2x3/2 (1 + x)1/2
1
(1 + x)1/3 − x(1 + x)−2/3 3 + 2x
(d) 3 . [ans: ]
(1 + x)2/3 3(1 + x)4/3
4. Find the values of x which satisfy the following equations.
5x−4 4x−5
4 5
(a) = . [ans: x = 1]
5 4
√ √ x
(b) x x = ( x) . [ans: x = 0 or x = 4]
(c) 22x+3 + 2x+3 = 1 + 2x . [ans: x = −3]
1.5.2 Logarithms
Let a be a positive real number, where a 6= 1. If ax = y, the x is the logarithm of y to base a and is
written as:
x = loga y
For example,
i) 23 = 8 ⇒ 3 = log2 8. That is, the index 3 is the logarithm of 8 to base 2.
1
ii) 1251/3 = 5 ⇒
log125 5 = .
3
→ Note: the base for a logarithm can only be a positive real number. Logarithms to base 10 are called
common logarithms. In logarithms to base 10, we sometimes suppress the base e.g., log10 a = log a.
In advanced mathematics, we have the number e ≈ 2.71828. Logarithms to base e are called natural
logarithms/Napierian logarithms. Thus, loge x = ln x.
23
1.5 Indices and Logarithms c Dr. Barini
I: Laws of logarithms
x
(2) loga = loga x − loga y .
y
Proof. Let loga x = m and loga y = n. In index form, we have x = am and y = an . Dividing
x by y yields
x am
= n = am−n (by 2nd law of indices)
y a
In logarithm form, we have
loga (x/y) = m − n
x
Replacing the values of m and n, we obtain loga = loga x − loga y.
y
p
(3) loga x = p loga x for any base a > 0.
Proof. Let loga x = m. In index form, we have x = am . Raising both sides to power p, we
get
xp = (am )p = apm (by 3rd law of indices)
In logarithm form, we have
loga xp = pm
Replacing the value of m, we obtain loga xp = p loga x.
(4) a0 = 1 ⇒ loga 1 = 0 .
(5) a1 = a ⇒ loga a = 1 .
Example(s):
1. Simplify
(a) log2 (8 × 16).
Solution
log 125
(b) .
log 25
Solution
log 125 log 53 3log
5 3
= 2
= =
log 25 log 5 2
log5 2
24
1.5 Indices and Logarithms c Dr. Barini
!
a2 b3
2. Write log √ in terms of log a, log b, and log c.
100 c
Solution
!
a2 b3
log √ = log(a2 b3 ) − log(100 × c1/2 ) (by 2nd law of logarithms)
100 c
= log a2 + log b3 − log 102 − log c1/2 (by 1st law of logarithms)
1
= 2 log a + 3 log b − 2 log10 10 − log c (by 3rd law of logarithms)
2
1
= 2 log a + 3 log b − 2 − log c
2
Solution
log5 x + log5 (2x − 3) = 1 ⇒ log5 x(2x − 3) = 1. In index form, we have x(2x − 3) = 5.
Expanding and rearranging yields 2x2 − 3x − 5 = 0. Factorizing the expression on the left,
we get (x + 1)(2x − 5) = 0. Thus, either (x + 1) = 0 or (2x − 5) = 0. Hence, x = −1 or
5 5
x = . But logarithms of negative numbers do not exist. Therefore, x = .
2 2
log 75 + log 9 + log 5
4. Simplify without using a calculator.
log 5 + log 45
Solution
log 75 + log 9 + log 5 log(75 × 9 × 5) log(3 × 52 × 32 × 5) log(33 × 53 )
= = =
log 5 + log 45 log(5 × 45) log(5 × 32 × 5) log(52 × 32 )
log 33 + log 53
((
3 log 3 + 3 log 5 3(
(log
(( 3+
((log 5) 3
= 2 2
= = (( =
log 3 + log 5 2 log 3 + 2 log 5 (log
2( ( 3 + log 5)
(( ( 2
Example(s):
1. Evaluate log7 2.
Solution
log10 2
Changing the base to 10, yields: log7 2 = = 0.3562 (4dp).
log10 7
1
2. Show that loga x = .
logx a
Solution
logx x 1
Changing the base to x, yields: loga x = = .
logx a logx a
3. Solve the equation log3 x − 4 logx 3 + 3 = 0.
Solution
25
1.5 Indices and Logarithms c Dr. Barini
1
log3 x − 4 logx 3 + 3 = 0 ⇒ log3 x − 4 + 3 = 0. Let log3 x = y. Thus, we have
log3 x
1
y−4 +3=0 ⇒ y 2 + 3y − 4 = 0. Solving using quadratic formula, we get
y
√
−3 ± 9 + 16 −3 ± 5
y= = ⇒ y = −4 or y = 1
2 2
Now,
1
log3 x = −4 ⇒ x = 3−4 =
and log3 x = 1 ⇒ x=3
81
4. If x = log9 5 and y = log3 5, show that y = 2x.
Solution
Changing the base to 3, we get
log3 5 y y y
x = log9 5 = = 2
= = ⇒ y = 2x as required
log3 9 log3 3 2 log3 3 2
1−a
5. If log10 2 = a, show that log8 5 = .
3a
Solution
Changing the base to 10, we get
10
log10
log10 5 2 log10 10 − log10 2 1−a
log8 5 = = = =
log10 8 log10 23 3 log10 2 3a
6. Solve for x if log3 x + log9 x2 = 6.
Solution
Changing the base to 3, we get
log3 x2 2 log3 x
log3 x + log9 x2 = 6 ⇒ log3 x + =6 ⇒ log3 x + =6
log3 9 2 log3 3
⇒ log3 x + log3 x = 6 ⇒ 2 log3 x = 6 ⇒ log3 x = 3 ⇒ x = 33 = 27
Exercise:
x
2 1
1. (a) Solve for x if =. [ans: x =]
3 16
(b) Solve for x given that log10 4 + 2 log10 x = 2. [ans: x = 5]
!
x2 x4
2. Find y in terms of x if log = 5 − 2 log x. [ans: y = ]
y 105
3. Solve for x in the following equations.
(a) 4x − 6(2x ) − 16 = 0. [ans: x = 3]
(b) log2 x = logx 16. [ans: x = 4]
(c) log2 8x3 − logx 8x3 = 8. [ans: x = 8 or x = 2−1/3 ]
1
(d) log3 x − 2 logx 3 = 1. [ans: x = 9 or x = ]
3
(e) logx 2 + logx 3 = 5. [ans: x = 61/5 ]
1 1
4. Show that log16 xy = log4 x + log4 y. Hence, solve the simultaneous equations:
2 2
√ log4 x
log16 xy = 3 (i) and = −8 (ii)
log4 y
26
1.6 Permutations and combinations c Dr. Barini
Lecture 5
Example(s):
1. In how many ways can the letters A, B and C be arranged in three consecutive positions.
Solution
B C
A
C B
or
A C
B
C A
or
A B
C
B A
The 1st position can be filled in 3 different ways (we can have either A or B or C). Once the 1st
position is filled, 2 letters remain and any of them can be used to fill the 2nd position. So, for
each of the 3 ways of filling the 1st position we have 2 ways of filling the 2nd position. After
filling the 1st and 2nd positions, the 3rd position can be filled in any 1 way as we are left with
only 1 letter. Thus, the total number of distinct arrangements of the three letters is 3 × 2 × 1 = 6
different ways. Each of these 6 arrangements is called a permutation of the letters A,B and C.
The six permutations are ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, and CBA.
Definition 1.6.1 (The factorial notation). The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects is
n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1 which is denoted by n! and read as “n factorial”. For example,
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120, 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24, 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6, 2! = 2 × 1 = 2
By convention:
1! = 1 is the number of ways of arranging one object.
0! = 1 is the number of ways of arranging zero object.
Thus,
n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 3 · 2 · 1 · 0!
→ Note: most calculators have a key for permutations.
Example(s):
1. Evaluate
27
1.6 Permutations and combinations c Dr. Barini
9!
(a)
2!7!
6!
(b)
(3!)2
6!2!
(c)
8!
Solution
9! 9 × 8 × 7! 9×8
(a) = = = 36
2!7! 2! × 7! 2×1
6! 6 × 5 × 4 × 3! 6×5×4
(b) 2
= = = 20
(3!) 3! × 3! 3×2×1
6!2! 6! × 2! 2×1 1
(c) = = =
8! 8 × 7 × 6! 8 × 7 28
2. Write 40 × 39 × 38 × 37 in factorial notation.
Solution
40 × 39 × 38 × 37 × 36 × 35 × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1 40!
40 × 39 × 38 × 37 = =
36 × 35 × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1 36!
3. How many arrangements are there for 2 objects chosen from 4 distinct objects?
Solution
There are 4 ways of filling the 1st position. Once the 1st position is filled, three objects remain.
Thus, there are 3 ways of filling the 2nd position. Therefore, the number of arrangements of two
objects chosen from four different objects is 4 × 3 = 12. But
4! 4!
4×3= =
2! (4 − 2)!
5! 5!
Similarly, 5 × 4 = = = 20 is the number of arrangements of two objects from five
3! (5 − 2)!
5! 5!
distinct objects. Also, 5 × 4 × 3 = = = 60 is the number of arrangements of three
2! (5 − 3)!
objects from five distinct objects.
Example(s):
1. (a) Suppose that 7 people enter a swim meet. Assuming that there are no ties, in how many
ways could the gold, silver, and bronze medals be awarded?
Solution
Gold Silver Bronze
7 6 5
7 7! 7 × 6 × 5 × 4!
P3 = = = 7 × 6 × 5 = 210 ways.
(7 − 3)! 4!
28
1.6 Permutations and combinations c Dr. Barini
(b) In a lottery, a total of 1000 tickets were sold. Determine the number of ways of obtaining
winners of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd prizes if three tickets are drawn one after the other.
Solution
1st 2nd 3rd
1000 999 998
2. Five letter words are formed from the letters of the word INCOMPUTABLE. How many of these
words have no repeated letters?
Solution
12 12! 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7!
P5 = = = 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 = 95040 ways.
(12 − 5)! 7!
3. (a) Find how many different arrangements of 12 letters can be obtained from the letters of the
word SPEEDOMETERS
Solution
If the 12 letters are all different, there could be 12! different arrangements. In any of these
arrangements, the two S’s can be arranged in 2! = 2 ways without altering the appearance
of the letters in the given arrangement. Similarly, the four E’s can be arranged in 4! = 24
ways without altering the appearance of the letters in an arrangement. This in turn implies
that in any arrangement, there can be 2! × 4! = 48 arrangements without altering the
appearance of the letters of the given arrangement. Since the two S’s and four E’s are alike,
these are
12!
= 9979200 arrangements
2!4!
In general, if we have n objects of which r1 of the first kind are alike, r2 of the second kind
are alike,· · · , rk of the kth kind are alike, then the total number of distinct permutations is
n!
r1 ! × r2 ! × · · · × rk !
4. How many different 7-digit telephone numbers are possible if the first digit cannot be zero and
no digit may repeat?
Solution
Our number system consists of 10 digits, which are {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9}. Since the first
digit cannot be a zero, then there are 9 choices for the first digit, 9 choices for the second digit
since a zero can be used and no digits may repeat, 8 choices for the third digit, 7 choices for the
fourth digit, and so on. Thus, there are 9 9 8 7 6 5 4 = 9×9×8×7×6×5×4=544,320
possible telephone numbers.
29
1.6 Permutations and combinations c Dr. Barini
5. How many even numbers, greater that 50000, can be formed using the digits 0,3,4,5,6,7
Solution
The number can have either 5 or 6 digits and cannot begin with zero.
Solution
We have four cases to consider
i) Goat dish on the first day:
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
(Goat dish) (Other dish) (Any remaining dish) = 4 × 3 × 5 = 60 ways
4 3 5
ii) Goat dish on the second day:
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
(Other dish) (Goat) (Any of the two remaining other) = 3 × 4 × 2 = 24 ways
3 4 2
iii) Goat dish on the third day:
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
(Other dish) (Any of the two remaining other) (Goat) = 3 × 2 × 4 = 24 ways
3 2 4
iv) No goat dish:
30
1.6 Permutations and combinations c Dr. Barini
Exercise:
1. How many odd numbers greater than 500,000 can be made from the digits 2,3,4,5,6,7.
2. How many odd numbers greater than 70,000 can be formed using the digits 0,1,4,7,8,9.
3. In how many ways can 8 people be scattered at a round table? [ans: 7! = 5040]
4. How many arrangements of the letters of the word BEGIN are there which start with a vowel,
without repetition? [ans: 48 ways]
5. In how many ways can 5 boys and 4 girls be arranged on a bench if boys and girls alternate?
[ans: 5! × 4! = 2880 ways]
6. How many arrangements of the letters of the word REMAND are possible if
7. How many numbers between 10 and 300 can be made from the digits 1,2,3 if
8. Five letters from the word DRILLING are to be arranged in a row. Find the number of ways in
which this can be done when the first letter is I and the last letter is L.
9. In how many ways can two mathematics books and 4 physics books be arranged in a shelf if
(a) the mathematics books must be placed next to each other. [ans: 2! × 5! = 240 ways]
(b) the mathematics books must NOT be placed next to each other. [ans: 6! − 240 = 480
ways]
1.6.2 Combinations
In permutations, the order in which objects are chosen in important. However, in some cases, the
order of selection is irrelevant. When the selection of objects is made randomly with no regard being
paid to the order, it is referred to as a combination. Thus, ABC, ACB, BAC are different permutations
but they are the same combination of letters.
Example(s):
31
1.6 Permutations and combinations c Dr. Barini
1. How many different committees of 3 people can be chosen to work on a special project from a
group of 5 people? A,B,C,D and E?
Solution
There are 10 possible combinations of the committees of 3 people chosen from a group of 5
people: ABC, ABD, ABE, ACD, AEC, ADE, BCD, BCE, BDE, and CDE. Thus, there are 10
ways of selecting the project group.
→ Note: On the other hand, there are 5 P3 = 60 permutations of 3 objects from 5 distinct
objects.
In general, the number of combinations/selections of r objects from n available objects can be found
as follows:
n!
• there are permutations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects.
(n − r)!
• but each combination of r objects can be arranged in r! ways, therefore,
Example(s):
1. Five policemen are to be selected for duty from a force of 20. In how many ways can this be
done if
(a) there is no restriction?
(b) it has already been decided that a certain person must be on duty?
Solution
(a)
20 20! 20!
C5 = = = 15, 504
(20 − 5)!5! 15!5!
(b) The problem has been reduced to selecting 4 more policemen from the remaining 19
19! 19!
policemen. Thus, we have 19 C4 = = = 3876. There are 3,876 ways of
(19 − 4)!4! 15!4!
selecting the policemen for duty.
2. A mixed hokey team containing 5 men and 6 women is to be chosen from 7 men and 9 women.
In how many ways can this be done?
Solution
Five men can be chosen from 7 men in 7 C5 ways and 6 women can be chosen from 9 women in
9C 7 9
6 ways. For each of the C5 ways of selecting men, there are C6 ways of selecting women.
Therefore, the total number of selecting the team is
7 7! 9! 7! 9!
C5 ×9 C6 = × = × = 21 × 84 = 1764 ways
(7 − 5)!5! (9 − 6)!6! 2!5! 3!6!
32
1.6 Permutations and combinations c Dr. Barini
3. A person wants to invite 8 friends but there is only room for 4 of them. In how many ways can
the four to be invited be chosen if two of the eight are twins and must not be separated?
Solution
There are two cases to consider
i) The twins are invited: thus, we have to choose 2 out of the remaining 6 in 6 C2 = 15 ways
ii) The twins are left out: thus, we have to choose 4 out of the remaining 6 in 6 C4 = 15 ways
4. Nine people are going to travel in two taxi. The larger has 5 seats and the smaller has 4 seats.
In how many ways can the party be split?
Solution
Once the group of 5 has been selected, then the remaining 4 people will automatically comprise
the other group. Thus, we have to select 5 from 9 in 9 C5 = 126 ways.
5. Five books are to be selected from 20 books of which 8 are paperback and 12 are hardback. How
many selections are possible if at least one paperback book has to be included?
Solution
Therefore, the number of ways of selecting at least one paperback book is 15, 504−792 = 14, 712.
Exercise:
1. A committee of six is to be formed from nine women and three men. In how many ways can the
members be chosen so as to include at least one man? [ans: 840 ways]
2. A committee of ten is to be formed from nine men and six women. In how many ways can it be
formed if at least four women are to be in the committee? [ans: 2142 ways]
3. In how many ways can a class of 20 children be split into two groups of 8 members and 12
members, respectively if there are two twins in the class who must not be separated. [ans:
18 C +18 C = 62, 322 ways]
6 8
4. Nine players are available to play for a table tennis team of 4 players. In how many ways can
the team be selected if 2 of the players are brothers and must either both be included or both
be excluded and if 2 other players have recently quarreled and should not both play in a team?
[ans: 45 ways]
33
1.7 Binomial expansion c Dr. Barini
Lecture 6
(a + b)0 = 1
(a + b)1 = a + b
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
If the coefficients are written alone, we have the following triangular array of numbers called the
Pascal’s triangle.
n=0: 1
n=1: 1 1
n=2: 1 2 1
n=3: 1 3 3 1
n=4: 1 4 6 4 1
n=5: 1 5 10 10 5 1
n=6: 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
Example(s):
1. Expand (a + b)7 .
Solution
From the Pascal’s triangle, the coefficients are 1,7,21,35,35,21,7,1. Therefore,
Solution
From the Pascal’s triangle, the coefficients are 1,4,6,4,1. Therefore,
4 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1
4 3 2
2x − = (2x) + 4(2x) − + 6(2x) − + 4(2x) − + −
2 2 2 2 2
1
= 16x4 − 16x3 + 6x2 − x +
16
Exercise:
Use the Pascal’s triangle to expand the following binomials
(a) (1 − x)3
(b) (x + x1 )4
(d) (x + y)7
34
1.7 Binomial expansion c Dr. Barini
Solution
The general term in the expansion is given by
! !
14 14 14−r
(2x)14−r (−3)r = 2 (−3)r · x14−r
r r
10
! in x is obtained when 14 − r = 10
The term ⇒ r = 4. Therefore, the required coefficient
14 14−4 14! 10 4
is 2 (−3)4 = 2 3 .
4 10!4!
50
1
2. Find the coefficient of x in the expansion of 2x2 − x2
.
Solution
The general term in the expansion is given by
! r ! !
1 x100−2r
50 50 50−r 50 50−r
(2x2 )50−r − 2 = 2 (−1)r · = 2 (−1)r x100−4r
r x r x2r r
99
The term in x is obtained when 100 − 4r = 1 ⇒ r = . But r is not a whole number.
4
Thus, the expansion doesn’t have a term in x.
10
3. Obtain the first four terms of the expansion 1 + 12 x in ascending powers of x. Hence, find
the value of (1.005)10 , correct to 4dp.
Solution
10 ! ! ! 2 ! 3
1 1 1 1
10 10 10 10
1+ x = (1)10 + (1)9 x + (1)8 x + (1)7 x + ···
2 0 1 2 2 2 3 2
45
= 1 + 5x + x2 + 15x3 + · · ·
4
10
Now, (1.005)10 = (1 + 0.005)10 and comparing with 1 + 21 x , we get
1
x = 0.005 ⇒ x = 0.01
2
Substituting this value of x in the above expansion, we obtain:
45
(1 + 0.005)10 = 1 + 5(0.01) + (0.01)2 + 15(0.01)3 + · · ·
4
= 1 + 0.05 + 0.001125 + 0.000015 + · · ·
= 1.0511 (to 4dp)
35
1.7 Binomial expansion c Dr. Barini
8
4. Obtain the expansion of 1 + x − 2x2 up to the term in x3 .
Solution
8 h i8
1 + x − 2x2 = 1 + (x − 2x2 )
! ! !
8 8 8
= 1+ (x − 2x2 ) + (x − 2x2 )2 + (x − 2x2 )3 + · · ·
1 2 3
= 1 + 8(x − 2x2 ) + 28(x2 − 4x3 + · · · ) + 56(x3 + · · · ) + · · ·
= 1 + 8x + 12x2 − 56x3 + · · ·
Exercise:
1. Write down the coefficients of the terms indicated in the expansions of the following:
(a) (1 + x)16 , 3rd term.
(b) (3 + 2x)6 , 4th term.
(c) (2 − x)20 , 18th term.
(d) (2 + 23 x)8 , 5th term.
2. In the expansion of (1 − 2x + ax2 )4 as a series of powers of x, the coefficient of x3 is zero. Show
4
that a = − and find the coefficient of x4 . [ans: = −37 13 ]
3
3. Use Binomial theorem to find the values of
(a) (1.01)10 , correct to 3dp.
(b) (2.001)10 , correct to 6 sf.
(c) (0.997)12 , correct to 3dp.
(d) (1.998)8 , correct to 2dp.
4. Expand the following as far as the term in x3 .
(a) (1 + x + x2 )3
(b) (1 + 2x − x2 )6
(c) (2 + x − 2x2 )7
(d) (3 − 2x + x2 )4
8
5. Find the ratio of the term in x7 to the term in x8 in the expansion of (3x + 32 )17 . [ans: = ]
45x
6. (a) Find, in factorial form, the coefficient of x in the expansion of (2x2 − x1 )50 . [ans:
50! 17
=− 2 ]
17!33!
10! 8 2
(b) Find the coefficient of y 8 in the expansion of (2y + 3)10 . [ans: = 2 ·3 ]
8!2!
Example(s):
36
1.7 Binomial expansion c Dr. Barini
1. Expand the following in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3 , stating the range of
values of x for which the expansion is valid.
1
(a) (1 + x) 3
(b) (1 − 4x)−3
(c) (3 − x)−2
Solution
(a)
1 1 1 1 1
1 3 −1 3 −1 3 −2
1 3 2 3
(1 + x) 3 = 1+ x+ x + x3 + · · ·
3 2! 3!
1 1 5
= 1 + x − x2 + x3 + · · · (provided −1 < x < 1 i.e., |x| < 1)
3 9 81
(b)
(−3)(−3 − 1) (−3)(−3 − 1)(−3 − 2)
(1 − 4x)−3 = 1 + (−3)(−4x) + (−4x)2 + (−4x)3 + · · ·
2! 3!
1 1
= 1 + 12x + 96x2 + 640x3 + · · · (provided −1 < −4x < 1 or − < x < )
4 4
(c) (3 − x)−2 = 3−2 (1 − x3 )−2 . Thus,
x (−2)(−2 − 1) x 2 (−2)(−2 − 1)(−2 − 2) x 3
x −2 1
3−2 (1 − ) = 1 + (−2) − + − + − + ···
3 9 3 2! 3 3! 3
1 2 1 4
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · ·
9 3 3 27
1 2 1 4 3 x
= + x + x2 + x + · · · (provided −1 < − < 1 or −3 < x < 3)
9 27 27 243 3
4
2. Expand as far as the term in x3 , stating the range of values of x for which the
(1 + 4x)(1 − 2x)
expansion is valid.
Solution
4 4 h
2
i−1
= = 4 1 + (2x − 8x )
(1 + 4x)(1 − 2x) 1 + 2x − 8x2
(−1)(−2) (−1)(−2)(−3)
2 2 2 2 3
= 4 1 + (−1)(2x − 8x ) + (2x − 8x ) + (2x − 8x ) · · ·
2! 3!
h i
= 4 1 − 2x + 8x2 + (4x2 − 32x3 + · · · ) − (8x3 + · · · ) · · ·
h i
= 4 1 − 2x + 12x2 − 40x3 + · · ·
= 4 − 8x + 48x2 − 160x3 + · · ·
Since we expanded 4(1 + 4x)−1 (1 − 2x)−1 , the expansion is valid when −1 < 4x < 1 and
1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 < −2x < 1. That is, − < x < and − < x < . This is so when − < x < .
4 4 2 2 4 4
√
3. Find the first four terms in the expansion
√ of 1 − 8x in ascending powers of x. Hence, substitute
x = 0.01 and obtain the value of 23 correct to 5 significant figures.
Solution
1
√ 1 1 2 − 12 1
2 − 12 − 23
1 − 8x = (1 − 8x) 2 = 1 + (−8x) + (−8x)2 + (−8x)3 + · · ·
2 2! 3!
= 1 − 4x − 8x2 − 32x3 + · · ·
37
1.7 Binomial expansion c Dr. Barini
p √ 2 3
Putting x = 0.01√yields 1 − 8(0.01)
√ = 0.92 = 1 − 4(0.01) − 8(0.01) − 32(0.01) ≈ 0.959168.
Now, expressing 23 in terms of 0.92 yields:
√ √
r r
92 100 × 0.92
23 = = = 5 0.92 = 5 × 0.959168 = 4.7958 (to 5 sf)
4 4
r
1+x
4. Expand in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3 .
1−x
Solution
r
1+x 1 1
= (1 + x) 2 (1 − x)− 2 . Now,
1−x
1
1 1 2 − 12 1
2 − 12 − 32
(1 + x) 2 = 1+ x+ x2 + x3 + · · ·
2 2! 3!
1 1 1
= 1 + x − x2 + x3 + · · ·
2 8 16
1 3 1 3 5
1 1 − 2 − 2 − 2 − 2 − 2
(1 − x)− 2 = 1 − (−x) + (−x)2 + (−x)3 + · · ·
2 2! 3!
1 3 5
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · ·
2 8 16
Therefore,
1 1 1 1 3 5
1
− 12
(1 + x) (1 − x)
2 = 1 + x − x2 + x3 + · · · 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · ·
2 8 16 2 8 16
1 3 2 5 3 1 1 3 2 1 2 1 1
= 1 + x + x + x + x 1 + x + x − x 1 + x + x3 (1) + · · ·
2 8 16 2 2 8 8 2 16
1 3 5 1 1 3 1 1 1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x + x2 + x3 − x2 − x3 + x3 + · · ·
2 8 16 2 4 16 8 16 16
1 1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · ·
2 2
Exercise:
1. Expand the following as a series of ascending powers of x upto and including the term in x3 .
1
(a) (1 − 3x)− 2
1
(b) √
2 + x2
x+2
(c)
(1 + x)2
√
1 + 2x
(d)
1−x
1−x
(e) √
1+x
2. Show that if x is small enough for its cube and higher powers to be neglected, then
1−x x2 √
r
1 83
= 1 − x + . By putting x = , show that 7 ≈ 2 128 .
1+x 2 8
r
1 + 2x
3. Expand as a series of ascending powers of x upto and including the term in x2 . By
1 − 2x √
putting x = 0.01, find√an approximation for 51 correct to 5 significant figures. [ans:
= 1 + 2x + 2x2 , and 51 = 7.1414]
38
1.8 Sequences and series c Dr. Barini
Lecture 7
iii) 27, 64, 125, 216, · · · (cubes of consecutive integers in ascending order starting with 33 ; general
term (n + 2)3 , n ∈ N).
Definition 1.8.2 (Finite and Infinite sequence). A sequence that is made up of a finite number of
terms is called a finite sequence; otherwise, it is called an infinite sequence.
For example,
i) the sequence 10, 20, 30, · · · , 100 is finite while
un = a + (n − 1)d ,
Example(s):
1. Determine the first six terms of the AP whose first term is 18 and common difference is -5.
Solution
Given that a = 18, d = −5. The nth term is given by un = a + (n − 1)d = 18 − 5(n − 1). Thus,
2. Determine the 4th and 12th terms of the AP whose first term is 19 and common difference is 6.
[ans: u4 = 37, u12 = 85]
39
1.8 Sequences and series c Dr. Barini
The sum of an AP
Consider an AP whose first term is a, whose common difference is d and with n terms. That is,
The method of first principles (Euler’s method) can be used to determine a formula for the sum
of the first n terms of this AP as follows: Let L be the last term of the AP, i.e., L = a + (n − 1)d.
Adding the terms of the AP yields
2Sn = (a + L) + (a + L) + (a + L) + · · · + (a + L) + (a + L) + (a + L)
n
⇒ 2Sn = n(a + L) ⇒ Sn = (a + L)
2
Substituting L = a + (n − 1)d, we get the formula for finding the sum of the first n terms of an
AP as
nh i
Sn = 2a + (n − 1)d
2
Example(s):
Solution
2. The sum of the first n terms of a series is given by Sn = 2n(n + 6). Find the fifth term of the
series and show that the terms are in AP.
Solution
40
1.8 Sequences and series c Dr. Barini
Sn = u1 + u2 + u3 + · · · + un−1 + un = 2n(n + 6)
Sn−1 = u1 + u2 + u3 + · · · + un−1 = 2(n − 1) [(n − 1) + 6] = 2(n − 1)(n + 5)
Therefore,
un−1 = 4(n − 1) + 10 = 4n + 6
Now, un − un−1 = (4n + 10) − (4n + 6) = 4. Since 4 is the common difference regardless of
the value of n, then the terms of the series form an AP.
3. Determine the sum of all integers between 1 and 1000 (inclusive) which are multiples of 5 or 8
or both.
Solution
Therefore, the sum of all integers between 1 and 1000 (inclusive) which are multiples of 5 or 8
or both is given by S + T − U = 100500 + 63000 − 13000 = 150500.
Exercise:
1. Find the sum of an AP of 10 terms whose first term is 7 and whose last term is 10.
n
X
2. Show that the terms of the series log 5r are in AP. Hence, find the sum of the first twenty
r=1
terms of the series and also the least value of n for which the sum to n terms exceeds 400. [ans:
S20 = 146.78, n = 34]
3. Find the difference between the sums of the first ten terms of the AP whose first terms are 12
and 8, and whose common differences are 2 and 3, respectively.
4. The first term of an AP is -12 and the last term is 40. If the sum of the progression is 196, find
the number of terms and the common difference.
5. Find the sum of the odd numbers between 100 and 200.
6. Find the sum of the even numbers which are divisible by 3 and lie between 400 and 500.
7. The twenty-first term of an AP is 5 12 , and the sum of the first twenty-one terms is 94 12 . Find
the first term, the common difference and the sum of the first 30 terms.
41
1.8 Sequences and series c Dr. Barini
8. In an AP, the thirteenth term is 27, and the seventh term is three times the second term. Find
the first term, the common difference and the sum of the first ten terms. [ans: a = 3, d = 2 and
S10 = 120]
9. [Assignment 2 ] Determine the sum of all natural numbers between 1 and 200 (inclusive) which
are not divisible by 9 or 12. [ans: = 16731]
Arithmetic mean - the arithmetic mean of two numbers P and Q is a number A such that the
series P + A + Q form an AP. Thus, the common difference is
P +Q
A−P =Q−A ⇒ 2A = P + Q ⇒ A=
2
Example(s):
Solution
Let the arithmetic means be A, B and C. Thus, we have the series 8 + A + B + C + 18. Now,
u1 = 8 = a and u5 = 18. Letting the common difference be d, we have 8+4d = 18 ⇒ d = 2.5.
Therefore,
A − 8 = 2.5 ⇒ A = 10.5
B − A = 2.5 ⇒ B = 13.0
C − B = 2.5 ⇒ C = 15.5
Exercise:
un = arn−1 ,
where n is the number of terms in the GP. Thus, a GP having n terms is given as
The sum of a GP
Consider a GP whose first term is a and common ratio is r, and with n terms. That is,
The method of first principles (Euler’s method) can be used to determine a formula for the sum
of the first n terms of a GP as follows: Adding the terms of the GP yields
42
1.8 Sequences and series c Dr. Barini
Making Sn the subject yields the formula for finding the sum of the first n terms of a GP as
a (1 − rn )
Sn = , |r| =
6 1
1−r
a (rn − 1)
→ Note: if |r| > 1, we write Sn = .
r−1
Example(s):
1. In a GP, the sum of the second and third terms is 6, and the sum of the third and fourth terms
is -12. Find the first term, the common ratio and the sum of the first ten terms.
Solution
Let the first term be a and the common ration be r. Then, we have
Thus,
ar2 (1 + r) −12
= ⇒ r = −2
ar(1 + r) 6
Substituting r = −2 in ar(1 + r) = 6 yields a = 3. Since |r| > 1, we have
a r10 − 1 3 (−2)10 − 1
h i
S10 = = = − (−2)10 − 1 = −1023
r−1 −2 − 1
2. Determine the smallest number of terms of the GP 8+24+72+· · · whose sum exceeds 6,000,000.
Solution
24 72
Here, a = 8 and r = = = 3. Since |r| > 1, we have
8 24
a (rn − 1) 8 (3n − 1)
Sn = = = 4 (3n − 1)
r−1 3−1
We require that Sn > 6000000. Thus, we have
Exercise:
1. The fourth term of a GP is -6 and the seventh term is 48. Find the first three terms of the
progression.
2. Find the difference between the sums to ten terms of the AP and GP whose first two terms are
-2 and 4.
43
1.8 Sequences and series c Dr. Barini
3. In a GP, the sum of the second and third terms is 9. The seventh term is eight times the fourth.
Find the first term, the common ratio, and the fifth term.
4. If Sn is the sum of the first n terms of a GP whose first term is a and whose common ration is
S3n − S2n
r, show that = r2n .
Sn
Geometric mean - the geometric mean of two numbers P and Q is a number A such that the
series P + A + Q form a GP. Thus, the common ratio is
A Q p
= ⇒ A2 = P Q ⇒ A= PQ
P A
Example(s):
Solution
Let the geometric means be A, B, C and D. Thus, we have the series 5 + A + B + C + D + 1215.
Now, u1 = 5 = a and u6 = 1215. Letting the common ratio be r, we have ar5 = 1215 ⇒
1215 1/5 A B C D
r = = 3. Therefore, = 3, = 3, = 3, and = 3. Hence, A = 15, B =
5 5 A B C
45, C = 135 and D = 405.
Example(s):
1. A customer makes a single deposit of Sh. 16000 in an account which pays compound interest at
a rate of 6% p.a. Determine:
Solution
log 3
(1.06)n = 3 ⇒ n= = 18.85
log 1.06
Therefore, n = 19 complete years.
44
1.8 Sequences and series c Dr. Barini
→ Note: in compound interest problems, the formula for the amount (value) A of a single
investment (principal amount) P at a rate of r% per annum/unit time is
n
r
A=P 1+
100
This formula will be used in all cases where the value of an item appreciates/depreciates at a
constant rate per unit time. However, in the case of depreciation r will be negative.
2. Sh. 100,000 was invested on 1st January 1990. An additional Sh. 6,000 was added to the
investment at the beginning of each subsequent year. The investment earns a compound interest
of 8% p.a. Find the value of the investment on 31st December 2000.
Solution
There are a total of 11 years between 1st Jan 1990 and 31st Dec 2000. Now, amount on
31st December,
8
1990 (1 year): 100000 + × 100000 = 100000(1.08)
100
8
1991 (2 years): [100000(1.08) + 6000] + × [100000(1.08) + 6000] = 100000(1.08)2 + 6000(1.08)
100
100000(1.08)2 + 6000(1.08) + 6000 × 1.08 = 100000(1.08)3 + 6000 1.08 + (1.08)2
1992 (3 years):
This pattern shows that the investment after n years will be
n−1
X
A = 100000(1.08)n + 6000 (1.08)k
k=1
3. A ball is dropped from a height of 9m. It hits the ground and bounces to a height of 6m. It
2
continues to bounce up and down. On each bounce, it rises of the height of the previous
3
bounce. How far has the ball traveled (both up and down) when it hits the ground for the
seventh time?
Solution
The ball originally drops 9m and when the ball hits the ground for the 7th time, it has completed
6 bounces. So, the total distance traveled until the ball hits the ground for the seventh time is
given by the series
2 3 6
2 2 2 2
9 + (9)(2) + (9)(2) + (9)(2) + · · · + (9)(2)
3 3 3 3
a 1 − r6
2 2
=9+ , where a = (9)(2) and r=
1−r 3 3
" 6 #
2 2
(9)(2) 1 −
3 3
64
=9+ = 9 + 36 1 − = 41.84m
2 729
1−
3
45
1.8 Sequences and series c Dr. Barini
Exercise:
1. A customer deposits Sh. 10,000 on first January every year for four years. How much is the
investment worth at the end of the four years if it attracts a compound interest of 12% p.a.?
[ans: Sh. 53,528]
2. A single deposit of Sh. 150,000 is invested for four years at compound interest. determine the
rate at which the investment will be Sh. 182,326. [ans: r = 5%]
3. A car has an initial value of Sh. 3,000,000. If it depreciates at a rate of 14% p.a., determine
after how many complete years the car will be worth Sh. 1,000,000. [ans: = 8 years]
4. A man deposits Sh. 2000 in his savings account on 1st January each year for 20 years. If the
account gives 3% compound interest p.a. What will be the total value of his savings at the end
of 20 years? (Answer correct to the nearest shillings). [ans: = Sh. 55353]
5. To save for her daughter’s college education, Ms. Mirada decides to put aside $ 50 every month
in a credit union account paying 10% interest compounded monthly. She begins this savings
program when her daughter is 3 years old. How much will she have saved by the time she makes
the 180th deposit? How old is her daughter at this time?
6. Given that an experiment culture has an initial population of 50 bacteria and the population
increased by 80% every 20 minutes. Determine the time it will take to have a population of 1.2
million bacteria. [ans: ]
S = S∞ = lim Sn
n→∞
If the series doesn’t converge i.e., lim Sn = ±∞, then it is said to be divergent. We consider the AP
n→∞
and GP.
n
i) Convergence of an AP: any AP where d > 0 will diverge i.e., lim [2a + (n − 1)d] = ∞ and
n→∞ 2
n
if d < 0, lim [2a + (n − 1)d] = −∞ meaning it will diverge too.
n→∞ 2
ii) Convergence of a GP: recall that for a general GP, the sum to n terms is given by Sn =
a (1 − rn )
.
1−r
a (1 − rn ) a
• If |r| < 1, then lim rn = 0. So, lim Sn = lim = . Hence, a GP converges
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ 1−r 1−r
a
to the sum , provided |r| < 1.
1−r
• If |r| > 1, then lim rn = ∞ and the series diverges.
n→∞
Example(s):
1. Consider the problem of the ball in example (3) above. Find the distance covered by the ball
before coming to rest.
Solution
Theoretically, the ball bounces up and down indefinitely (practically, the ball comes to rest after
a finite number of bounces). So, the distance traveled before coming to rest is
2 3
2 2 2
Sn = 9 + (9)(2) + (9)(2) + (9)(2) + · · ·
3 3 3
46
1.8 Sequences and series c Dr. Barini
2
a (9)(2) 12
S∞ =9+ = 9 + 3 =9+ = 9 + 36 = 45m
1−r 2 2
1− 1−
3 3
2. The fifth term of a convergent GP is the arithmetic mean of the preceding two terms. Find the
common ration given that the common ration and the first term are non-zero. If the first term
is 12, find the sum to infinity.
Solution
1
i) Let the series be a + ar + ar2 + · · · . Then, u5 = ar4 = ar2 + ar3 .
2
1
⇒ 2ar4 = ar2 (1 + r) ⇒ 2r2 − r − 1 = 0 ⇒ r = 1 or r = −
2
1
Since the series is convergent, then |r| < 1. Therefore, r = − .
2
a 12
ii) When a = 12, the sum to infinity is given by S∞ = = = 8.
1
1−r
1− −
2
3. Express 0.4̇5̇ as a fraction.
Solution
45 45 45
0.4̇5̇ = 0.454545 · · · = + + + ···
100 10000 1000000
45 1
This is a GP with a = and r = . Therefore,
100 100
45/100 45 100 45 5
0.4̇5̇ = S∞ = = × = =
1 100 99 99 11
1−
100
Exercise:
47