COMPUTER NETWORKS

Q1}Explain the data communication and the

characteristics of data communication.
ANS:The process of exchanging data and information
electronically from one location to another over
transmission media is known as data communication.
-In a computer, Data communication allow electronic or
digital data to be sent between two or more devics
regardless of their geographical location, transmission
medium, or data substance.
-The message, sender, receiver, transmission medium ,
and protocol are all crucial elements in data
communication.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION:
Data communication has four critical characteristics that
are as follows:
1]Delivery:Data must be sent in the correct order from
the source device to the correct destination.
2]Accuracy:The information must be supplied without
errors. The data should be retransmitted if there is any
inaccuracy during transmission.
3]Timeliness: Data must be given within the timeframe
provided. The data that was given late has become
unusable.
4]Jitter: It is caused by an uneven or unexpected delay in
the packet arrival time.

Q2}Explain the different types of communication

system.
ANS: 1]SIMPLEX MODE: -A simplex mode of
communication sends a message in only one direction.
-The message source(sender) works as the transmitter.
-The sender sends the message over the data channel to
the receiver, The receiver is the destination of the
message.
EX: Radio stations and TV broadcasts work as Simplex
data communication. The poin to be noted here is that
there is no ability by the receiver to respond to the
message in the simplex channel.
2]HALF DUPLEX:-In this data communication system
provides messages in both directions but only allows
transfer in one direction at a time.
-In this process. Once a party begins sending a
transmission, the receiver must wait until the signal stops
before responding.
-If both parties attempt to send data at the same time,
they bothe fail.
EX: An example of a half-duplex device is a walkie-talkie,
a two-way radio that has a push-to-talk button. When
the local user wants to speak to the remote person, they
push this button, which turns on the transmitter and
turns off the receiver, preventing them from hearing the
remote person while talking.
3]FULL DUPLEX:-It is that type of data communication
that works both ways at the same time.
-It is basically a set of two simplex channel, one works as
a forward channel and the other as a reserve channel.
-The two channel link together at some point in a full –
duplex system.
EX: Landline telephone works on a full duplex
communication system. If someone wants to talk on the
telephone, then both parties have the ability to speak a
the same time, It is because the data carried bothe ways
through the telephone line run simultaneously.
Q3}Explain the type of network connection.
ANS:

Key Point-to-Point Multi-point

Communication Communication
Point-to-point Multi-point
communication is a communication is a
method in which form of
the channel of communication in
Definition
communication is which the channel
shared only is shared among
between two multiple devices or
devices or nodes. nodes.
In case of Point-to- In case of Multi-
point point
communication, the communication, the
channel is shared channel capacity is
Load
only between two divided among
sharing
nodes, so the load multiple participant
and capacity of the nodes.
channel is available
only to two nodes.
Parties In case of Point-to- In case of Multi-
involved point point
 Key Point-to-Point Multi-point
Communication Communication
communication only communication,
two parties get there could be
involved, one as multiple parties,
the Sender and the however the role of
other as the parties could either
Receiver. be sender or
receiver and some
parties may behave
like both.
Point-to-point Due to the
communication involvement of
involves only two multiple parties, the
parties and the chances for
chances for information
information modulation is more
modulation is very and hence Multi-
Reliability
less, hence this point
type of communication is
communication is comparatively less
more reliable as reliable as
compared to Multi- compared to Point-
point topoint
communication. communication.
 Key Point-to-Point Multi-point
Communication Communication
Point-to-point Multi-point
communication is communication is
Error more error prone as less error prone as
Prone compared to Multi- compared to Point-
point to-point
communication. communication.
Point-to-point Multi-point
communication is communication is
Security more secure and less secure and
and private as private as
Privacy compared to Multi- compared to Point-
point topoint
communication. communication.
Frame Relay, T- Frame Relay,
Examples carrier, X.25 Token Ring,
Ethernet, ATM

Q4}EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF

NETWORK TOPOLOGY.
ANS: There are various types of network topology in a
computer network, such as:
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Tree Topology
 Star Topology
 Hybrid Topology
Bus Topology
Bus topology employs a single cable (Bus) to connect all
the nodes. The main cable serves as the network’s spine.
All nodes in a Bus Topology are linked to the Taps and
Drop Lines via the bus. Drop Lines are the connections
between the central wire or bus and the nodes in this case.
The Taps are the three-way connector that aids in
connecting the drop line to the main central cable.

The data travels only in one direction, and when it reaches

the far end of the line, the terminator removes it from the
line. In a bus topology, one computer acts as a server, and
the other computers act as clients. A bus topology
example is connecting two floors with a single line.
 Advantages of Bus Topology
 Less cabling: A common wire connects all nodes in a
bus topology.
 Less Expensive: Bus topology is less expensive because
it uses a common wire.
 Small network: This is best suited for situations where
only a few computers are required for connection
establishment.
 Upgradeable: A new node can be added or removed in
this topology without affecting the other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Reduced signal strength: To connect a more significant
number of nodes, we must increase the number of Taps,
Drop Lines, and the central cable. And increasing these
things will weaken the signal.
 Core failure: If the main central cable becomes
damaged or faulty, the entire network will fail.
 Low security: This is a significant security issue
because all nodes in the network can hear what data is
transmitted to other nodes in the network.
Ring Topology
Ring Topology is a topology in which each computer is
linked to another on both sides. The last computer is
linked to the first, forming a ring. This topology enables
each computer to have exactly two neighbors.
 For example, if Node A wishes to send data to Node D,
Node A has two options for doing so. That is to say –
 Node A > Node F > Node E > Node D
 Node A > Node B > Node C > Node D
The central computer in this topology is the monitor
station, which is in charge of all operations. Devices use
tokens for data transmission between them. The computer
station must have the token to transmit data. The token is
released when the transmission ends, and other computer
stations can use it to send data.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 Token system: Only nodes that have tokens can transfer
data.
 Less Cabling: As every node manages the cable to its
closest neighbor, it requires less cabling.
 Easier troubleshooting: It is less challenging to
manage and install because the nodes or cable flaws are
easily discernible.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Difficult to upgrade: Adding or removing nodes is
problematic because it disrupts network activity.
 Failure of a network: When one system crashes, it
disturbs the overall network activity.
Mesh Topology
Mesh technology is a network configuration in which you
link the computers via various redundant connections.
There are numerous routes from one computer to another.
It lacks the switch, hub, or any central computer that
serves as a point of communication.
 The Internet is a mesh topology example. Mesh topology
is only suitable for wireless networks, and can you can
create it using the formula:
(n*(n-1))/2, where n denotes the number of network
nodes.
There are two types of Mesh topology: fully connected
mesh topology and partially connected mesh topology.
Each computer in a full mesh topology is linked to all
other computers in the network. In contrast, in a partial
mesh topology, only specific computers are connected to
those with whom they frequently communicate.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Consistent: Mesh topology networks are reliable
because any link failure does not disrupt interaction
among connected computers.
 High-speed information exchange: Communication
between nodes is extremely fast.
 Easier reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not
interfere with the communication of existing devices.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Cost: A mesh topology has more connected devices,
such as a router, and uses more transmission media than
other topologies.
 High-maintenance: Mesh topology networks are
extensive and challenging to maintain and manage.
 Efficiency: The number of redundant connections in this
topology is high, reducing network efficiency.
You can also explore- What are Different Types of
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Tree Topology
Tree topologies are also known as hierarchical topology,
as the root node connects all other nodes to form a
hierarchy. This topology is known as a Star Bus topology
because it combines several star topologies into a single
bus. Tree topology is a standard network topology similar
to bus and star topologies.

Data flows from top to bottom in this network topology,

from the central hub to the secondary hub and then to the
devices, or from bottom to top, from the devices to the
 secondary hub, which then connects to the central hub. It
is a multi-point connection with a non-robust topology
because the topology crashes if the backbone fails.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 Structuring: It aids in structuring as the tree-like shape
allows any node to hold its child. And this can make it
much easier to structure the entire network.
 Interconnection: All nodes can connect to the large and
intermediate networks.
 Expansion of nodes: An increase of nodes is possible
and easily achievable in this network structure.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 Expensive: Managing each node in its child may be
inefficient. Cabling costs will rise as well.
 Network failure: If the primary central node or another
wire fails, all other nodes may become disconnected.
Star Topology
A hub connects all computers in this type of network
topology. A central node connects all other nodes. You
can use this type of network topology on LAN networks
due to its low cost and ease of setup.
 Advantages of Star Topology
 Network failure prevention: Only the affected nodes
will fail, while the remaining nodes will continue to
function.
 Performance: High performance with a small number
of nodes and very little network traffic.
 Upgradation: This topology makes adding, deleting,
and moving devices simple.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Expensive: The cost of installing star topology is high.
 Slow connection: Heavy network traffic can sometimes
significantly slow the bus.
Hybrid Topology
This topology technology combines all of the topologies
we’ve discussed so far. The topology can take any shape
 that you want. It means it can be a single topology like
Ring or Star, or it can be a combination of the various
types of topologies shown below.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 Multiple advantages: These types of network topology
combine the advantages of various topologies into a
single topology.
 Scalable: Hybrid networks are easily scalable as you
can easily integrate the new hardware components.
 Traffic: These types of network topology can handle a
high traffic volume while remaining extremely flexible
and dependable.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 Expensive: Because it combines the benefits of multiple
topologies into a single topology, this type of topology
is quite expensive.
 Complex design: Creating a hybrid topology is a
difficult task.

Q5}EXPLAIN DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPUTER

NETWORKS.
ANS: These are explained as following below.
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) :
PAN is the most basic type of computer network.
This network is restrained to a single person, that is,
communication between the computer devices is
centred only to an individual’s work space. PAN
offers a network range of 10 meters from a person
to the device providing communication.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone,
tablet, printer, PDA, etc.
2. Local Area Network (LAN) :
LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is
a computer network that connects computers
together through a common communication path,
contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A
LAN encompasses two or more computers
connected over a server. The two important
technologies involved in this network are Ethernet
and Wi-fi.
Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school,
library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN) :

WAN is a type of computer network that connects
computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not
restrained to a single location but extends over
many locations. WAN can also be defined as a
group of local area networks that communicate with
each other.
The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

6. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) :

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a
WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance
through a shared communication path over a city,
town or metropolitan area.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a
single large city, large area within multiple buildings,
etc.

5. Campus Area Network (CAN) :

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN.
This is a type of computer network which is usually
used in places like a school or college. This network
covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads
across several buildings within the campus.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools,
colleges, buildings, etc.

Q6}EXPLAIN WHAT IS INTERNET.

ANS: A global system of interconnected computers, using
a standardised Internet Protocol suite for communication
and sharing information is called the Internet.
The internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of
the first working model called ARPANET (Advanced
Research Projects Agency).
How is the Internet set up?

The internet is set up with the help of physical optical

fiber data transmission cables or copper wires and
various other networking mediums like LAN, WAN, MAN,
etc. For accessing the Internet even the 2g, 3g, and 4g
services and the wifi require these physical cable setup to
access the Internet. There is an authority named ICANN
(Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)
located in the USA which manages the Internet and
protocols related to it like IP addresses.
What is an IP address?
IP address stands for internet protocol address. Every
PC/Local machine is having an IP address and that IP
address is provided by the Internet Service Providers
(ISP’s). These are some sets of rules which govern the
flow of data whenever a device is connected to the
Internet.
Advantages of the Internet
Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows us
to transfer money online by the net banking system.
Money can be credited or Debited from one account to
the other.
Education, online jobs, freelancing: Through the Internet,
we are able to get more jobs via online platforms like
Linkedin and to reach more job providers. Freelancing on
the other hand has helped the youth to earn a side
income and the best part is all this can be done via
INTERNET.
Entertainment: There are numerous options of
entertainment online we can listen to music, play games
can watch movies, web series, listening to podcasts,
youtube itself is a hub of knowledge as well as
entertainment.
Disadvantages of the Internet
Time wastage: Wasting too much time on the internet
surfing on social media apps and doing nothing decreases
your productivity rather than wasting time on scrolling
social media apps one should utilize that time in doing
something skillful and even more productive.
Bad impacts on health: Spending too much time on the
internet causes bad impacts on your health physical body
needs some outdoor games exercise and many more
things. Looking at the screen for a longer duration causes
serious impacts on the eyes.
Cyber Crimes: Cyberbullying, spam, viruses, hacking, and
stealing data are some of the crimes which are on the
verge these days. Your system which contains all the
confidential data can be easily hacked by cybercriminals.
Q7}Explain what is TCP/IP Protool and there working.
ANS: TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set of
standardized rules that allow computers to communicate
on a network such as the internet.
TCP/IP was developed by the U.S. Department of
Defense to specify how computers transfer data from
one device to another. TCP/IP puts a lot of emphasis on
accuracy, and it has several steps to ensure that data is
correctly transmitted between the two computers.
Here’s one way it does that. If the system were to send
the whole message in one piece, and if it were to
encounter a problem, the whole message would have to
be re-sent. Instead, TCP/IP breaks each message into
packets, and those packets are then reassembled on the
other end. In fact, each packet could take a different
route to the other computer, if the first route is
unavailable or congested.

In addition, TCP/IP divides the different communications

tasks into layers. Each layer has a different function. Data
goes through four individual layers before it is received
on the other end (as explained in the following section).
TCP/IP then goes through these layers in reverse order to
reassemble the data and to present it to the recipient.

The purpose of the layers is to keep things standardized,

without numerous hardware and software vendors
having to manage communication on their own. It’s like
driving a car: All the manufacturers agree on where the
pedals are, so that’s something we can count on
between cars. It also means that certain layers can be
updated, such as to improve performance or security,
without having to upgrade the entire thing.
Q8}WHAT IS PROTOCOL LAYERING?AND ALSO EXPLAIN THE NEED OF IT.
Q9}WHAT ARE PRINCIPAL OF PROTOCOL LAYERING ?
EXPLAIN WITH ITS ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.
ANS:
Q10}WHAT IS OSI MODEL?EXPLAIN ANY TWO LAYERS OF IT IN DETAIL.

ANS:

EXPLAIN TRANSPORT LAYER AND NETWORK LAYER.

ANS: Network Layer (Layer 3) :
The network layer works for the transmission of data
from one host to the other located in different networks.
It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the
shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are
placed in the header by the network layer.

The functions of the Network layer are :

Routing: The network layer protocols determine which
route is suitable from source to destination. This function
of the network layer is known as routing.
Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on
internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an
address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
The transport layer provides services to the application
layer and takes services from the network layer. The data
in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is
responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.

At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted

data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and
also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper
data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination
port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented
data to the Network Layer.
Generally, this destination port number is configured,
either by default or manually. For example, when a web
application makes a request to a web server, it typically
uses port number 80, because this is the default port
assigned to web applications. Many applications have
default ports assigned.
At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number
from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs
sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are as follows:
Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the
message from the (session) layer, and breaks the
message into smaller units. Each of the segments
produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message
to the correct process, the transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point address or
port address. Thus by specifying this address, the
transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered
to the correct process.
The services provided by the transport layer :
A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase
process that includes
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an
acknowledgement, back to the source after a packet or
group of packets is received. This type of transmission is
reliable and secure.
B. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and
includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission, the
receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This
approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more
reliable than connectionless Service.

Q12}EXPLAIN THE APPLICATION LAYER AND DATA LINK

LAYER OF OSI MODEL IN DETAIL.
ANS: Application Layer (Layer 7) :
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of
layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a
window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to
the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
**Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
The functions of the Application layer are :

Network Virtual Terminal

FTAM-File transfer access and management
Mail Services
Directory Services
Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node
delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is
to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in
a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to
the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further
divided into frames depending on the frame size of
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates
Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an
ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire
asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination
host will reply with its MAC address.
The functions of the Data Link layer are :
Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It
provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that
are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished
by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end
of the frame.
Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link
layer adds physical addresses (MAC address) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of
error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.
Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both
sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving acknowledgement.
Access control: When a single communication channel is
shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the
data link layer helps to determine which device has
control over the channel at a given time.
Q13}WHAT IS ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL?EXPLAIN
IT IN DETAIL.
ANS: What is a Signal?
A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is
used to transfer data from one network to another.
There are two types of signals which are used in
computer networking, such as analog and digital signals.
What is Analog Signal?
These are the signals which can have an infinite number
of different magnitude or values. They vary continuously
with time. They are generated by signal generations
hardware. In computer networks, analogue signals are
mainly classified into two types as follows.
 Simple Analog Signal
 Composite Analog Signal.
Simple Analog Signal
It is the analog signal which cannot be decomposed into
further simpler signals. There are two types of simple
analog signals, such as sine wave and cosine wave.
Composite Analog Signal
It is composed or made of multiple sines or cosine waves.
The composite signal is further divided into three parts,
such as square, triangle and pulse waves.
What is Digital Signal?
A digital signal is a discrete-time signal having finite no.
of amplitudes. They are discrete in nature. Binary signals
are examples of digital signals. The following diagram
shows the diagrammatic comparison of the digital and
analog signals.
Analog and Digital Signal Difference
The following table shows the analog and digital signals
difference in computer networking.

Analog Signal Digital Signal

Digital signal uses discrete

It uses a continuous range of values
signals to represent
to represent information.
information.

The bandwidth of the analog signal The bandwidth of a digital

is low. signal is high.

There is no fixed range in analog Digital signal has a finite

signals. range, i.e. 0 and 1

It is denoted by square
It is denoted by sine waves, as
waves as shown in the
shown in the above diagram.
above diagram

Analog signals are used in

Digital signals are used in
temperature sensors, FM radio,
computers, DVDs and CDs
photocells and light sensors.
Q14}WHAT IS PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC SIGNAL?
EXPLAIN IN DETAIL.
ANS:

Q15}WHAT IS MEDIUM AND CHANNEL BAND WIDTH?

ANS: