6.2.

1 The Concept of Zero and Its Importance

Today, zero, both as a symbol (or numeral) and a concept meaning the absence of any quantity
allows us to perform calculus, solve complicated equations, and to have invented computer
operations using binary digits. Among the significant
contributions of the ancient Indians is the concept of zero. The concept of zero was
The available evidence shows that the concept of zero was established during the period
500-300 BCE.
established during the period 500-300 BCE and fully Ancient Indians used a decimal
developed in India by 600 CE. Ancient Indians were able to system that allowed them to
use a decimal system that allowed them to develop a develop a method for handling
method for handling large numbers. In this process, the use large numbers.
of number zero became inevitable as a placeholder. The
number name to indicate zero,is Sünya. Pingala a second century BCE Indian philosopher
authored Chandah[stra, which dealt with the metres used in Sanskrit poetry in which the
word Sknya was used, which obtained the mathematical connotation of 0. It later became its
proper name as a number.
Brahmagupta developed a symbol for zero in 628 CE. With this invention, zero could be
used as an independent numeral for computational purposes. The real power of zero was
evident when the use of zero was beyond a mere placeholder. Ancient Indians used zero in
computations ahead of others and thereby elevated zero from aplaceholder to anumeral. This
is considered one of the greatest breakthroughs in the history of mathematics. Bhäskara ll in
his Bija-ganita introduced theproperties of zero when mathematical operators such as addition
and subtraction are operated on it. He stated that its nature does not change when numbers
are added to or subtracted from zero.

6.2.2 Large Numbers and Their Representation

In the Chândogya Upani_ad, in a conversation between Sage Nrada and Sanatkumra, it was
mentioned, "There is no joy in the finite. The Infinite alone is joy. That which indeed is the
Infinite is immortal. On the other hand, that which is finite is mortal"5. The Rgveda has several
names of numbers scattered through its ten mandalas. Many of them are names of compound
numbers, Le., those which are neither atomic nor a power
of 10. In the Taittirlya-samhit, book 7, Chapter 2, there is " for
Brahmaguptadeveloped asymbol
zero in 628 CE.
a reference to numbers up to 10". In a passage in the
Taittiriya-upani_adý, there is a reference to the quantum of " There are references -to large
happiness of an evolved individual who has transcended numbers In canonical works in
Jalnism.
the realm of desires. In the description, the numbers are
progressively raised by multiples of 100 up to 10 levels, suggesting a large number of 1020,
There is a similar passage in Brhadranyaka-upani_ad' on the same theme, which amounts to
anumber 104, The opening story of the chapter (KS in Action 6.1) demonstrates the knowledge
of very large numbers to Ancient Indian at the time of Gautama-Buddha. One of the reasons
for the use of large numbers could be the interest in Astronomy. Astronomical calculations
invariably require large numbers. The Vedic corpus, the Itihsas, and the PurFas have several
references to astronomical data. Table 6.1 lists some references to large numbers in ancient
Indian texts.

System-Concepts and Applications

144 Introduction to Indian Knowledge
Numbers in Ancient Texts
TABLE 6.1 Reference to Large Remarks: 1
i Number Ouoted
SL.No. Text Context Source: Ifrah (2004)
10421
Lalitavistara-sütra Siddhärtha during
Svayamvara Source: Dutta and
10140
2 Kåccyana's Päli Singh (1962)
Grammar Referred to as
106
3 RämåyaFa (Yuddha Size of Räma's army Mahaugha
kända) Source: Dutta and
4 Jain canonical works Sirsaprahelik - An (8,400,000)²a Singh (1962)
estimate of time
Source: Divakaran
Anuyogadvära-sütra Jain canonical text 102
(2018)
1021 Deduced from the
6 Taittiriya-upanisad - An inquiry into bliss
Brahmänandavall description
7 LIlävati Description of 1047 Referred to as
value number system Parärdha
Count of oblations to 1013 Source: Divakaran
Taittirlya-samhit - (2018)
Book 7, Chapter 2 Prajpati
Source: Dutta and
9 Anuyogadvära-sktra - Number of human 296
Jain canonical work beings in the world Singh (1962)
(100 BCE)
Ancient Indians developed a systematic approach to the number-names that they used to
describe large numbers. Three categories of naming conventions were employed to develop
the number names in Sanskrit:
1. All numbers in the unit digit from 0 to 9 had unique names ([ünya, ekam, dve,.. nava)
2. All numbers in the range of 11 to 99 had an additive principle for naming. For example,
45 was 5 + 40 (pañca-catvrim[at), 18 was 8 + 10 (a_-dasa) and so on. Optionally,
the subtracting principle was employed (for example, 29 is 30- 1: ekona-trim[at).
3. All numbers of higher powers of 10 starting from 10* were named using a multiplicative
principle using the unit digits as factors for multiplication. For example, 8,000 was
8x 1000 (a_ta-sahasram) and 70,000 was 7 x 10,000 (sapta-ayuta).
In this manner, it was possible to express any number unambiguously once the number
names for the successive powers of ten were established.
 6.2.3 Place Value of Numerals
The use of large numbers requires a sophisticated number system. 0therwise, the journey
towards handling large numbers and performing arithmetic operations will end soon. Ancient
Indians gift to mankind
the Agni purna,
is a mature and complete place value-based numeral system. In
it is mentioned, "... in case of multiples from the units place, the value of
each place is ten times the value of the preceding place... Similarly, in the Väyu purFa it is
mentioned, ..from one place to the next in the succession, the placesare ín multiples of ten.
The eighteenth place is called parrdha... In the Sâriraka-bhä_ya of SaDkarcrya a passage

Number System and Units of Measurement 145

exists, which says, "... an individual by name Devadatta may be called differently as a father,
son, son-in-law, brother, grandson, child, youth, etc, Just as, although the stroke is the same, yet
by a change of place it acquires values, one, ten hundred, thousand, etc. ... There is a similar
passage in a commentary on Patafijal's Yoga-sütral0. This shows the commonplace knowledge
of place value system during the 8th century CE. In his work GaFita-sära-saDgraha (850 CE).
Mahvircrya gives the result of an operation as yftysrdft rft (ekdi-_ad-antni
krameFa h)nni), this means beginning with one and going up to 6 and then decreasing by
one. The number depicted is '12345654321' which is the square of the number 111111111.
Place value of numerals is a concept in which a numeral or a symbol used has a unique
meaning and value. With this arrangement, it will be possible to represent any conceivable
number systematically. Anumber system with a complete definition and place value is at
the foundation of mathematics. It enables easy arithmetic computations, facilitating scientific
analysis. Further, it promotes unambiguous and effective communication. understand this
concept let us see an illustration.
ILLUSTRATION: Roman numerals system is based on addition (and sometimes subtraction)
of seven different values; I(1), V(5), x(10), L(50), C(100), D(500), M(1000). All numbers
(corresponding symbols) to be subtracted are to be written to the left of the symbol from which
we subtract and additions to the right. For example, 397 is represented using notations for 100
+100 +100 +(100 - 10) +5+1+1 =CCCXCVI. Let us consider three numbers 397, 928,
and 107. These are represented in the Roman systems as follows: CCCXCVII, CMXXVIII, CVIL.
An examination of these two numbers reveals the serious limitations of the Roman system of
numerals.
The three Roman numbers have a varying number of digits (7, 7, and 3 respectively)
to represent the respective three-digit number. This makes comprehension of the
numbers extremely cumbersome.
There will be a finite limit to the numbers that one can represent using Roman
numerals. To represent a number 432,000 using the Roman system we need to repeat
M432 times! This is an impractical idea.
+ When two three-digit numbers have an unequal Several inscrlptions belonging
number of letters and non-standard methods to to 595 CE to 975 CE contain
represent them (as in the case of 397 and 107) it is numerals written In the decimal
not clear how to perform even simple mathematical place-value notation.
" The rest of the world has adopted
operations such as addition or subtraction. Even if decimal place-value notation after
the two numbers have the same number of letters 11th century CE.
(as in the case of 397 and 928) itis still not possible
to use any simple mathematical operations such as addition on subtraction on them
to get a result. Therefore, it is not suitable for scientific purposes which often pose
complex arithmetical operations.
The greatest value of using zero as a placeholder is the fact that with numbers from 0
to 9 any numerical quantity can be represented with just 10 symbols. This idea has been
fully embraced by the later period mathematicians and scientists and are the de facto world
standard now.
146 Introduction to Indian Knowledge
Systerm-Concepls and Applications
6.2.4 Decimal System
The universal way of dealing with
numbers today, is through the use of 10 as the base.
aspect of the Indian system of numerals
stated in his opening verses of Lilävati (seeis the use of a decimal system. As Bhskarcarya Another
had already developed a box on this topic for more
place-value system in multiples of ten. This isdetails), his ancestors
system. The resulting decimal number system indeed the decimal
century BCE. originated
Dutta and Singh in their book provide a of in India much before the 12th-11th
that contain numerals written in the decimal list 33 inscriptions and grant plates
from 595 CE to 975 CE. place-value notation, These inscriptions range
Bhskarcrya's Lilâvat+ on Decimal System and Place value
Bhskaråcrya, the celebrated mathematician of the 12
at the age of 36. Lilävat+ is the first of the four parts century CE wrote
of
arithmetic, algebra and geometry. Since this is a treatise on this work thatSiddhnta-[iromani
maínly deals with
it begins with some mathematics it is natural that
The 12th verse indefinitions
of number systems in vogue and
the units of measurement.
of ten. Each of these is chapter has a description of numbers from 1 to 10" in multiples
Bhäskarcrya observed inidentified with a unique name. What is also
the verse that this place value system was interesting is that
ancestors. The numbers mentioned in the verse are given in Table 6.2 already in use by his
below:
TABLE 6.2 Decimal System of Numbers
Mentioned in Lilävati
(Eka) -1 (10) Kga (Prayuta) -10 (Millon) EIYT (Mahpadma) - 10t" (Trillion)
<RT (Da[a) - 10 nf (Kot) - 10 (Zankha) - 101
rT (Sata) - 10² fr (Arbuda) - 10 efa (aladh) - 1014
HR (Sahasra) - 10 ar (Abja) - 10° (BIllon) ar (Antya) - 105 (Zlon)
gr (Ayuta) - 10 wf (Kharva) - 1010 4 (Madhya) -1014
Hr (Lak_a) - 105 uf (Nikharva) - 1011 TUf (Parrdha) - 101"
 6.4 MEASUREMENTS FOR TIME, DISTANCE,
AND WEIGHT
Existence of a robust measurement system aids trade, commerce and scientific thinking. In the
ancient Indian literature three fundamental physical measures for quantifying length, time, and
weight are found. There are several sources in the literature specifying units of measurement
for these three physical quantities. For instance, in Lilävati, Bhäskarcrya begins by defining
certain measures for length, volume, and mass prevailing at that time?. Artha[stra has a
detalled account of weights and measures prevailing during the Mauryan time. Chapters 19 and
20 of book two of Artha[ästra provide the units of measurement for space, time, and weight
and specifies methods of checks and balances to be put in place to ensure these are adhered
to by the trade!". Äyurvedic texts provide several measures for weight as these are used to
measure ingredients while preparing a mixture of different substances.

Number System and Unlts of Measurement 151

Notion of ParamFu
Three generic measures pertaining to length, welght, and time could be used to measure
physical entities. Time is the elapsed period for the light to pass through the physical entity,
the length is the measure of the stze of the entity and weight is the mass of the entity. At the
smallest level, there is a fundamental measure called paramFu. It is not possible to directly
relate this term to the modern-day sub-atomic particle. However, it is sufficiently clear that this
is avery smallparticde. The time taken for light to pass through a paramFu constitutes the
smallest measure of time. Similarty, the weight and length of the paramFu wll respectively
constitute the smallest measures for weight and length. The measures for paramFu are as
follows:
PatamFu (Length): 2.88 x 10- mm
ParamäFu (Weight): S.79 x105 g
ParamäFu (Time): 1.31 x 105 seconds
Measures for Length
Several measures have been in vogue to measure the length in ancient tÉmes in India.
Artha[ästra has elaborate measurements for length suiting different requirements. In the
archaeological site at Lothal in Gujarat, an Ivory Scale was discovered. The total length of
this scale is 46 mm. The smallest unit on this scale was found to be about 1.70 mm (close
one-tenth of an angula of 1.6764 cm). In 1930-31 Ernest Mackay discovered a broken piece
of shell bearing 8 divisions of 6.705 6 mm (0.264 inches) each, with a dot and circle five
graduations apart at Mohenjo-Daro. The interval of the 5 divisions, works out to 33.528 mm
(1.32 inches). This measure is known as the Indus Inch. Two engravings (12th Century CE) on
a wall of the temple at Thirupukkuzhi (12th Century CE) near Kanchipuram, show two scales5
one measuring 7.24 metres in length, with markings dividing the scale into 4 equal parts, and
the second
parts. It wasone measuring
found that each5.69 metresofinthelength
division and markings
first scale dividing
is equal to the ofscale
a Dhanus 108into 4ja 24
Angu
16.764 mm each. Similarly, the second scale is precisely equal to rtimes Dhanus (Le, equal
to the circumference of a circle with one Dhanus as its Diameter).
The smallest measure of length is paramâFu, as already mentioned. Based on the different
conventions of measurement of length, a consolidated table of measures for length adopted
during ancient times is presented in Table 6.5. As seen from the table, the range of numbers
varies from 0.28 nanometres to 14.48 kilometres.

Measures for Time

Time is a very important aspect of ancient Indians for several reasons. First, the ancient
Indians were interested in studying the origin of the Universe, which is one of the five defining
characteristics of a PurFa. The notion of time becomes very relevant in this context and
measures of time become inevitable. Further, studies pertaining to Jyoti_a (Astrology and
astronomy) also requires measures pertaíning to time. Table 6.6 provides a comprehensive
listíng of time available in book three of Bhgavata-purFa', which discusses the origin
the Universe. As is evident from the table the smallest measure of time is of the order of 105
seconds and the largest number 10 human years.
152 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System-Concepts and Applications

TABLE 6.5 Ancient Indian Measures for Length

Unit oMultiplier of Precedng UnitNo. of Paramnus i Length (in m)
Paramänu-rajas 1 2.8778 x 10-7
Renu 7 2.0145 x 10-6
Truti 7 49 1.4101 x 10-5
Vätäyana-rajas 7 343 9.8709 x 10-5
`a[a-rajas 2,401 6.9096 x 10-4
Bdaka-rajas 16,807 4.8367 x 103
Go-rajas 7
1,17,649 0.033857202
Lik_-rajas 7 8,23,543 0.237000411
Sar_apa 7 57,64,801 1.65900288
Yava 7 4,03,53,607 11.61302016
Anguli-parva 7 28,24,75,249 81.29114114
Adopted from Ifrah, G. (2004). The Unlversal History of Numbers lI, Penguin Books, pp. 138-139.

Unit Multiplier of Preceding Unit No. of Angulas Length (n metre)

Angula 1 1 0.016764
Dhanurmu_i 8 0.134112
Prjpatya-hasta 3 24 0.402336
Dhanus 96 1.609344
Gärhapatya-dhanus 1.125 108 1.810512
Goruta 2000 216,000 3621.024
Yojana 864,000 14484.096
The length of an Angula is 16.764 mm as per Indus inch.

Measures for Weight

Excavations have established that balances have been in use from the Harappan period. The
balances were made of copper or bronze pans and suspended in ametalic beam using cotton
thread. There is a continuity to these practices as evident
"Acomprehensive listing of time. from details in the Artha[stra. Artha[stra has a vivid
is available in book three of description of various measures for weight. Some lower
Bhägavata-purna. denominations of weight were perhaps used to measure
Artha[stra has elaborate such as gold and silver and gems. In addition
measurements for length suiting precious metals
different requirements. to weights, there are guidelines for the development of 16
types of balances to be used. The administration is also
required to ensure verification every three months that the balances are calibrated. Literary
 Number System and Units of Measurement 153

evidence in the Vedic corpus also points to a system of weights and balances in vogue during
the Vedic tÉmes". Figure 6.1 is an illustration of a balance during Mauryan time.

TABLE 6.6 Ancient Indian Measures for Time

i Multpler ofPreceding iNo
Unt ParamaFus Time (Seconds)
ParamFu 1 1 1.3133 x 10-5

AFu 2 2 2.6266 x 105

7.8797 x 10-5
TrasareFu 3 6
18 2.3639 x 10-+
Trui 3
Vedha 100 1,800 2.3639 x 102

Lava 3 5,400 7.0917 x 10-2

16,200 0.212750617
Nime_a 3

3 48,600 0.638251852
K_aFa
5 2,43,000 3.191259259
Kä_th
Laghu 15 36,45,000 47.86888889
15 5,46,75,000 718.0333333
Ndik
Muhkrta 2 10,93,50,000 1436.066667

Prahara 7.5 82,01,25,000 10770.51

Multiplierof Preceding Unic RNoof Human Yearsina

Msa 1 0.08333

Rtu 0.16667
0.50000
Ayana
Human Year 2 1

100 100
Human Life Span
Celestial Life Span 360 36,000

Mah-yuga 12000 43,20,00,000

Kalpa 1000 4,32,00,00,00,000

"Por example, 100 Truis makea Vedha and 3 Rtus make an Ayana

A detailed description of weights is an essential requirement for Ayurveda. Without

proper knowledge of weights and measures, it will be difficult to mix the ingredients
correctly while formulations are prepared. Therefore, vivid descriptions are found in Äyurvedic
Table 6.7
texts on various measures for weight. These have been suitably adopted in later times.
shows a list of measures of weights prescribed for yurvedic practices based, on Säriga
samhitl8
17/24
 System-Concepts and Applications
154 Introduction to Indian Knowledge
Measures for Weight
TABLE 6.7 Ancient Indian
Welght
Multipller of No. of
Unit
Preceding.Unlt Paramånus (Gráms)
5.787 x 10-5
1
Paramnu 1
1.736 x 10-3
30
Vam[l 30
270 1.563 10
Sar_apa
2,160 0.125
Yava
4 8,640 0.5
Guñja
3
Mä_aka 6 51,840
FIGURE 6.1 An llustration of a 12
Kar_a 4 2,07,360
Balance (Mauryan
Time) Pala 4 8,29,440
Source: Sharma, V.L and Bhardwa), Tul 100 8,29,44,000 4800
H.C. (1989). "Weighing Devices in 96000
Bh£ra 20 1,65,88,80,000
Ancient India", ndion Journal of
History of Science, 24(4), pp. 329-336. For example, 100 Palas make a Tula and 4 Yavas make a Guñja

IKS IN ACTION 6.2

Measurement of Time- An Ilustration from PurFa
In the Indian tradition the purnas are supposed
to discuss certain mandatory themes. These form dvdaaärdha palonmänam
the five characteristics (lak_anas) ofa Purra. One
of them is to elaborately describe the origin of the caturbhi[-caturangulaih |
svarnamshaih krtac-chidram
Universe. In book three, Chapter 11 of Bhgavata yåvat prastha-jala-plutam |
purFa there is an elaborate discussion of time.
These descriptions form part of the discussions on This verse in a way sets up an experiment
the origin of the Universe. described as follows. lake pot weighing six
It is always the practice to first define a unit and palas (1 pala = 48 g), which can hold water of one
create additional units by establishing its linkage prastha (1 prastha =640 g; in the case of water it
with it. For example, in terms of the modern is 640 ml). The vessel shall be bored at the bottom
parlance we define a metre. Further we define a with a golden needle weighing four m_as (1 m_a
centimetre to be 1/100th of a metre, a kilometre -19) and of length four angulas. Leave the pot in
to be 1,000 metres and so on. In Chapter 11 of water and start a stopwatch. Wait until the vessel
Bhägavata-purFa we see a similar approach to is filled fully with water and it just submerges in
define time. In Table 6.5 we saw various measures the water. Stop the watch and record the time. This
of time and their inter-linkages. elapsed time is ndikä.
We shall see how the first unit of measure for Source: Based on Goswami, C.L. an
time has been defined. The definition is by way of (2010). Srimad Bhãgavata Mahpuri 18 / 24
the following verse: Press, Gorakhpur, pp. 178-182.
 6.5 PINGALA AND THE BINARY SYSTEM
Literature can be in the form of prose or poetry. In a prose format, there are no strict rules
of the format. Sentences are written with variable word lengths. Each word can also have

Number System and Units of Measurement 155

variable syllables. However, when the literature is written using poetry several rules apply.
For example, the length of each line will be specified In terms of the number of syllables. The
combination of syllables in terms of vowels and consonants (long and short forms) to be used
is also specified. Pihgala, who lved during 200-300 BCE developed Chandah-[stra, which
dealt with the rules governing prosody. While Chandah-[ästra has much to discuss from a
literature perspective, let us focus our attention on some mathematical concepts in PiDgala's
work. These include a formal definition of the word 'sünya' to denote zero, fundamentals of
the binary number system, and some interesting concepts in combinatorial mathematics. Let
us discuss the binary system here.
The basic building block of poetry is a syllable. Asyllable is a vowel or a vowel with one
or more consonants preceding it. There are two types of syllables defined by Pingala in the
Chandah-[stra.
(a) Laghu (Short Syllable) - Any syllable with a short vowel
b) Guru (Long Syllable) can be of four varieties:
1. Any syllable with a long vowel.
2. Any short syllable followed by conjunction of consonants.
3. Any short syllable followed by m' known as anusvra or visarga denoted by ':
4. The last syllable in the quarter of ameter (optionaly).
Let us take a verse to understand this classification.

yad yad hí dharmasya glânirbhavati bhrata |

abhyutthnamadharmasya tadãtmnam srjmyaham ||
Using the above rules for laghu and guru, Table 6.8 has identified the syllables and the
associated classification. Laghu is labelled as '' and guru as 'G.
TABLE 6.8 ldentification of the Laghu and Guru as per Rules of Chandah Sstra
dã; ya; dã hi dharmasya glã:nl rbha va ti bh£ ra ta
ya
L L G G G L L L G G

abhyu tthã ilná ma dhárma Sya ta dã tmã..nam st myá ham

G G G G |G G L G L

Let us denote laghu by the number '1' and guru by the number "0. This will convert the
above table into a binary word of length 16. In the course of the development of an elaborate
set of rules for chandas used in the Vedic and.the other contemporary poetry, Pingala first
defined groups of three using the laghu and the guru as the basic building block for the rules
for various meters. Since laghu and guru form part of a binary system, it amounts to finding out
a unlque set of combinations of a binary word of length three. There are eight unique binary
words one can obtain and therefore, Pingala defined 8 categories of these building blocks,
called 'ganas. Table 6.9 has the names of the ganas and the unique combination of laghus and
gurus that make up a gana.
19/24
156 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System-Concepts and Applications
TABLE 6.9 Eight Ganas Defined by Pingala
S. No. Gaha NameBlvary. Word"
1 Ya' Gana 100
2 'Ma' Gana 000
3 "Ta' Gana 001
4 'Ra' Gana 010
5 Ja' Gana 101
6 "Bha' Gana 011
7 Na' Gana 111
8 Sa' Gana 110
1 - Laghu; 0 Guru
There is an easy way to remember mnemonic for the composition of the eight gaFas given
by thefollowing short phrase:
qHTG-TG-HI4-4GTH
yamt-r¥ja-bh ©na-salagam
Analysing this phrase using the rules of laghu and guru and converting it into a
word, we get the result as presented in Table 6.10. binary
TABLE 6.10 Laghus and Gurus in the Phrase
ya mã tã ra ia sa gam
L G G G L G
1 1 0 1 0

If we examine the binary word representation of the mnemonic, we notice that the last
two digits, '10' is repeated. If we remove this repetition, the remainíng eight digits of the binary
word form a cycle for a 3-digit binary number, as indicated in Figure 6.2. Using this binary
cycle, we can generate all the 8 unique combinations
of the binary word of length three that constituted the
eight ganas. For example, from the point indicated as 1 1 Begin
begin' in Figure 6.2, we can progressively derive all
the 8 gaFas and their binary composition taking three 1
consecutive binary numbers at a time. '1 - 0 -0' forms
the 'ya' gaFa, '0 - 0 - 0' forms the 'ma' gaFa and so Binary Cycle
on. Very recently, this method of string generation was (Length =3)
discovered using combinatorial mathematics known 0 0
as the De Bruijn sequence. It is a sequence of order
'n' on an alphabet Aof size 'K, in which eevery possible
length 'n' string on Aoccurs exactly once as a substring. 1 0
Piigala demonstrated this for k= 2 (laghu, guru) and
n=3 (gaFa of size 3). FIGURE 6.2 Binary Cycle of Length3